Protection of Motherhood as a Right of Women and a Responsibility of Society (WIDF, 1958)

=== [PDF page 1] === Protection of Motherhood . as a responsibility of Society and a Right of Women === [PDF page 2] === For full flowering of life mothers give! === [PDF page 3] === Protection of Motherhood “as a Right of Women and a responsibility of Society” Published by the Women’s International Democratic Federation 13 Unter den Linden, Berlin, W 8 === [PDF page 4] === INTRODUCTION he problem of the protection of motherhood is not a new one. It has been studied very seriously by many groups and organisations for some time. A great many activities have been carried out by philanthropic, religious and social institutions and organisations in an attempt to improve the conditions of women and children. But today this problem has become particularly urgent. A remarkable fact of our time is the place occupied by women in all spheres. A new force has been born and is now becoming aware of its strength and is demanding the right to take a more effective part in the construction of society. The number of women who work is continually increasing. Some work because they want to help their country by using their intelligence, their ability, their skill on its behalf; some have to contribute to help overcome the difficulties in the family budget. And there are a greatnumber who have to earn their own living because they shoulder the responsibilities of the family by themselves. No matter what sphere she works in, whether she is a worker, a scientist, an artist, a peasant or a teacher, in every case a woman’s work is an invaluable contribution to the progress of modern society, and to the forward march of humanity. Motherhood presents a problem not only to women who work but to all women who value their dignity as mothers and who, within the progressive development of society, want motherhood to be a joy and not a fresh source of worry. In recent years, public opinion, the I-L.0., the U.N.O. Commission on the Status of Women, social bodies and women’s organisations have been greatly preoccupied with the urgency of the problems of the protection of motherhood. I.L.O. statistics for a large number of countries. show that the proportion of women workers in relation to the total labour force is constantly increasing and that the absence or insufficiency of social security measures and social services === [PDF page 5] === to help them or their families is a menace to their health. It is a major obstacle which prevents women from making a full contribution to the eoonsmts, political and social life of their countries.: The report on the social situation in the world, published by the 24th Session of the U.N.O. Economic and Social Council in Geneva in July 1957, shows that improvements have been made in the social situation but that these are very small in relation to the general poverty which exists in many parts of the world. Although data are still insufficient to give a complete picture, this report shows that malnutrition and bad housing and health conditions are among the gravest problems facing the populations of many countries, in particular the colonial and dependent countries. In its letter of March 1957, which accompanied the Memorandum to the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women, on the subject of the conditions of working women and mothers with family responsibilities, the W.I.D.F. stated: “From the frequent reports that we get from over forty countries in Asia and Africa where we have either affiliated organisations or associates, we know that women lack eyen the most elementary measures for health and sanitary protection, In some countries there are newly adopted laws providing social insurance but much has to be done in order to extend and implement them fully. In many others there are no laws for social security.” In some countries the State takes responsibility for social security and the social services. Thus the problems facing women workers find a just solution and they are helped to advance to full equality in society and in the family. Great importance must be given to Convention 103 of the I-L.O. on the protection of motherhood, revised in 1952, and to Recommendation 95 concerning this Convention, both of which have served as the basis for national legislation. Only eighteen States have ratified International Convention 103. Out of eightythree Member States of U.N.O., sixty-three have some form of protection of motherhood, either by special laws or as part of the Labour Codes, the factory laws, the Social Insurance Laws or others. The W.LD.F. has been concerned with this problem since its foundation, and a number of times it has made this question an important part of its larger projects; for example, the International Conference for the Defence of Children held in Vienna in 1952, the World Congress of Women in Copenhagen in 1953 (which drew up the “Declaration of the Rights of Women”) and the World Congress of Mothers held in Lausanne in 1955. But the problem of protection of motherhood is far from being solved. It is extremely topical. It interests all the big women’s organisations. It affects hundreds of millions of women in the various countries. In the advanced industrial countries its solution is becoming in great measure an essential condition for woman’s participation in production, and affects her very right to work. In === [PDF page 6] === under-developed countries this problem is a fundamental one on which general social progress depends. In response to the preoccupation of women and of women’s organisations with this question, the Women’s International Democratic Federation conducted Study Days on the protection of motherhood as a right of women and a responsibility of society. The participants were encouraged by the many gains made, but considered that they by no means correspond to the needs of millions of mothers in a large number of countries. Delegates of many countries most forcibly stressed that women and mothers are the victims of many forms of discrimination. For example, the denial of equal pay to women lowers the living standards of the families and automatically reduces the amount of their social security benefits; the refusal to employ married women; the dismissal of women workers when they marry or become pregnant, or the demand that they sign a contract under which they surrender either their work or their social benefits in order to retain their employment; the non-application of the existing laws and the inadequacy or absence of special laws, etc. The harmful consequences of discriminatory practices are particularly felt by women who are heads of families. The delegates unanimously approved the idea that “the full participation of women in all spheres of life is conditional upon the removal of all forms of discrimination between the sexes and upon the solution of their special social problems, To realise this, society must assume responsibility for the protection of motherhood as a basic right, and give full recognition to the contribution women are making to the wealth of society and their special role as mothers.” === [PDF page 7] === The study days in Potsdam n accordance with the decision of the WIDF Bureau in April 1957, five days of study on the “Protection of Motherhood as a right of women and a responsibility of society” were carried through from September 27th to October 1st at the school of the Democratic Union of German Women, in Cecilienhof (the palace where the Potsdam Conference was held in 1945). The principal problems proposed for study were: “Legislative measures for the protection of motherhood and their application”; “Social services and medical care for mothers and children”; “Special discrimination against mothers working in industry, agriculture, teaching and the professions.” Organisations and individuals sent reports for the study days and material for study. Greetings and messages were received from a number of national and international organisations, including the World Health Organisation, the International Union for Child Welfare, the Federation of Japanese Women’s Organisations, the World Federation of Trade Unions, the National Union of Family Associations (France), the General Confederation of Labour (France), the Japanese Council against A and H Bombs, the Young Women’s Christian Association and the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. The International Labour Office expressed its interest in the subject to be studied and sent important documentation on international conventions and national legislation. Specialists and leaders of women’s organisations in various parts of the world took part in the proceedings of the Study Days or sent reports. Those present at the Study Days were: Argentina: Mrs. Adela Bettinelli, Biologist, Secretary of the Liaison Committee of the Union of Argentine Women. Austria: Mrs. Anna Griin, President of the Social Commisson of the Democratic Union of Austrian Women. === [PDF page 8] === Mrs. Lisl Kummer, social worker. Mrs. Marie Urban, Secretary of the Democratic Union of Austrian Women. Canada: Miss Josephine Gehl, school-teacher. Chile: Dr. Adriana Castro, children’s physician. China: i Mme. Wang Ju-tschi, head of a department in the Ministry of Justice. Czechoslovakia: Mrs. Anna Hruba, head of the department for the protection of children of the Committee of Czechoslovakian Women. Mrs. Zlatitza Funkova, head of the department for the protection of children of the Committee of Czechoslovakian Women in Slovakia. Denmark: Miss Else Bloch, Deputy Administrator of the Mothers’ Aid Centre, Copenhagen. Egypt: Mme. Ceza Nabaraoui, Vice-President of the W.I.D.F. France: Mme. Vanderschooten, Secretary of the National Activities Committee of the Union of French Women. German Democratic Republic: Mrs. Kathe Kern, Deputy of the Peoples’ Chamber, head of the Mother and Child department in the Ministry of Health. Mrs. Roberta Gropper, Deputy, Secretary of the Confederation of Free German Trade Unions, head of the Berlin section for social security. Mrs. Helga Dickel, member of the WIDF Commisson of Women’s Rights. Great Britain: Mrs. Mollie Mandel, National Organiser of the National Assembly of Women. Hungary: Dr. Iren Lapu, children’s doctor, municipal councillor for maternity protection in Budapest. India: Mrs. Parulekar, social worker. Indonesia: Mrs. Suwarti Bintag Suradi, Member of the National Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia, Member of the Executive of the Indonesian Women’s Movement GERWANI. Italy: Mme Luciana Viviani, M.P., member of the Executive Committee of the Union of Italian Women. === [PDF page 9] === Poland: Mrs. Zofia Bartnicka, lawyer, judge in a children’s court. Rumania: Mrs. Henrietta Anastasiu, Secretary of the Committee of Democratic Women. Dr. Natalia Radulesco, children’s doctor, chief of a children’s hospital in Bucharest. Sweden: Miss Ingalill Andersson, social worker. Syria: Mrs. Najah Saaty Sibai, pharmacist, Treasurer of Syrian Red Half-Moon, President of the women’s section of the Civil Defence, member of the Permanent International Committee of Mothers. U.S.S.R. Dr. Lydia Grechischnikowa, children’s doctor, chief of the department on the protection of mother and child in the Ministry of Health. Mme. Maria Scotnikova, member of the Soviet Women’s Committee. Yugoslavia: Dr. Alexandra Duranovic-Janda, lawyer, representative of the Women’s Organisations of Yugoslavia, member of the International Organisation of Labour for Women. The following sent reports: Mrs. Lucy Hagan, chief nurse at the Ghana Colonial Hospital Mrs. Irma Torvi, Member of Parliament, Vice President of the Democratic League of Finnish Women. Women’s Organisation of Achdut Haavoda Poale Zion, Israel Union of Vietnamese Women Sudanese Women’s Union Central Council of Mongolian Women Cameroon Women’s Democratic Union Federation of Japanese Women’s Organisations After the opening speech by Mme. Carmen Zanti, General Secretary of the WIDF, and the introduction by Mrs. Beatrice Johnson, Chairman of the Commission on Rights of Women of the Secretariat of the WIDF, the delegates made their reports, showing how the various governments, social institutions, trade unions and women’s organisations are working on these problems, the programmes they have drawn up, and their experiences. === [PDF page 10] === CONTRIBUTIONS AND INFORMATION ARGENTINA Contribution of Madame Adela Bettinelli Although our country is rich, our people is poor. The cost of living is constantly rising, essential commodities are unobtainable. We lack 1,500,000 homes, transport is insufficient, 120,000 more beds are needed im hospitals. These conditions make the lives of Argentinian families very difficult. Insecurity, hardship and anxiety hover over them. So it is not surprising that mothers and children, especially working mothers, have vital problems to solve, problems which endanger the health and future of their children. But the women, in all the activities in which they take part, show that they are a powerful creative force, full of energy, intelligence and devotion. They are without any doubt a decisive factor in the struggle for progress. With the exception of peasant women, rural workers and women doing domestic work, more than 1,500,000 women work im production, forming 36 per cent of the working class. In important industries women constitute the greater part of the labour force. For example, in the textile industry, out of 250,000 workers, 180,000 are women; in Buenos Aires 80,000 women work in the clothing industry; 650,000 women are employed in commerce and 300,000 in domestic work; almost the whole of the teaching force is composed of women; there are thousands of women artists and women in the professions. However, governments have never appreciated to the full the efforts Legislation made by the women who take on the double responsibility of mother and worker. There are very few protective laws and those in force have been obtained as a result of great struggles of the entire progressive movements. In 1934, Law No. 11,933, known as the “Law of Motherhood”, was adopted, of which Article 1 states: “It is forbidden to employ pregnant women 30 days before and 45 days after confinement in all industries and commercial establishments and in all their dependencies, whether rural or urban, public or private, even if they are of a charitable nature.” === [PDF page 11] === 10 Only women working in industrial and commercial establishments benefit from this law. Rural workers, peasant women, domestic servants, clerical workers and professional women are therefore not protected. Article 2 of the law declares: “Pregnant women working under the conditions established in Article 1 will receive an allowance corresponding to their wage or salary, but not exceeding 200 pesos... They will have the right to the free services of a doctor or midwife. In places where there are no medical services available, they will receive an indemnity of 100 pesos.” This law which was proclaimed in 1934 has never been amended. The 200 pesos. allotted to the expectant mother no longer corresponds to the 65 days maternity leave since at present the minimum wage is 1,200 pesos. Moreover a single confinement without a doctor or in a maternity hospital costs at least 1,000 pesos. The working woman therefore finds herself obliged to work right up to the last month of pregnancy, in many cases carrying out difficult tasks which are not good for her health. She is not under regular medical supervision; she does not receive the complementary foods which are indispensable for obtaining the best possible physical conditions for confinement. Moreover the same law stipulates that the funds for maternity allowances are made up of equal contributions from the worker, the employer and the State. In Argentina, law No. 11,317 promulgated in 1924 and amended in 1934 by law No. 11,932 states among other things: “All nursing mothers have the right to two rest periods of 30 minutes each during the working day to feed their children, except im cases in which a medical certificate calls for shorter intervals between feedings. In industrial establishments which employ more than 30 women, nurseries must be fitted up and equipped for children of under two years.” The law does not stipulate whether the time off for feeding babies should be paid for by the enterprise. But in practice it is so, since there is no deduction from the pay of women workers whether it is hourly, daily onasemtfffy. However, a large proportion of industrial workers engaged in peace work or on production bonuses do not in fact receive payment for the time lost for feeding. In'the Province of Buenos Aires, law No. 5,368 extends the provisions of this law. It requires that industrial or commercial enterprises employing more than 50 women should set up creches and kindergartens for children up to the age of six. On the other hand, most enterprises do not apply the legislative provisions and others apply them in a formal manner. For example, the “Gath and Chove” department stores, which employ 4,000 women have no nurseries. The “Argentina de Alpargatas” factory with 7,000 women manual workers and 3,000 women clerks, has a creche with only 40 places and no qualified staff. | All these reasons are more than sufficient for demanding that this law should be reformed. === [PDF page 12] === “The Round Table for the Problems of Women” called by a group of eminent women who seek to realize the reform of one of the most important laws of social protection, drew up a draft bill for the protection of motherhood. “It is necessary to draw up a new bill bearing in mind the earlier projects, of reports of doctors, lawyers and working women and of conclusions drawn in the course of great public discussions”. Article 1 stipulates that: “The provisions of the present law should be extended to all women workers who, regardless of their civil status, work for an employer in commercial, industrial, agricultural and forestry establishments, as well as home workers, domestic servants and all women doing paid work for an employer.” Such a law would overcome all discrimination and protection would be ensured for all working women. Proposed Article 2 calls for the prolongation of the duration of maternity leave to 60 days before and 60 days after confinement. Proposed Article 3 calls for the payment of all salary as well as an allowance based on a sliding scale corresponding to the cost of living which is at present fixed at 1,000 pesos. Proposed Article 10 introduces free medical assistance during pregnancy and confinement and also during the period of preparation for painless childbirth. Article 20 proposes that in enterprises employing more than 25 women space should be allotted for creches, play centres and kindergartens fully equipped and staffed by qualified personnel who would take care of the children up to the age of 6 years. Women workers who were excluded from benefits under law No. 11,933 have by their tireless action obtained laws protecting them as mothers, Thus teachers and 200,000 State employees have won under law No. 12,111 guarantees for maternity leave of 6 weeks before and 6 weeks after confinement, retention of their posts and payment of salary during this leave. In the course of the election for the Constituent Assembly, all the political groups which took part — from the parties of the extreme right to the parties of the left — included in their programmes the necessity for the State to guarantee the protection of motherhood, especially the working mother, by means of adequate legislation. Decree No. 7,897 of December 30th, 1955, declares that, “The State has the duty to guarantee security, and hygienic and dignified work to women and to see that the work done by women should not compromise the noble mission that she has ‘to perform in the family.” The Provisional President of the Nation declared: article 1: “To set up in the Ministry of Labour and Insurance, @ service to be known as the National Board for Women, which will have the task of solving all problems concerning the improvement of living and working Conditions of women clerical and manual workers.” === [PDF page 13] === 12 The National Commission on Women was also set up. It is a consultative body and is composed of representatives of the State and of all the institutions concerned with the problems of the working mother. The Union of Argentine Women, supported by numerous delegations of working women and thousands of signatures collected all over the country, has presented bills and proposals to this body. AUSTRIA Contribution of Mrs.Anna Grin After giving a brief survey of Austrian legislation on the protection of motherhood, dating from 1885, Mrs. Griin explained the contents of the latest law passed on this subject. Since 1948 a draft law on the protection of motherhood was being studied. The debates were dragged out over eight years. In the end, Parliament passed the law last March and it became effective from May Ist, 1957. Amendments and improvements made by this law: — The most important is the right to unpaid maternity leave of six months after the confinement, without loss of job. In actual fact, the majority of mothers find it extremely difficult to have to return to work six, eight or even twelve weeks after their confinement and, at the same time continue to feed the baby. The fear of losing their employment if they stay away longer from work is agsource of great worry to them and certainly influences the attention that they gan give to the baby and their ability to feed it. So this is a great improvemen| Another improvement is the six weeks compulsory leave before the coffinement, for up till now, under the law of 1942, the pregnant woman did not stop work until she herself demanded it. During this period the mother-to-be is paid an average of what she earned during the previous thirteen weeks. If the employee produces a medical certificate testifying that her health and that of the baby is being endangered, she has the right to remain absent from work. In this case the employer is obliged to continue to pay her normal wages until the date when maternity payments begin. A further improvement is that the law now includes other categories of workers, such as housemaids, who up till now were without any rights. Meanwhile a regulation has been made covering mothers-to-be and nursing mothers who work in agriculture. However, some categories of women are not included in this law, but are covered by regulations made by the regional parliaments. === [PDF page 14] === The law applies to all women workers and employees, including homeworkers, without distinction as to nationality, age, civil status or duration of employment, with the exception of agricultural workers and civil servants. The law also prohibits mothers-to-be from performing heavy physical jobs or from doing work that might be harmful to their health or to that of the baby. Apart from this it is important to add that from the end of the third month of pregnancy onwards, they may not be employed in transport; it is forbidden to employ them as bus or tram conductors, on trains or as crane drivers, and the employer has to provide them with another job, It is laid down in this connection that the employee must not suffer any financial loss through this change of work. Should the second job be lower paid than the first, then the employer has to make up the pay to the average earned by the woman in the previous thirteen weeks. The mother-to-be must not stand for longer than four hours and a chair must be provided for her. The Factory Inspector and the Ministry of Labour have the power to decide what type of work is harmful to the health of mother or child. Mothers have the right to demand the necessary time off to feed their babies. For a working day of four hours they are allowed 45 minutes off and for a working day of eight hours, twice 45 minutes. The time off can be taken in one period of 90 minutes; it can also be taken at the end of the working day, so that the mother leaves work an hour and a half earlier. Time off for nursing may not be deducted from the wages and the employer does not have the right to demand that the time be made up afterwards. The baby may be fed at home or at the place of work. Under the law, mothers have the right to demand a special room in which to feed their babies at work. Apart from the direct payments made for maternity, payment for breast feeding, contribution to the confinement costs, 60% of which is paid by the social insurance and 40% by the state, the health insurance takes over the following costs: for midwives, medical treatment, medicine and costs of care in a maternity clinic. Contribution of Mrs. Lisl Kummer Mrs. Kummer showed the position in Austria with regard to medical assistance for mothers and children, as laid down in the law of May 1957 on the protection of motherhood, and in the law of Social Insurance. The latter regulates the payments of sick benefit insurance as well as the obligations of the regional goverments and municipalities towards uninsured needy persons. All the payments made for the protection of the health of a large part of the Population are, in the first place, paid by the insured persons themselves; the number of these has risen to 4,710,000. “The state is satisfied to promulgate === [PDF page 15] === 14 the basic laws, but does not assume the slightest responsibility as regards their application”. In actual fact the following are provided by social security for mothers and children: advisory centres for pregnant women, maternity clinics, child welfare clinics, lump sum payments for maternity benefits and for breast feeding. But these benefits are enjoyed mainly by women in the towns. In the provincial hospitals under several regional governments, for instance, there are no special departments for newly-born babies, and practically no children’s departments under the direction of specialists. According to statistics published recently by the Economic and Social Council of U.N.O., Austria figures as fifteenth among the sixteen European capitalist countries in the list for the birthrate and fourth for the infant mortality rate. This proves that the application of the law is not supervised by the state, since such control would naturally be accompanied by financial aid, and this aid is not forthcoming. The law on children’s allowances and the law on Compensation for Family Costs lay down the rates of maternity payments, children’s allowances and family allowances. The right to the maternity payment of 500 shillings is granted to the following: a) to the mother for every child she brings into the world. This also applies to still-births and miscarriages after the sixth month. In the case of two or more children born at the same time the amount is payable for each child. b) to the child itself in the event of the mother’s death. The children’s allowances rising to 150 shillings a month, are payable to persons whose income is drawn from paid employment, social insurance, — unemployment benefit paid by the public assistance, old age or accident insur: ance, support for war victims or for persons with small pensions. The clause granting the married mother living with her husband the right 7 to claim children’s allowance was only introduced into the law after a long campaign by the Democratic Union of Austrian Women. People with the right to children’s allowances for more than one child also receive a supplementary allowance. Family allowances are paid to persons domiciled in Austria who: draw their income from their independent trade or business; live on their own private income or from other financial support. === [PDF page 16] === CHINA Contribution of Madame Wang Ju-tschi The Chinese delegate began by explaining the situation in Old China, where most mothers and children lived in dire poverty and misery, and where they received a minimum of maternity care in unscientific institutions. Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, great attention has been paid to measures for the protection of mothers and children. Article 96 of the Constitution provides that: “Women in the People’s Legislation Republic of China enjoy equal rights with men in all spheres of political, economic, cultural, social and domestic life. The State protects marriage, the family, and the mother and child.” According to this article, provisions for the protection of mothers and children were made in the Labour Insurance Regulation and the Model Statute of the Socialist Agricultural Producers’ Co-operatives. The following are some of the provisions for maternity benefits in the Labour Insurance Regulation: Women workers and staff members are entitled to a total of 56 days’ leave of absence from work before and after confinement. Full wages shall be paid as usual during maternity leave. Women workers and staff members are entitled to up to 30 days’ paid leave, and in cases of miscarriage during the first seven months of pregnancy, full wages shall be paid as usual during such leave. Expenses for pre-natal examination and delivery of pregnant women workers and staff members shall be paid by the management or owner of the enterprise concerned, In the case of a woman worker or staff member medically certified as unfit to resume work at the end of maternity or miscarriage leave, she shall be treated according to the provisions for sickness. A woman worker or staff member or the wife of a male worker or staff member receives a maternity benefit from the labour insurance fund. With regard to child care in the enterprises which adopt the Labour Insurance Regulation, it is stipulated that where there are more than 20 children of women workers and staff members under 4 years of age, the trade union committee and the administration should negotiate and set up a nursery either for the enterprise itself or together with other enterprises. The enterprise is responsible for providing the accommodation, staff and all the daily expenses. The parents pay only for food. If they find it difficult to do this, a subsidy can be provided by the Labour Insurance Fund to cover not more than half the cost of the food for each child, In the Model Statute of the Socialist Agricultural Producers’ Co-operatives, the provisions concerning the protection of women members are: 15 === [PDF page 17] === yi acs acl During breaks in working hours, women workers or staff member 16 1. Distribution of labour allowing for the physical capability of each member. 2. Protection of the welfare of women members: a) Agricultural Producers’ Co-operatives should safeguard members during their work, mutual aid should be promoted among neighbours; various forms of child care groups should be set up to help solve the difficulties of women members and to ensure the security of children. In addition there is an article in the Marriage Law concerning the protection of mother and child. An illegitimate child enjoys equal rights and may not be discriminated agains The father of the illegitimate child, after he is proved to be the father by the child’: mother or other persons, is responsible for the whole or part of the expenses of bringing up and educating the child, until the child is eighteen years old. father may take custody of the child if he wishes, but only with the consent the mother. ‘ During pregnancy the husband cannot ask his wife for a divorce. He can ask for a divorce, at the earliest, one year after the birth of the child, but a woman can raise the question of divorce at any time. When the divorce is granted, the nursing infant as a matter of principle should be with the mother. When the child is no longer being breast-fed and if neither party can agree as to wh should have the custody of the child, the matter is left to a court to decid according to the interests of the child. After a divorce is granted, if a woman is given custody of the child, the forme husband is responsible for expenses for upbringing and education of the child, who are in the seventh month of pregnancy are entitled to take a re in rooms which are especially provided for that purpose. Mothers can have @ 20 to 30 minute break for breast feeding every three or four hours, with full pa Some factories also provide special canteens for pregnant women where thi can buy the foods they like. Now factories are built according to new standard including a women’s infirmary, baths, rest rooms, feeding rooms and nurserie In those industries in which women predominate, for example the texti mills in Shanghai and Tsingtao, maternity homes have been equipped fo them. In places where women’s labour is not so concentrated, they can ma contracts with nearby hospitals for periodic free pre-natal check-ups and for maternity services for pregnant women workers. Women members of the co-operative are entitled to 40 days maternity leave and an allowance equal to 15~20 working days. For those who have no one ti do the housework, the co-operative adopts methods of mutual aid, which enable women to have a full rest during confinement. Some of the agricultural producers co-operatives have already set up small maternity homes which solves the problem of taking care of women during confinement. === [PDF page 18] === RUMANIA Protection of motherhood must be guaranteed === [PDF page 19] === SOVIET UNION All Countries in the world must guarantee aid to mother and child! (Convention No. 103 and No. 95 of the I. L. 0.) === [PDF page 20] === There is an especially rapid development of health protection centres organised y the people themselves. These centres are organised by newly trained midwives and former midwives who have been retrained in safe and scientific procedures on the initiative of the Ministry of Health and and run yoluntarily b doctors, women’s organisations. The maternity protection centres provide pre- and post-natal check-up for pregnant women; popularise modern delivery methods and painless childbirth, and give knowledge of maternity protection to broad masses of women. These centres also give B.C.G. inoculation to infants. All the expenses are borne by the centres themselves, except for a small subsidy granted by the government. Before the liberation the highest figure for mother and child health centres was 9. In 1954 the number was 3,028; in 1955 over 3,800, and in 1956 more than 4,500. For lying-in hospitals, the figure before the liberation was 17, in 1954, 58, in 1956, more than 90. The number of beds pre-liberation was 1,736. In 1954, 4,037, in 1955, more than 5,700, and in 1956 more than 6,200. The number of lying-in hospitals is increasing and a large number of midwives who practice modern delivery methods are being trained. In 1956, more than 79,000 maternity stations were set up in the countryside. As a result of this work mortality rate among women at childbirth and of infants and from other contagious diseases has been greatly reduced. Before the liberation, infant mortality was 200 per thousand. In 1956, infant mortality had decreased to 77,3 per thousand, a decrease of 122,7 per thousand. Mortality among women at childbirth has also been greatly reduced. Before the liberation there were only three children’s hospitals. By 1956 these had been increased to 12, with 1,600 beds. Child health centres have been established in 22 provinces. In areas where child health centres are not established, the work is dealt with by the maternity centres. We have also health inspection teams in various places which provide motherhood protection measures. Institutions usually take three forms. Child care 1. Public child-care institutions run by the education or health departments of the state. All the expenses are borne by the state except for focd and clothing for the child and a part of the cost of administration which is borne by parents. - Child-care organisations run by factories and mining enterprises, offices and schools. Here parents pay for food and clothing for the child and part of the costs of administration. The remainder is made up by subsidies provided by the administration and trade union. The costs of these two types of child-care institutions are still too high for the state and therefore it is not easy to develop them on a large scale. 17 === [PDF page 21] === 3. Neighbourhood child-care centres organised by the people themselves developing quickly. They are run by ward councils, women’s representat conferences and people active in the neighbourhood. These child-care cen do not cost much and do not need a subsidy from the state. According to data available in 1956 the number of child-care ag uti (of different types) numbered 26,708. Among these more than 9,000 are oper by the people themselves. ‘ In the countryside, since the completion of the agricultural co-op movement, in order to meet the demands of the women members, the child-¢ centres are also developing rapidly. In 1956, there were already more 660,000 child-care centres in the countryside, which cared for more than 6 milli children. The number of kindergartens which were few im the past, had by 19 increased to 32,000. These kindergartens are run by women members themsel on a voluntary basis under the leadership of the agricultural produc co-operatives. ; This is only a brief account of the measures for the protection of motherho in the People’s Republic of China, during the eight years since the liberatit They do not yet meet all the needs of mothers and children. We have not had sufficient experience and our country is a young one. But because of deep concern which our state has for mothers and for the care of children, 9 laws on the protection of motherhood will certainly develop. And coneré measures and experience in this field will also develop, together with the de opment of socialism in our country. CAMEROONS Extracts trom the report by Mme. Marthe Ouandi The Cameroons is under United Nations trusteeship, the eastern p is under French occupation and the western under British, and there no law for the protection of motherhood. The few reforms which took p| consist in increasing the salary of civil servants by a small percentage, i 1,080 francs (#2) per child and per month. Because maternity benefit does exist, the future mothers are obliged to work in order to prepare the babi outfit. In the eastern Cameroons out of a population of 5 million Afric ; inhabitants, the whole territory has only 45 maternity homes. Many women st 18 deliver their babies behind their houses on banana leaves. Once the baby Legislation === [PDF page 22] === mother is obliged to walk on her own to her bed. She is obliged hours later to relieve herself or to wash if she has no one to care e is no maternity leave, women work right up to the end. It is e last moment that they can be admitted to hospital, so that Racial to give birth in the street. No subsidy is given to non- _Pi*erimination ’ families but all Europeans are entitled to all subsidies. e confinement. Miscarriages are frequent due to lack of medical care. s mothers receive no help from the administration for their herefore they live under miserable conditions. In the whole of the Cameroons there are only seven kindergartens, and one room Il babies. There is no day nursery and working mothers are obliged to ir children alone at home because their means do not enable them to e to look after the child. In the West Cameroons there are no social Social Serviees e are only eight midwives in thf whole territory. No special medical exists in the country for mofaers and children. In the east zone, the (medical) assistance is composed of 3,536 officials including orderlies. four native fully qualified doctors, 59 African medical officers, nacist and 4 midwives. There are no nurses with State diplomas. the sanitary personnel are girls without qualifications and who have notions of health. For a miserable wage of 3,000 francs a month, o of rice costs 60 francs and a litre of oil 150 francs, they are entruthe most delicate tasks, (confinements, care of mothers etc.) Each of imes makes 20 deliveries per day. In contrast, for a population | Europeans there are 60 doctors, 6 pharmacists, 5 dental surgeons, 42 nurses with State diplomas, 97 other members of the sanitary we two big maternity homes in Douala. Deliveries are made in the e of a doctor, a woman doctor, a midwife or a European sister. In these hments African nurses are treated like servants. And at the same time are having their babies in the jungle and children die for lack of l care because their parents have had to flee for committing the crime of g freedom for their country. === [PDF page 23] === CHILE Contribution of Dr. Adriana Castro Chile presented a very sad picture in 1905. Although the birth rate was quite high, the mortality rate for new born babies was 30 per cent. In 1925 the National Congress adopted law No. 40,054 on Legislation and compulsory insurance and the protection of working women and Moscaree of Protection the lawful wives of workers. The supervision of the health of 20 children up to the age of one year was established by law for the first time. These measures included pre-natal care, protection during confinement and post-natal care. Within a short time the statistics showed a considerable decrease in the infant mortality rate. This, however, continued to fluctuate between 20 and 25 per cent. The efforts of doctors and specialists in the field of child protection appeared as a truly national campaign. Certain institutions were founded, such as the School of Nursing. In the chief provincial towns, new hospitals were opened. The mortality index continued to go down until it was 18 per cent. During this decade, pediatric societies were formed, in which specialists increased their knowledge and concentrated on the problem of children’s diseases. Measures of permanent education made Chilean mothers aware of the advantages of preventive supervision during pregnancy and after the birth of the child. As far as Compulsory Insurance is concerned, the Legislation itself stipulates that the payment of pre-natal allowances (maternity leave six weeks before the confinement) is made at the time of the declaration of pregnancy. In addition, the midwives of the workers’ social insurance ensure medical assistance at home, and the nurses of the Children’s Office visit new born children at home. These measures have aroused the interest of mothers in the system of supervision, protection against infection, anti-tuberculosis prophylaxis by means of B.C.G., and have helped the mother to increase her understanding of the legislation, the right to the nursing mother’s allowance, pre-natal leave, etc.... Thus the way was opened up for the protection of mother and child and positive results were achieved. The infant mortality rate continued to go down: 12.2 per cent in 1943, 11.8 per cent in 1950. 10,3 per cent in 1952, and less than 10 per cent in 1954. It must be added that from 1905 to 1956 (last census) the population of Chile increased from less than five million to nearly seven million. But the 1925 legislation, although it has met with the success which is reflected in the statistics, is limited in its application. Only part of the population, i.e. working mothers and the wives of workers, benefit from it. The advantages of the legislation are widely felt in the great urban centres === [PDF page 24] === and in the towns where the industrialisation of the country is attracting part of the peasant population, although country women do not benefit from this legislation. There is still much ignorance about the care of children, and this accounts for the death of countless babies. Places which are distant from the big towns have no consultation centres for mother and child, and this makes it almost impossible to give them medical supervision. Doctors insist on one fact: in spite of progress there are still too many cases of dystrophy due to malnutrition, which makes the sufferer an easy prey for any epidemic virus. To palliate this it is necessary to improve the legislation, and to extend measures of preventive protection which the families of workers enjoy to all the children of the country, and as far as possible to provide special nourishment for the mother during pregnancy and for the child during its first year of life. Due to the economic struggle in Chile, the worldwide repercussions of the post-war economy and the policy of inflation of almost all governments, working class families are in a difficult situation. They receive low wages and many mothers have to work in factories and offices in order to make a contribution to avert the crisis in the family budget. Naturally the children are affected by this difficult situation. Working women sometimes leave their children in a creche at their place of work; sometimes they leave them at home in the care of a member of the family, a neighbour or a woman whom they have to pay themselves. In 1955, all the assistance services were fused to form the National Health At present this Service is taking over the care of all pregnant women. As well as pre-natal supervision and hospital places for all who need them, it follows up the child from the medical point of view to the age of 14 years, and it dispenses foods, for example milk to expectant mothers, as they need this to increase their capacity for feeding the child. It provides the child with full milk up to the age of two years and skimmed milk at a reduced price up to the age of six years, These measures help to protect children of pre-school age the majority of whom are undernourished and without any prophylactic protection. Health centres for mothers, babies and children of school age have been opened all over the country. These centres protect the health of children of all ages. Children of pre-school age are under medical supervision and are vaccinated to protect them against epidemics. This new measure of protection will doubtless Tequire several years before it shows appreciable results and causes a further decrease in the infant mortality rate. Children of school age also benefit from similar supervision which up to the age of puberty protects them against tuberculosis, rheumatism and glomerulo- 21 === [PDF page 25] === nephritis which in the past have been the main diseases of the second period g childhood. Since 1956, the protection of mothers has been extended to the whole country, Thus the infant mortality rate has been brought down to 8 per cent. CZECHOSLOVAKIA Contribution of Mme. Anna Hruba In Czechoslovakia there are no special laws on the protection of mother and child, but all important laws regulating the life of the country express the new attitude of our society towards women, and especially towards mothecs. Our Constitution ensures equality to women in the family, in economic and public life; also equal rights in education, work, pay, leisure, and care in their old age. Motherhood is particularly respected. The State itself makes provision for the family, to build up a sound basis for the development of the nation. Women have the right to special protection and thorough care during pregnancy and motherhood, and special laws regulate their working conditions. Children likewise have special care and special protection to enable them to develop fully, both physically and morally. The law on family rights, which lays down the principles regarding women’s position in the family states that all regulations which formerly placed the woman at a disadvantage with regard to the husband in married life are no longer valid. According to the present law, in marriage man and wife have equal rights and equal obligations. The obligation to live together, to be faithful and helpful to one another is an obligation for both partners. And with regard to the children they each have the same obligations. } The law consistently aims to ensure equality between the sexes. The woman is not obliged to take the man’s name on marriage, she can keep her maiden | name, or the man can take the name of the woman. If the partners decide to keep their original names they have to state at the marriage ceremony the name | that the children will be given. Unmarried parents have the same rights and | duties towards their children. The law eliminates completely the former difference between legitimate and illegitimate children and between married and unmarried mothers, This is in order to protect the interests of the children. Legislation A divorce is only possible if the marriage does not fulfil its social functions | === [PDF page 26] === ut if the married partners have children who are still minors the be brought to an end through divorce if it would harm the adequately, b’ marriage cannot interests of the children. Equal rights is also expressed when, in case of divorce, the married partners have equal obligations towards each other in the payment of alimony and to the children proportionate to their earnings and possessions. In divorce proceedings the court is very thorough in its efforts to bring about a reconciliation, especially in cases where there are children, At least one member of the court senate must be a woman. The law on the title Honouring of Motherhood, which was solemnly signed by the President of the Republic on March 8th, 1957, on the occasion of International Women’s Day, is a proof of the way im which our state protects every mother who has given our society several children and has brought them up and educated them properly. The welfare of the citizen and his family and especially of mothers and children is given the greatest care by the State, Social and Medi 1 Aid 32 per cent of the State budget is devoted to the social and for Mother and Child cultural needs of our working people. Our laws on sick benefits and social insurance in particular provide care for our working people and their families in case of sickness, old age or invalidity. The law on sick benefits which was put into effect on January Ist of this year, institutes a single law for care and allowances to workers during sickness and maternity. It considerably increases payments during sickness, financial help given to mothers and family allowances. Social insurance provides for the woman as well as for the man the right to health protection, curative treatment, security in old age and invalidity. From the first day work is started, free medical care and medicine and, if required, treatment in a sanatorium, convalescent home or other institute, is given for women; also additional financial aid during maternity leave, and the right to family allowances for the children. The rate of sick pay is reckoned according to the number of years of work and may total between 60 per cent and 90 per cent of the salary. The same sick pay is allowed should it become necessary to look after a sick member of the family. For example, this allowance is paid to working women for from three to six days if they have to look after their sick children, and this can be extended to twelve days if the mother stands alone, and applies not only when a child is sick but also when a creche is closed. During maternity leave, consisting of eighteen weeks, that is four weeks Pre-natal and fourteen weeks post-natal leave, an allowance is paid of 75 per cent to 90 per cent of the average daily net wage and varying with the number of years of uninterrupted service. === [PDF page 27] === Medical Assistance 24 Since January 1st, 1957, all women have the right to free medical aid confinement whether they are insured or not. 650 crowns is paid to every mother for every child as a birth grant a help to buy a layette. This sum averages a half month’s salary. For children dependent on their parents, family allowances are paid u they leave school, or at the most until they are twenty-five years of age. allowances increase with every child, for one child 70 crowns per month, f two 170, for three 310, for four 490 and for every further child the sum increased by 220 crowns. The law on social insurance provides for security of the citizen in periods invalidity, old age, loss of the family supporter and in all cases where provisié of the means of existence is inadequate. The health service can point to great success in caring mothers and children. The number of beds in the women’s af lying-in wards of the hospitals rose over ten times since 1937, Pregnant wo are supervised by the maternity and child welfare centres from the beg of the pregnancy onwards, 83 per cent of the women go into hospitals or clini to have their babies, and in some districts the figure is 100 per cent. systematic care resulted in a noticeable decrease im the maternity death x which in 1937 was 4.45 per thousand and which now is only 0.6 per thousat Painless childbirth methods are also being introduced in our hospitals. Preventi therapy is carried out very thoroughly. Women are examined by gynaecolog regularly. In the cancer prevention campaign, gynaecological examination all women over forty was carried through everywhere in the country. Inf bigger factories there are special centres for health care, or a specialist regular visits and supervises the state of health of the workers and of women particular. The child welfare services show very good results. All children, with exception, are under continual medical supervison, There has been an crease in the number of children’s departments in hospitals and in number of advisory centres. Today there are over 200 while in 1937 the were only ten. The number of children’s doctors has increased more fl fourfold since 1937. The school health service covers over two million school children. We also been very successful in our systematic fight against infectious diseases these are gradually vanishing. We have carried out widespread inocu against tuberculosis and this year against poliomyelitis. Two-and-a-qua million children were given the first and second inoculations which altoget cost eleven million crowns. Children who have contracted poliomyelitis are treated in our rehabilital centres, of which one, Janske Lazne, has had particularly successful result === [PDF page 28] === There are practically no more cases of mortality from scarlet fever, whooping cough and diphtheria. The Tic of the health care can be seen in the decrease in infantile mortality figures. In 1937 they were 117.4 per thousand and in 1957, 31.6 per thousand.. Maternity and child welfare is a part of the whole organisation of our health services’ In 1956 nearly two million people were treated in our hospitals. In the year 1937 there were 12,118 inhabitants to every doctor while in 1956 there were 715 inhabitants to every doctor. This systematic and improving health care taken together with the rising standard of living has the effect of lengthening the span of life, which since 1930 has been lengthened by nearly 15 years. In 1930 it was 51.9 years for men and 55.2 years for women. In 1956 it was 56 years for men and 70.1 years for women. DENMARK Contribution of Miss Else Bloch Miss Else Bloch explained the rights of unmarried pregnant women Social Services in Denmark, which include: The right to see a doctor three times and a midwife seven times during pregnancy, free of charge. free hospital confinement; support from the Health Insurance for eight weeks before the birth if she is unable to work and six weeks after the birth if she nurses her child. If she is a member of the Health Insurance the right to half a litre of milk every day half a year before the birth, and one litre a day for half a year after the birth. But a mother living alone with a child has many other problems. To help these mothers an institution called Mothers’ Aid was founded in 1905. In the beginning it was a private institution; since 1939 it is a public institution paid for in part by the State, the municipal authorities and privately collected funds. Miss Else Bloch showed how Mothers’ Aid helps single mothers. One of the first things in which Mothers’ Aid is interested is to get the fatherhood Stated; it gives legal assistance for this. It will often take a long time before the case is completed and naturally the mother cannot do without the Support which the father is due to pay. The Mothers’ Aid in the meanwhile pays the mother the same amount due from the father. In the last period before the birth the young girl often has no place to live and the Mothers’ Aid can therefore arrange a place either in private or in Pregnancy homes. In certain cases they help with outfitting the child. === [PDF page 29] === Medical and Social Assistance for Children (far too few) there is a dental service as well. In many muni¢ 26 After the birth other difficulties arise, for example, the question of ho The Mothers’ Aid is able to help with domestic jobs where the mother cam with her child or can help to have mother and child placed in a mothers’ where they can stay free of charge for one year. If it is impossible to have and child placed together, they can place the child in a children’s home she can make other arrangements. We have found that the most useful help you can give a single mother j give her a training to enable her to support herself and her child properly. This is one of the problems which the Mothers’ Aid started to undertake a years ago supported by private means. By law the State must help single mot (unmarried, widowed and divorced) to training or rehabilitation. The Mo Aid during 1951-1955 furnished 381 single mothers with new in — 50 became kindergarten teachers; 19, teachers in primary or municipal sch 67, seamstresses, cutters or fitters; 44 house helpers; 31 office workers, others received other vocational training. The housing problem is the most difficult problem for single mothers. § 1953 the Mothers’ Aid in Copenhagen has undertaken a collective house single mothers where there is room for sixty-one mothers, each with a d Everybody has a small one-and-a-half-room flat with kitchen and bath, 1 mothers can stay here for two years as we have found that the time just afte confinement is the most difficult period for single mothers. Married mothers also receive assistance from the Mothers’ Aid, for exan when the mother is very tired after a normal delivery and needs a rest badly she can go to a convalescent home together with her children through Mothers’ Aid. According to her doctor’s decision, she can stay here for to four weeks. In 1940 it set up a private House Help Service which became public in 1 its purpose is to help working mothers when their children are ill. The mo is able to have house help service if recommended by her doctor. This he ordinarily for a fortnight, but with possibility of prolongation. All school children, municipal as well as private, are com to have a medical examination once a year and at some sd schools from November to April the children are admitted to meals daily; they get milk, vitamin pills, sandwiches, vegetarian food or fruit If the taxable income of the family does not exceed 16,000 Kr. a year, receive an allowance per child, graduated on income, which varies from 120 to 208 Kr. a year per child. The amount is deducted from the tax. A rents allowance is given to families with at least two children. The dedue from the rent varies from 30 per cent to 70 per cent, according to the nun of children. === [PDF page 30] === Es ma ee The Mother: abortion. The rules for legal abortion take the following cases into consideration: When it is necessary to avert grave danger to life (the conditions under which the woman is living are taken into consideration in the judgement); when the pregnancy was the result of proven crime (rape, incest); when there was imminent danger that the child might suffer from a serious hereditary disease; when in special cases grave physical or mental defects or other medical reasons may cause the mother to be judged unable to take care of a child (this rule is used very seldom). The abortion must take place within the sixteenth week of the pregnancy. Physicians and midwives are duty-bound to refer every woman who expresses the desire for legal abortion to the Mothers’ Aid because of the personal, social or economic difficulties, not for purely medical reasons. In 1939, there were 168 applicants in the entire country for abortion; in 1946-1947 there were 2,183 and in 1952-1953 there were 9,300 and now the figure is the same. In the beginning most of the applicants were single women, but now about 70 per cent are married women. The reasons for desiring abortion can roughly be divided into three groups: one-third, health; one-third, social, economic or housing reasons; one-third, mental or personal reasons. Everyone who makes application for abortion is first referred to a social worker who makes a social report after which, if there is found to be indication for abortion, she is taken into a public hospital. If there is no reason for abortion the Mothers’ Aid can try to help her with her troubles. Thanks to special grants from the State to help avoid abortion, they can offer different kinds of direct economic and practical aid. Tn our institution we do not think that an abortion, legal or illegal, is the right solution for women who are living in circumstances in which they feel they must apply for abortion, more or less because of social difficulties. On the other hand we do not think that we can or shall solve all the problems. As long as the housing problem exists, and many people are out of work, wages are low, we Consider it our duty to try and help in the best way and in our work to show what we want done by the politicians. EGYPT Extract from Mme. Ceza Nabaraoui’s contribution The great social problems, especially those of women and children, can only be solved in a world at peace. It is therefore essential to fight against war and the spirit of war. It is only when international tension has been relaxed — and s’ Aid also plays its part when the mother requests legal The Question 3 of Abortion === [PDF page 31] === 28 contacts between women will certainly help in achieving this — that disarmament will be possible and the enormous war budgets be made available for peaceful purposes. As far as the countries of Africa and the Near East are concerned, how can we devote our resources to the building of schools and social institutions if we are always in fear of being attacked by an imperialist power, which covets our wealth, our oil or which wishes to use our soil to set up military bases? Moreover, we have been subjected to economic pressure, Countries refused to sell us corn and other essential commodities, our foreign credits were frozen in order to force us into a financial position in which we would have to give up our rights. In the face of these difficulties how could we find funds for new schools, hospitals and cultural and social institutions? But we had the support of the whole world, which was outraged by the attack on us, and with help from the Asian and the socialist countries our government undertook vast social reforms. A few years ago it had already promulgated the agrarian reform which limited the size of estates. New labour laws are in preparation; the industrialisation of the country is planned on a vast scale. A five year plan is soon to be drawn up to ensure the realisation of all these big undertakings. Nationalisation, beginning with that of the Suez Canal and continuing to include foreign companies and banks, is restoring to Egypt its soil and its property, and permitting its people to administer their resources for their own benefit. In our country the important thing has been to raise the living standard of the people. Now that women in Egypt have the same rights as men, I think they will play a more and more active role. Also, a year ago, we started celebrating Mother's Day in Egypt in which the Government itself took part. FINLAND Information from Mrs. Irma Torvi In Finland in the 1870's children were generally born in the home or according to the old Finnish custom in the bathhouse, the Sauna, without the help of experienced midwives. The number of stillbirths was 28.5 per thousand. At present, when more than 71% of the children are born in hospitals and only about 2% without the help of a midwife, the figure has droppéd to 17.6 per thousand, Maternity consulting centres were already introduced in Finland before the second world war, but were not developed on a countrywide scale until the post war period. However, because of the geographical dimensions, the numerous lakes that hinder transport and the sparse population in some areas, === [PDF page 32] === oo GAM mothers in far-off regions are not taken care of properly to this day. The results of the prophylactic health service can be seen in the drop in infant mortality and the number of stillbirths. In the last decade of the 19th century, children in the age group up to four years died at a rate of 66.2 per thousand, while the corresponding figure at present is only 16.45 per thousand. Realising the importance of this question the women of our country and their representatives have been striving to develop a network of consulting centres and to have smaller districts established for the midwives. The maternity centres are run as communal institutions and the cost is in the main covered by the state. The midwifery system operates in somewhat the same way. As there is no general health insurance system in Finland, one of the aims of progressive women has been to attain matemnity leave and free hospital treatment at childbirth as a first practical step towards the final objective; that is, an insurance system which covers the whole population and all kinds of illnesses. As a compensation for such a health insurance scheme a law on maternity benefits was already promulgated in 1937, according to which mothers receive a sum of money to cover hospital expenses and receive clothes and some other necessary articles in kind for the newly born. But as the stipulated sum of 4,500 Finnish marks has not been increased since 1948 it has lost a great deal of its significance owing to the depreciation of the Finnish mark. At the present it does not even cover hospital costs. In Finland there is no definite law to protect working mothers during their pregnancy, after childbirth and in caring for the child. There is only a general law which prohibits the use or employment of pregnant women in work that is likely to be harmful to them and this is effective up to four weeks after delivery. However, the law does not in any way oblige the employer or the state to provide her with compensation for any time during her forced leave. In some trades collective agreements stipulate 2 to 3 weeks sick benefit to mothers and in some cases even longer, but not all trades have such stipulations. Women employees in government and public service are in a better position. The need for a general law on maternitiy leave and child protection has been the concern of the Finnish Women’s Democratic League. On its initiative at general meetings of women, amendments have been demanded. During the whole Post war period members of the Finnish Women’s Democratic League who are in the Finnish Parliament have been proposing Bills for the enactment of a law for the protection of working mothers, for paid maternity leave and for Compensation for maternity leave, to be paid by the state to mothers in poor circumstances, such as small farmers’ wives, etc. These proposals have been based on the recommendations of the ILO on mother and child welfare. In 1954 the debate in the Parliament looked promising, but the government intervened and stopped the debate and the whole matter was dropped. At present the === [PDF page 33] === 30 question is also being considered in Parliament but it seems unlikely that it will even come up for debate. There is also a crying need for day nurseries and kindergartens as a great many mothers in Finland are employed in work of some kind. Especially in the last years the government has taken a negative attitude on these nurseries and kindergartens and has cut the grants for their upkeep. Thus no creches have been established for several years. The law on family allowances, which was promulgated in 1948 stipulates that a certain sum of money per month and per child (1200 FM) is to be paid to the mothers for the rearing of their child. This has meant a great deal and has to a certain extent compensated for the above mentioned deficiencies. But it has been shocking to witness how the leading circles of the country have tried time and again to get out of their difficulties by worsening our social legislation. The government has consistently and obstinately, in spite of the opposition of the parliament, striven to worsen the security of children, mothers and old people. In 1957 Parliament was forced on four different occasions to discuss proposals of the government to undermine the law on family allowances. Thanks to the activity of the women and especially of the Finnish Women’s Democratic League, public opinion has been roused and rallied to protect the children. These campaigns had a decisive influence on the decisions of the Parliament. But again in January of this year the government asked Parliament for special powers to stop temporarily the payment of family allowances, This proposal was also: rejected. The Parliamentary elections in July this year are of great importance to the women of Finland. A victory of the progressive parties can win new improvements in maternity protection, child welfare and in social conditions in general. FRANCE Contribution of Mme. Jeanette Vanderschooten The preamble to the French Constitution states: “The Nation ensures for the individual and his family the conditions necessary for their development. It guarantees to all, especially to the child, the mother and to old workers, health protection, material security, rest and leisure.” In France, in industry, commerce, the crafts and the professions, there are five million women workers. There are about two million women working on the land, of which 170,000 are daily and seasonal agricultural workers. And the number of women home-workers is estimated at more than a million. === [PDF page 34] === The International Labour Office has cited that France is first in Europe as regards the number of married women who work. 1,800,000 is the estimate for working married women without counting those who do home work. Married women represent 38 per cent of female labour, and of these 42 per cent have one child, 34 per cent have two children, 27 per cent have three or more children. What are the conditions for these women, especially for the working mothers? According to the rules of Social Security, the working mother has the right to fourteen consecutive weeks leave, that is six weeks before and eight weeks after confinement. The time may be prolonged if the confinement does not take place on the date expected. In case of sickness this period may be prolonged by three weeks. | During this period the insured woman receives half her daily pay from the _ Social Security, if she was registered at least ten months before the confinement. Legislation At her place of work she has the right to one hour a day for feeding her child. Establishments employing more than 100 women of over fifteen years of age are obliged to provide rooms for feeding babies, but this is not yet generally carried out. At present there are 443 creches with 17,000 places which is still very insufficient. Employers are forbidden to make mothers work during a period of a total of eight weeks before and after the confinement or to employ women for the six weeks following their delivery. The employer cannot break the contract of work on the occasion of pregnancy or confinement, while a woman who is visibly pregnant has the right to break the contract without notice. Moreover, all women whether they work or not, have the right to pre-natal allowances during the period of pregnancy. For this it is necessary to make a declaration of pregnancy at four months and to undergo three compulsory examinations at the third, sixth and eighth month. At the birth the maternity allowance is paid to all mothers of families when the birth of the first child takes place less than two years after marriage (no condition for mothers of under twenty-five years of age); when the birth of the second child takes place three years after the preceding birth; when the birth of the third child takes place less than three years after that of the second child or six years after that of the first or eight years after marriage. After the third child there are no conditions of time. For the first child the allowance is twice the highest average basic salary for the place in which the parents live. In addition, all women have the right to reimbursement of 80 per cent of the expenses of the confinement as well as bonuses for feeding the child, milk vouchers, etc. Starting from the second child, an allowance is paid every month up to the age of fifteen years, seventeen years if the child is an apprentice, and twenty years if he is a student, 34 === [PDF page 35] === Social Problems An allowance known as the “one salary allowance” is paid to mothers w stay at home. It should be noted that working mothers have no right to thj allowance and yet many are obliged to work to supplement the low wages of tJ husband. Thus home-workers who accept any work at any price become a source cheap labour and because they do not register themselves, lose social benefits j case of sickness, old age, accident, etc. Yet women who can stay at home becau: their husband has a high salary receive this allowance. Women are asking that family allowances should be payable not from thi second child but from the first, as each child should be equal before the law. After the liberation, at a time of social progess and the consolidating 9 democratic gains, these social measures in favour of maternity were proscrib in rules for social security. In particular the administration of these bodies w carried out with the participation of the members themselves. The workers ai represented on the Administrative Council of the Social Security and Famil Allowances which are run entirely by families. All workers are members of the Social Security, apart from a few system: which are almost identical with the general system.. The funds are supplied for Social Security by payments of 10 per cent of th salary paid by the employer, 6 per cent of the salary paid by the insured perso 2 per cent if the insured person is over sixty-five years of age. For Family Allo wances the funds are supplied entirely by payments of employers and of certaii categories of workers called independent workers who are limited in number. Benefits for sickness, maternity, accident and death exist, but in the general situation they have lost their value due to the fact that allowances have not beet revaluated in accordance with the cost of living and in some cases the law is nol applied. Experience shows that it is neccessary to be very vigilant in order to conserve the advantages won. This is one of the most important battles of the Union of French Women. It must be added that the armaments budget and in particular the money devoted to the continuation of the war in Algeria make social improvementé difficult and increase the difficulties of families. The Sixth Congress of the Union of French Women showed thé direct consequences that insufficient social budgets can have on families: In certain districts there are whole villages of widows; in Carvin, in 100 homes forty-eight widows bring up 230 children on their own. At present France is only the eleventh country in Europe for housing construction. Recent official statistics show that there is a shortage of almos! two million homes. === [PDF page 36] === Conditions necessary for improving the health of children must be created === [PDF page 37] === PORTUGAL Millions of mothers who work on the land have no legal protection JAPAN === [PDF page 38] === The population is increasing. There is overcrowding of the already insufficient houses. In this atmosphere children cannot develop properly. Out of 100 children placed in psychiatric establishments, a third of the cases, 34 per cent, were found to be living in unhealthy housing conditions. In Lyon, 44 per cent of the families live in slums; Marseille, the second largest city in France, has the most slums. Out of 214,300 dwellings, 20,000 have no running water, 114,000 have no water-closet, 12,000 have no electricity, and 58 per cent have no drainage. 100,000 families live in hotels and hundreds of families live in slums, sometimes with nine or ten persons crowded into one or two rooms. In the department of the Seine, including Paris, 20,000 married couples live in hotels and are often evicted when they have a child. According to the most recent statistics, 22 per cent of French people live under completely unsatisfactory housing conditions. In the countryside, the average age of rural buildings is 120 years. To satisfy demands, 350,000 homes must be built per year for thirty years. The practice of painless childbirth by the relaxation method cannot, in my opinion, be disassociated from the protection of mother and child. This method marks a real turning point in the lives of women, for not only does it relieve physical pain but it goes beyond this already appreciable advantage. It confers on the mission of giving life all its grandeur and nobility and it frees women from an age-old woe. The success of this method is revealed by a few figures. Interest in it has reached all strata of French society. In Paris at the Metaux Polyclinic, since the first confinement on 28th March 1952, 82 per cent of cases have shown a good result. More than 2,000 doctors and midwives from France and from all over the world have come there to study the method. In Paris, important credits have been granted by the Municipal Council to equip the maternity hospitals of the Public Assistance — sixteen million francs in 1954, thirty million in 1955. === [PDF page 39] === 34 Legislation GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Contribution of Mrs. Kathe Kern On International Women’s Day in 1950 the Democratic Union of German Women submitted proposals to the Government for a law on mother and child protection and women’s rights. These were taken into consideration when drafting the law, which was adopted by Parliament on September 27th, 1950. This law laid the basis for the implementation of the principles contained in the constitution of the German Democratic Republic of 1949. The Constitution guarantees equality for women, the right to work, the right to recreation, the maintenance of health and the ability to work for all working people as well as special protection for motherhood. In the Constitution special emphasis is given to the right of mothers to special state protection and care. Illegitimacy must not be a reason for discrimination either against the child or the parents. Our social order ensures a full development for women in political and economic life. On the other hand by continually developing social facilities woman can harmonize her tasks as a woman and mother with her rights as a citizen. The law on mother and child protection grants extensive state aid to families with many children in the form of lump sums at birth and regular allowances, With the birth of the third child a lump sum of 100 Marks is paid, for the fourth child 250 Marks, and for each child after the fourth 500 Marks. A regular allowance of 20 Marks per month is paid for the fourth child living with the family and rises to 25 Marks for the fifth child. This allowance is paid until the child is fourteen years old. In granting allowances, members of the family up to the age of eighteen years are counted as children. This financial help encourages large families, which contributes greatly to improving the age structure of the population. We have many more old people than young, present, because of the effects of two world wars with the great losses they involved. There is one pensioner to every two and a half workers. The Government of the German Democratic Republic pays special attenti to the development of social facilities to lighten the burden of working wome and in order to facilitate their participation in production as well as in all sphere of social life. In the first Five Year Plan large sums were allocated to nationally owned enterprises and to town and local councils for building new creches and kindergartens. Due to this government help and to the widespread initiative shown by the people under the national construction programme since the promulgation of the law in 1950, over 70,000 places in creches, season nurseries and children’s homes have been made available for babies and toddler up to three years of age. That is to say in 1950 there were 4,000 places and there are now 75,000. === [PDF page 40] === from this, in 1956 there were 334,148 children in day nurseries and weekly homes, in addition to which there were roughly 43,000 children in harvesttime nurseries. Yet despite this the number of places in creches and day nurseries is still inadequate. More creches and day nurseries are required, especially in industrial towns and university towns, so that the children of women workers and women students, women administrative workers and female hospital personnel can be better cared for. Large sums are allocated daily for children’s institutions. The parents’ contribution covers the costs of meals alone, and even these are relatively low in price. "It is only possible for the state budget to make such large allocations for children’s education and for such an extensive health protection scheme because 57.9% of the national revenue comes from the nationally owned enterprises. The law on mother and child protection and women’s rights makes an allembracing health protection service for mother and child possible. Preventive measures at the maternity welfare clinics reduce the dangers at birth and have led to a decrease in the number of still births. In 1939 the number of still births per thousand was 0.5, in 1950 it was 0.4, while in 1955 it was only 0.3 per thousand. In the German Democratic Republic the number of deaths in childbirth was reduced to 11.8 per ten thousand births. By a decision of the Council of Ministers of July 8th, 1954, special attention is being paid to prophylaxy to reduce pain in childbirth. 270 doctors and an equal number of midwives have been trained in this method at courses at the university women’s clinics in Leipzig and Berlin. The number of hospital confinements rose from 56.5% in 1953 to 75% in 1956. This was achieved mainly by increasing the number of beds in maternity wards. Free advice is given in the maternity advisory centres for mothers of babies and toddlers up to three years of age. The number of babies registered with the maternity and child welfare clinics rose from 82.2% in 1951 to 93.8% in 1956. Tt can be seen that preventive measures are provided for practically every baby. Thus the infant mortality rate was reduced from 13.1% in 1945 in the Eastern Part of Germany to 7.2% in 1950 and to 4.6% in 1956. Some areas in the Republic such as Dresden, Karl Marx Stadt and Gera have already reached a higher standard, but as a result of the division of Germany we have difficulties to overcome in also providing sufficient specialist medical care in the rural areas. Since March 1945 maternity leave has been extended in the case of premature confinements where the baby weighs five pounds. The mother’s leave then extends to the period from birth to the full term, as the baby requires extra care. Under the Labour Laws of April 29th, 1950, the working mother enjoys special Protection at her place of work. It is forbidden to give pregnant women work === [PDF page 41] === 36 which in the opinion of the doctor attached to the factory or office, or the msurance doctor, endangers the life and health of the pregnant woman or of the child. Another regulation forbids the employment of women in mines and a large number of other types of industrial employment. During the period of maternity leave, fixed by law at five weeks before and six weeks after confinement, the working mother must be paid a wage which is an average of her pay for the last three months. In their collective contracts the enterprises must undertake to provide rest rooms for pregnant and nursing mothers. Nursing mothers can claim the right, on presentation of a medical certificate, to have two periods of forty-five minutes off from work every day for six months in order to feed their babies. If they are unable to feed their babies during working hours they have the right to start work later or to leave work earlier. Pregnant women and women in confinement enjoy special protection under the law on dismissals of June 7th, 1951. They are covered by this law from the third month of pregnancy until the sixth week after the confinement. Since the law on mother and child protection was promulgated nineteen rest homes for pregnant women have been set up in the most beautiful parts of the country, There are 823 places for delicate women in these homes. 10,500 mothers-to-be can spend four weeks holiday free of charge here every year. The greater proportion of women to men resulting from the Hitler war pointed to the need to provide special help to mothers who remained alone. The law on the protection of mother and child gives the possibility to every single mother to bring her child up in a children’s home at the cost of the state. It goes without saying that in this short time we have not been able to provide all the places that are required. Since 1950 about 9,000 places in homes have been provided for the smallest children. Apart from this the children of single mothers have priority in creches and nurseries. We attach great importance to the single mother keeping in permanent contact with her child. A single mother has the right to spend her maternity leave in a mother’s home. Under an order made on January 9th, 1956, single mothers receive social insurance payments if they have to stay away from work in order to look after a child who is ill, but not ill enough to be taken to hospital. These payments are the same as those paid by the social insurance to the mother if she herself is ill and absent from work. This order has been warmly accepted by the single mothers and by doctors, because it guarantees the family income in cases of the children’s illness. A comparison between the situation today and that of 1950 bears witness to the generosity of the government of the German Democratic Republic in their efforts to put into effect the law on the Protection of Mother and Child and Women’s Rights. Through their contribution to the economy, state and society, working women themselves have helped to create the economic conditions under which the law on the Protection of Mother and Child and Women’s Rights can be applied in an ever more generous manner. === [PDF page 42] === Contribution of Mrs. Roberta Gropper In establishing the German Democratic Republic, it was necessary to make laws to guarantee social security to the workers and to the whole of the population. Germany was formerly considered the classic example for social insurance, but I must say that from my own experience this.classical social legislation nowhere near satisfied the needs of the workers. In the German Democratic Republic we started from the principle Social Im that social security must be guaranteed to all workers — in sickness, invalidity, and old age — so that they could overcome their difficulties with the help of social insurance and the State. To accomplish this an effective social insurance system was required. The efficiency of our system is due to the fact that it is a unified one which covers sickness and invalidity as well as old age. We kept the principle of insurance, that is 10 per cent of the contributions is paid by the enterprise and 10 per cent by the insured person. In the German Democratic Republic social insurance is managed exclusively by the trade unions. This means that insured persons in factories and offices and also public services have their own administrative bodies, The insured persons, that is the workers themselves and not an outside administration or a committee, administer the monies of the social insurance and decide what shall be done with them. This is something new in our State. Legislation in the German Democratic Republic guarantees equality for women in all spheres. Consequently there are special regulations in the labour laws covering nursing mothers and mothers-to-be. When ill, the insured man or woman receives 90 per cent of his average wage for a period of six weeks in the year. In 1952 our Government published a regulation guaranteeing the workers’ rights. This regulation lays down that the enterprise must make a compensatory payment of 40 per cent of the difference between wages and sick pay so that 50 per cent of the average wage is paid. This new regulation is a social achievement never before known in Germany. Sick benefit and compensation are paid from the first day of sickness. The percentage of women workers in the German Democratic Republic is very high, 42 per cent, and in Berlin even as high as 44 per cent. The most important and positive feature of this high figure is that there is no unemployment; instead there is a shortage of labour. Women who want to work can find work anywhere. The Government and the trade unions endeavour to facilitate women’s work as much as possible. So thousands of creches and kindergartens have been opened. Women with children have the right to one household day off per month. Great efforts are being made to make greater use of labour-saving equipment and to organise house helps. Yet all these measures are inadequate and we must continue our efforts to attain better results. surance 56 === [PDF page 43] === 38 In the factory collective agreements there is a special paragraph laying down measures to be taken for labour and health protection. The important factor in the health of the workers is the holiday service, Never before have there been so many holiday places for the broad mass of the population. The trade unions provide for about one million holiday trips of fourteen days for the very’ low price of thirty Marks. But our main concern is for the children. Berlin alone organises holiday trips for 60,000 children of factory workers. In addition to this must be reckoned the holiday homes of the City Council Administration. The social insurance system has reserved a number of sanatoria in the most beautiful districts for children. Here 8,000 to 10,000 sick or delicate children can go for convalescence for periods of four or six weeks. GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC Contribution of Mrs, Helga Dickel It is not possible to imagine the processes of production without women. If they were to be taken out of production it would mean that whole branches of industry would have to be closed down. Despite the enormous part that women play in helping to produce the wealth of their countries, what they get back from society does not correspond in any way to their needs in order to enable them to participate in social life to the same extent as men. Artificially perpetuated prejudices about theso-called inferiority of women make it still possible for them to be used in many countries as cheap and therefore welcome labour. There is an old German proverb which says: “What an owl is to one, a nightingale is to others.” In other words? advantages for some people always mean disadavantages for others. From this we can explain the most obvious form of discrimination — unequal pay for women’s work, even when it is exactly the same kind of work as the men’s. Although in the German Federal Republic men and women have equal rights according to the Basic Law, and although Convention No. 100 has been ratified, official statistics show that the average wage paid to women is only 63% of that paid to men. Further discrimination arises from this basic discrimination. In the German Federal Republic about 10 million women are paid workers, 37% of the total number of employed persons. Of the 10 million, about 7 million women are employees and 3 million are independent artisans or business women. === [PDF page 44] === of employed women has risen continually in recent years and is. In 1947 the proportion of women employed was 18%: in 1951, 1954 33% and in 1956 it was already 37%. Over one third of the 10 million working women are married and one and a half million of these married women have at least one child to look after. Mothers have been especially concerned about the care of their children at all times. Society is wealthier and women have made and are still making a significant contribution towards this wealth and therefore demand more for their children. But the great majority of these children are left to themselves during their mother’s absence and consequently roam about the streets, which has a disastrous influence on them. In West Germany as in Great Britain they are called ‘latchkey children’, because when the mother leaves home to go to work the key of the front door is tied round the child’s neck and the child is then left to its own devices until the mother hurries back from work worn-out and anxious. The fate of single mothers is particularly hard, for they have to bring up their families on a smaller income. In the German Federal Republic 300,000 single mothers have one child, while 130,000 single mothers have two, three or more children to care for, Only in rare cases do these women receive any help from their relatives and in almost all cases they do not have enough money to put their children into a kindergarten. According to official statistics from the Federal Office of Statistics, at least three million places are needed in creches, play centres and nurseries if working mothers in the Federal Republic are to be relieved of the worry for their children during their absence. According to the same source, the considerable number of Social Institutions 832,000 places available at present in nurseries, creches, day = and play centres, are not all used, despite the overall and urgent The reasons for this are in the main that the cost is too high. The majority of women go to work in the first place in ogder to feed their families and secondly to earn Something additional to the husband’s wages. Their material situation makes it impossible for them to pay up to half of their wages, as is frequently the case, for the cost of a kindergarten. In most cases, between 80 and 90 Marks ree month per child is demanded if a child receives a midday meal, In some ©ases in the Ruhr district 180 Marks per month is the cost of caring for a baby. But the avarage wage of a woman factory worker is not more than 180 Marks Eee month according to trade union figures, and the wages of saleswomen in the big stores are not much higher. So these Women are not in a position to make use of these social facilities. youre is not the only reason. Frequently mothers wish to place their children in kinder gartens or nurseries, but the children are not accepted because of the shortage of nursery teachers. === [PDF page 45] === 40 And this leads to another problem which has to be solved if mothers are to be given help in caring for their children. There is a shortage of nursery teachers and other teachers because they are among the worst paid in the Federal Republic. Teaching hardly provides a decent livelihood. Young girls choose other prote ions which offer them better opportunities. Saving the working mother the worry for her children would lead to the elimination of many of the present forms of discrimination. Women are not only paid lower wages than men, but are also given inferior kinds of jobs. The lak of adequate opportunities for apprenticeship and vocational training and above all the lack of good will for creating the necessary possibilities for vocational training, makes it easy for the employers to find cheap labour among women. Even where women have had a proper training and can show years of experience in their work, it is very seldom that one finds them in responsible positions in the German Federal Republic. Moreover, there are evening schools and correspondence courses by means of which women can improve their qualifications, but these are seldom utilized by women, because the demands made upon them at work and in the family are so great that they have neither the time nor the energy for further training. The effects of the overburdening of working women are catastrophic. Early invalidity has reached frightening proportions. Last year doctors drew the attention of the government and the public to the fact that the average age for early invalidity among working women and female employees is already 40 years of age, and among peasant women even as young as 35 years, an age when normally women should be in their prime and still bearing children. The main solution is, of course, to see that such conditions are created as would offer women the opportunity to learn other occupations in good time, and in keeping with their physical capabilities. Care must be taken to see that after they have learnt new work they are not given lower paid jobs, which not only lowers the standard of living, but effects the rate of their pensions later on. Among the discriminations against women is the lack of opportunity to take part in social, cultural and political life, thus retarding the full development of their personalities. Yet institutions such as kindergartens, play centres and nurseries are socially neccessary facilities and society must make them available to mothers, so that they may he relieved of some of their worries. This will be possible when the enormous sums which are created by men and women alike are no longer expended on military armament. === [PDF page 46] === GHANA Information from Mrs. Lucy Hagan In Ghana, maternity protection exists only for government — Medical Assistance employees (by legislation) and for employees of larger firms (by arrangement). The real problem is one of pre-natal and post-natal care, and for this many more clinics are required in rural districts. The Government has opened Health Centres in ten rural areas and ten more are to follow. Essentially the problem is to arrange for clinics to be available at fixed points no further than twenty miles from centres of population. A start has been made by small health centres provided with loans from the Cocoa Marketing Board and by visiting Health Services provided by the Government. Many private nursing homes, opened particularly by the Ashanti and Missionary Societies, help by running hospitals built and equipped by the Government. In Government hospitals and private nursing homes, women attend pre-natal clinics for examination and instruction by midwives. In cases of abnormality, the patient is referred to the medical officer who treats the patient to see that all goes well at the confinement. Midwives trained in the government maternity hospitals are doing excellent work among mothers. After the confinement, the mother and baby are handed over to the health visitor who visits them from time to time and gives advice on diet, feeding and care of the child, until it reaches school age. On the whole, the government of Ghana has been helping the social services and medical assistance for mothers and children. The child welfare clinics are doing much for the care of children in urban and rural areas, to prevent diseases of children and to reduce the high maternity and infant death rate. But family allowances are not yet paid in Ghana. GREAT BRITAIN Contribution of Mrs. Mollie Mandel f Mrs. Mollie Mandel spoke of the discrimination affecting mothers who work in England which is an industrialised country and has a very high percentage of women at work and w hood. here there are good laws for the protection of mother- === [PDF page 47] === 42 Social Institutions The census of 1951 showed that there were 6,916,300 women gainfully employed, of whom 2,635,200 were married and 563,200 widowed or divorced. — In the engineering and textile industries married women are in the majority, but figures are not available to indicate how many of these are mothers. The main factor which is relevant to the problems of mothers in industry is the facilities available for the care of the children while mothers are at work. It is considered that two types of care are needed — nursery schools and day nurseries; out-of-school and holiday care for children of school age. There are less than 500 nursery schools in the whole country. As a rule these are open from 9.30 a.m. to 3.30 p.m., hours which do not meet the needs of working mothers. Day nurseries, which meet the needs of working mothers better, are usually open from 7.30 a.m. to 7 p.m. During the war and up until 1945, day nurseries numbered 1,560. The Government gave 100 per cent during the war, but in 1945 this was considerably reduced, Today the number has shrunk to 500, Each nursery takes about 50 children. Though day nurseries were originally intended as a free service under the National Health Act, since 1952 local authorities have been enabled to charge the full cost, with the result that charges vary from 2/6d to £3 per week. Thus parents, many of whom cannot afford the higher charges, withdraw their children and the nurseries close down. In those that remain, it is often difficult to get a place. In many towns only the children of mothers who have been deserted by their husbands or unmarried mothers can get a place in the day nursery. The geographic distribution is uneven, the majority of nurseries being in London, Middlesex and Lancashire. Some areas of the country have none at all. In the textile areas, well-equipped nurseries are provided by some of the undertakings for the women who work in the cotton mills. Under the Education Act of 1944, nursery schools should form part of the education system of the country, but these facilities are often not provided as it is not compulsory for local authorities to do so. Though 22 per cent of the population is children under fifteen years, little provision is made for out-of-school care. Four million children have nowhere to play except in the streets. Playing fields are quite insufficient in number. The London County Council (L.C.C.) organises play centres in schools during the holidays and some voluntary bodies provide clubs. So the mother at work has the added worry of what is happening to her children after school hours. The term “latch-key children” has been coined for the children who carry the door key around their necks, on a piece of string, so that they can let themselves into the house until mother comes home from work. This problem was the subject of one of the principal debates at the Trade Union Women’s Conference last April. === [PDF page 48] === A survey has been compiled from information received from trade union branches, trades councils and women’s advisory committees in many districts of the country. It indicates that the vast majority of local authorities covered by the inquiry are not making any provision for the care of children while their mothers are at work. Nor is the position likely to be improved in the near future, because of the severe economy cuts in the school-building programme — which, of course, includes play centres, clubs, playgrounds and playing fields. Powers are available for every local authority to provide a wide range of leisure facilities for children, but what is actually provided is hopelessly inadequate. The provision of school meals and milk for children at all schools and colleges maintained by local education authorities is now a duty laid upon them by the Education Act of 1944. The Government subsidies to local authorities for school meals was raised from lst April, 1947 to a level which would meet the reasonable net cost per meal; this has now been considerably reduced and costs to the parents greatly. increased. These problems, together with the fact that there is a shortage of equipment and of buildings, means that there has been a great drop in the number of children who can get a meal at lunch-time in the schools. Therefore preference is given in many of these schools only to children of mothers who work. In Great Britain, a joint committee set up in 1949 by the Royal Medical Assistance College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, calculated that 15,000 babies’ lives could be saved if every pregnant mother could share the conditions of life and attention enjoyed by the highest social group. Despite children’s allowances, available after the first child, and maternity grants, the daily increasing cost of living and deduction of the value of social insurance due to a high military budget and expenditure on defence services and on the testing and manufacturing of A- and H-bombs, etc. is making it more difficult for thousands of British women to maintain good health for the family, ensure nutritious food and proper care of newly born babies. Under the compulsory Social Insurance, provision is also made for compulsory maternity leave of four weeks. But in Britain, the government is trying to whittle down maternity and ancillary services, and to encourage women to have their babies at home. It is becoming more difficult for the expectant mother to have her baby in hospital. Many local authorities’ hospitals will only take mothers having their first baby; after that they must have their baby at home. This is being done, in spite of the fact that overcrowded housing conditions in many of our towns make life so difficult for many working class women. 43 === [PDF page 49] === The government recently set up a Committee of Enquiry into the Maternity Services. Many women’s and other organisations including the National Assembly of Women submitted evidence to this committee (see chapter on “Activities”, Gr. Britain). A Bill is under discussion and is in the committee stage and supported by many women’s organisations in our country, designed to trace deserted husbands and fathers to their places of work, and to deduct maintenance grants. It is estimated that about ten million pounds are paid annually out of National Assistance to help support 26,000 deserted wives with 56,000 children. | There is another problem which raises new questions for the trade unions and women’s organisations. There is a growing number of housewives who want to work, or who must work because they cannot manage to keep the family on the wage of the man. They are doing work at home — sewing, making bags, painting toy soldiers, etc. very often the children are being drawn in to help. This work is paid at a very low rate. These points indicate some of the discrimination against women workers in Britain. In spite of the relatively high standard of living and the excellent social services and the many benefits available for the protection of mothers, more and more women begin to realise that it is impossible to use the resources of our country for war preparations and at the same time maintain and advance the social services necessary for the protection of mother and child. I conclude with the demand of our National Assembly of Women at its last Conference, which was... “USE THE NATIONS RESOURCES FOR THE PEOPLES’ NEEDS” HUNGARY Contribution of Dr.Iren Lapu In Hungary the protection of mother and child is directed by the Minister of Public Health. Care and instruction of expectant mothers is carried out isavaren toe the throughout the country as part of the consultation service for Protection of Motherhood = expectant mothers. Also, social assistants visit expectant mothers and give them advice. The number of confinements in health institutions is increasing rapidly due to the work of enlightenment carried out among women and also to the increase === [PDF page 50] === in the number of beds in maternity hospitals and maternity wards in general hospitals. In 1945, the percentage of confinements which took place in the health institutions of the country was 22.1 per cent and in 1955, 65.7 per cent. In 1956, in Budapest, 99.2 per cent of confinements took place in health institutions. In order to improve conditions for confinements other than in hospitals etc., the Ministry of Public Health has made a “Standard pack” compulsory. This contains all the things necessary for a confinement, and all sterilised. These measures have led to a considerable decrease in the maternal mortality rate. In the capital there is a service of pediatricians in every district. These pediatric services are responsible for giving care to children at home. In the provinces, they function only in the large towns. The people are becoming more and more confident in the consultation services, and these are being increased in number. While in 1947, the number of consultation centres was only 285,000 for the whole country, in 1955 it rose to 1,788,287. At these centres, specialists supervise the development and the care and diet given to the child, and advise mothers on this subject. Moreover, the Ministry of Health has introduced the system of the so-called mobile Doctors’ Service. The essence of this is that the pediatricians of the towns visit the villages every week or every other week and give advice and treatment to those who ask for it. This form of child and mother protection has been established in a large part of the country. From the point of view of the protection of the children’s health the question of mothers’ milk is of special importance, and for this reason centres have been set up in the capital for the collection of mother’s milk. Under hygienic conditions, mothers give their surplus milk and receive 35 florins per litre for it. The mothers’ milk thus collected is distributed to premature babies, to sick babies and to dystrophic children. Since 1953, centres for the collection of mothers’ . milk have been started in the biggest towns in the provinces. Young babies receive vitamin D from autumn to spring, to prevent rickets. During the summer months powdered milk is distributed free to babies who are in danger from cases of diarrhoea. As part of the development of preventive care given to children, vaccinations have been intensified. Parents are obliged by law to, have their new born children vaccinated with B.C.G. The combined vaccine ) against diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough and the vaccine against smallpox is also compulsory. Doctors vaccinate young babies, toddlers, and children of school age at the times arranged by law. In addition, children receive gammaglobulin whenever this can prevent or lessen acute contagious diseases. Due to all these measures the infant mortality rate has decreased considerably. In 1938, it was 13.1 per cent, 16.9 per cent in 1945 and 5.7 per cent in 1956. Social services Medical assistance === [PDF page 51] === Protection Services 46 Before the liberation, at the most, Hungary had a thousand places in creche and nurseries. This figure rose to 32,130 in 1956. Out of this number 13,29 are run by local councils, 12,357 by enterprises and 6,475 are in seas creches in villages. The hours of opening of the creches are arranged to suit the working hour of the working mothers. Creches are open day and night, during the six working days of the week, where conditions of work demand it. ' Menus are arranged with the help of the Scientific Food Institute so as to ensure that children are scientifically fed. Abandoned children are taken into the care of the State. The functions of guardianship are assumed by the Minister of Culture. Healthy children of under three years and handicapped children of under 18 years whose development proves to be impossible become the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. Children who permanently or temporarily need special care by the State are placed in centres run by the local councils. The care of the health of the children in nursery schools and primary schools is ensured for the whole country by a network of doctors responsible for educational establishments. INDIA Information from Mrs. Godavari Parulekar There were no trained midwives in the early years of this century. The disastrous consequences of midwifery carried out by untrained dais were therefore evident and the emphasis in the past has been as a rule on improvement of maternal care. The extent of services depended largely on the responsibility assumed by the State, its resources and that of the voluntary organisation concerned, and on the availability of the staff. Recently, States have assumed increasing responsibility in resp to Mother and Child Health services and considerable expansion| has taken place under the first Five Year Plan and with international aid. In India, the scope of the Maternity and Child Welfare Service is restricted to domiciliary services and does not include hospital services. The domicilia: services so far established provide for 12% per cent of the total population of the| country and include 3,500 maternity and M.C.W. (Maternity and Child Welfare) Centres. Of the existing M.C.H. centres, 700 were equipped with international aid} === [PDF page 52] === (UNICEF). The standard of service rendered, and also the staff at these centres has improved. Twelve States have established M.C.H. Projects under WHO/ UNICEF assistance which provide for the strengthening of the administration set up in the State Directorate of the Health Service by the appointment of a specialist in Maternity and Child Welfare; the expansion of training schemes for M.C.H. staff, nursing, medical and ancillary as well as personnel for supervision and teaching; the promotion of child health services. Although the general pattern is the same, the projects take into consideration the specific needs of a State. For example, in the Hyderabad State, major emphasis was often given to the training of staff, where as in Bombay, emphasis was on the expansion of services. In the State of Madhya Pradesh the training of personnel and establishing of M.C.H. centres with dispensaries has received major consideration. Under the first Five Year Plan, the Mother and Child Health Services were established in the programme for development of rural areas, and 200 M.C.H. units were established in association with the existing dispensaries. The plan for the staff was one Health Visitor and four midwives. Approximately 400 units, each serving 60,000 people have been established under these schemes. Ata recent Seminar at Calcutta the M.C.H. Officers emphasised the need for integrating medical and health programmes at various levels of administration and suggested that the functions of M.C.H. Bureaus should be broadened. They expressed the need for expansion of laboratory facilities in order to supply medicines to the mother and child medical services, and this is being included in the Second Five Year Plan. They also recommended that they should be associated with the training schemes for midwives, Health visitors, nurses, Pediatric and Obstetric doctors and nurses as well as higher post-graduate training in Pediatrics and Obstetrics. They should also keep in touch with other problems which influence M.C.H. Services. Midwifery Services: Training of Dais and Midwives ea The northern States utilise “the dai”, a lower category of worker, for midwifery services and provide short training programmes either in hospitals or by domiciliary pratice. Extensive schemes for their training are in progress, since approximately 90 per cent of the births in rural areas are attended by dais. Tn the Southern States Madras, Andhra, Trayancore-Cochin and Mysore, increasing use is made of the trained midwife. There are about 247 Midwifery Schools and nearly 2,170 midwives are trained each year. Maternity and Child Welfare Services The Health Visitor, who has a training in Midwifery and Public Health, provides basic health services to the family With special emphasis on maternal and child health. There are nine schools for the training of health visitors. 47 === [PDF page 53] === 48 Facilities for training of M.C.H. Officers — D.M.C.W. Courses for Doctor A diploma course, given at the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public H has a capacity for thirty entrants. Most of the doctors so trained hold M.C\ posts at State level or are employed for field services at district or municip levels. The basic medical curriculum usually includes a month to three moi training in Pediatrics and six months in Obstetrics. Maternity and Child Welfare Services under the Second Five Year Plan It is envisaged that the 1,200 National Extension Service Blocks* which w not covered under the First Five Year Plan will be provided with health servi during the next Plan period. The services will be preventive and curative, eat unit serving a population of 66,000 and having a staff of a Medical Officer, a Health Visitor, a Sanitary Inspector and four Midwives. The M.C.H. team wil thus consist of a Health Visitor, four midwives and the part-time services of Doctor. It is also planned to train 24,000 dais and 1,800 health visitors and to establi four centres for post-graduate training in pediatrics. INDONESIA Contribution of Mrs, Suwarti Bintag Suradi The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia guarantees the rights of women as citizens and mothers. This is testified by the fact that there are Indonesian women who have utilised these opportunities. There are women judges, female police personnel, women experts, doctors, engineers and high ranking women government officials. In order to be able to perform their tasks for the above mentioned jobs, Indonesian women and mothers have to overcome many difficulties and abandon retro grade traditions. It is very difficult for Indonesian working mothers — one might even say impossible — to undertake jobs or accept transferance to jobs in places other than the family residence without running the risk of a split in the family. In some foreign enterprises like the BPM/SHELL, there are regulations stipulating that when a woman worker marries she is dismissed. This regulation shows the distinction drawn between married and unmarried women workers 1 Thé blocks are groups of villages... for the application of the National Extension programme (ran development of elementary character) in the First Five Year Plan, India was divided into 5,000 bl === [PDF page 54] === FRANCE Creches, nurseries and play centres to ensure adequate supervision for children in healthy surroundings === [PDF page 55] === Social facilities enable women to participate fully in social and economic life === [PDF page 56] === In enterprises where no such regulations exist there are no creches for babies or children of working mothers. Facilities to relieve the burdens of working mothers are non-existent. Since the enterprises look upon women as cheap labour many women are employed for half the working day only, or as occasional workers or for piece work which is done at home. These women are not included in the category of workers entitled to receive health insurance, lodgings, annual leave and other such facilities. There are also many women who by virtue of their househould duties cannot leave their homes and their children uncared for. They are thus compelled to work at home, sewing, _ making envelopes, paper bags or cloth bags, embroidery, etc. at piece work which has to be finished within two or three days. In practice, such work is done day and night, frequently by all members of the family. In 1948, a Labour Law for working women and mothers was adopted. Legislation Article 13, paragraph 1 of this law states: “Working women may not be given working duties on the first and second day of the menstruation period.” Article 13, paragraph 2 of the Labour Law reads: “A working women must | be given one and a half month’s post-natal leave or the same after a miscarriage.” | The way of implementing these provisions is laid down in the Government Regulation, number 4, of 1951, article 1, paragraph 3. However, this Labour Law to protect working women is constantly violated by | the employers, thus depriving them of their rights. The Labour Law of 1948, number 12, grants the right to working women to receive full wages during the three months of maternity leave, i.e. one and a half months before and after delivery. In practice, however, many employers put up a * host of pretexts in order to evade this law. According to custom, the husband in Indonesia is generally considered to be the head of the family. However a working woman who becomes the head of the family after her husband has died or has become an invalid, is deprived of family allowances. Women working in government employment who support children receive a sum of money according to the number of under-age children she supports. This allowance is also given to a woman official whose husband is not in government service. If her husband also works in government employment, this allowance may be given to the wife provided that by mutual consent of husband and wife, the wife has been designated as the head of the family. The allowance is equal to 11% of the wages received to a minimum of 20 rupiahs and to a maximum of 50. In general, health insurance for Indonesian working women in private enterprises is very disappointing. Many of the places of work do not come up to the standard laid down for health security, they are either too small, dirty or lack fresh air. The very low wages do not allow women workers to buy 49 Assistance === [PDF page 57] === rere food needed for normal health. Food and drink, if provided by the emplo are far from sufficient. Medical treatment is provided in only a very small number of enterprises sick women workers and their children. Government workers are either gra free medical treatment by the government or reduced rates at hospitals clinics. The number of hospitals, however, is so small that many are obli to go to private doctors and have to pay much higher fees. Out of every 1,000 babies born alive in Indonesia, approximately 150 to 2 die before having reached the age of one year. 672 medical stations have established by the Mother and Child Welfare Department of the Ministry Health to examine pregnant mothers, babies and children. The total number doctors for the whole of Indonesia is approximately 2,000 for a population over 82 million, The number of midwives is about 5,000. Maternity hospi in Indonesia amount to 51 with a total capacity of 1,593 mothers daily. number of hospitals for various diseases is 717 which together cater for 66,1 patients daily. After the Indonesians wrested power from the hands of the Japanese f and proclaimed their independence on August 17th, 1945, discrimination in wa was abolished by law. Daily experience, however, proves that the old practi still persist. Collective agreements between the trade unions and the employers on wages for both men and women workers are constantly violated and constitute source of daily dispute. This is also the case with article 2 of the 1948 Labour Law regulating labour. In practice, under the system of piece work at home, many parents compelled to involve their children in this work in their efforts to secure higl payment. === [PDF page 58] === ISRAEL Information from the Women’s Section of the Achdut Haayoda Poale Zion Organisation The Women’s Section of the Achdut Haavoda Poale Zion Organisation sent a short report on the social activities of the movement of working women belonging to the Histadruth Workers’ Organisation for protection of mother and child. 18,000 children attend the institutions of the Women Workers’ Movement. In 1957, 8,000 children were admitted to kindergartens and 4,000 others, aged from 3 to 6 years, to play centres. In these establishments the children receive 3 meals a day and all the necessary care, and therefore these institutions are a great help to working mothers. 3,000 babies who come from poor homes or whose parents are unable to look after them and who are taken into care up to the age of 6 months must be added to the above figure. In addition 3,000 children of mothers who go out to work attend centres and clubs of the Women Workers’ Movement, after school. Thousands of children went to holiday camps this summer. These are run throughout the country by the Women Workers’ Movement and supplement those run by the Ministry of Education. In the communal colonies (Kibbutz) where children are brought up from birth in children’s homes and where the parents visit them every day, the protection of women workers and mothers and the education of children and youth is of a special character. Communal education includes three basic factors: the school, the kibbutz and the parents. An expectant mother stops work for two months at the time of her confinement. While she is feeding her child she works 6 hours a day (including feeding times). This way of life assures working mothers the best social conditions from all points of view. In Israel about 60,000 women benefit from such conditions. ITALY Contribution of Madame Luciana Viviani The subject for discussion at the Study Days raises one of the fundamental problems of modern society: the contrast between the demand that women should play an ever growing part in economic, social and political activity on the one 54 === [PDF page 59] === 52 Discrimination hand and the present organisation of society and the family which to a large extent enslaves her, on the other. This problem is of prime importance if one thinks that, in certain countries half the adult female population takes part in production, while in other countries women are still completely, or almost completely, on the fringe of society. The full participation of women in productive and social activity still encounters obstacles not only because of backward economic and social systems in many countries (these include Italy without any doubt); not only to the persistence of conservative ideas, religious prejudices and customs (in Italy, even now, current remarks are that, “woman is the angel of the home”, “home work is to be preferred to any other sort of work as it allows women to spend the longest possible time in the home”, etc.); but also due to the very structure of a great part of the existing legislation which regulates Social Insurance in general and the protection of mother and child in particular. In fact, many laws start from the principle that women must be protected and defended as mothers and consider maternity as the essential activity of women. This is a paternalist conception of discrimination. To give an example of this statement it is enough to examine what happens in Italy and certainly in other countries. It is only in cases where the woman is a worker or | the wife of a worker, (unless she belongs to the poorest strata of the population) that society intervenes concretely to protect mother and child by laws and special institutions. In other cases, the responsibility and demands of maternity fall on the woman and are solved in the family. We consider this above type of protection for mother and child as out-dated. We are convinced that maternity is a social function. The structure and organisation of modern society must allow every woman full participation in economic, social and political life, without this being limited by her functions as a mother. Hence the necessity for a Social Security System for the protection of motherhood to apply to all women and to help them, not only during pregnancy and confinement, but permanently, by means of social institutions which would take on a great part of the domestic work which is at present a heavy burdenion women. It was because of this that the opening of public electric laundries by the Municipal Council of Bologna was warmly welcomed by women. It is possible to create favourable conditions in which women can express their capabilities to the full, and can make their contribution to social and economic progress on an equal footing with men. It is true that in many countries, there are such poverty and such backward social conditions that even the most elementary social protection is denied to women. It is true that to have effective activity and to help in the drawing up of proposals, it is necessary above all to see the final aim clearly and the way to achieve it. === [PDF page 60] === Our Organisation, the Union of Italian Women is striving to follow this policy and to apply this method. Italy is a country which presents a complex and often contradictory picture. One example is legislation for social assistance and insurance. The Constitutions mentions the right to social assistance as well as the right to equal pay in an act passed in 1950. Simultaneously, in the factories and in Parliament the Italian women won a law for the physical and economic protection of the working mother, which is doubtless among the most advanced laws on motherhood. The National Society for Mother and Child is entrusted with giving assistance for mother and child until the child has reached the age of three years; yet a great number of Italian women do not benefit from any protection, pre- or postnatal, and many are obliged to give up their work when they give birth to their first child. Why? Because even good laws and good institutions are ineffective and inoperative when they come up against a backward social structure which, as a whole, relegates women to the background of society. The existing system of social assistance and insurance is based on the principle of contributions by the insured persons. In Italy, there is still a high percentage of unemployed and poverty still affects whole regions. Therefore many social categories are excluded from classification and millions of women are deprived of any kind of assistance. With the increasing participation of working women and of women who are excluded from the existing laws our organisation is striving to change the structure of social security legislation to include everyone. This was the object of the great campaign for the right of housewives to a pension, and of the activity of home workers (who are very numerous in Italy) in their struggle to have a Bill passed by Parliament which among other things would regulate protection of motherhood. It also included certain categories of Peasant women who very recently won the right to general assistance, maternity assistance and old age pensions. But although our activity has certain successes to its credit, it is still meeting with bitter resistance from conservative forces who refuse to pay their contribution to the well-being of the community. A world-wide movement of public opinion with even more strength than in the past is needed. In the world jtoday there are women’s organisations which have great Prestige and authority each in its own sphere. These women’s organisations must make their strength felt in order to convince public opinion that modern Society must conform to the new conditions created by the unanimous proclamation of the principle of equal rights for women. Social Assistance 53 === [PDF page 61] === Discrimination 54 Legislation We propose that the W.I.D.F. should examine the possibility of studying form of common activity with other international women’s organisations whit would simultaneously involve the masses of women in the various countries the world. Before 1950 there was no law in Italy on the protection of working mother although this principle was inscribed in the Constitution of the Italian Republ in 1947, After two years of discussion in Parliament and mass activity throt the country, law No. 860 “For the right of working mothers to physi and economic protection” was passed on August 26th, 1950. This law is based on the following principles: - Working women cannot be dismissed during pregnancy; in the event sickness due to pregnancy, the employer must keep their post open to them. — Women working in industry have the right to three months pre-natal leave those working in agriculture to eight weeks, and other categories of worke to six weeks. — All women have the right to eight weeks post-natal leave, to be extended ta 14 weeks according to their state of health. — During maternity leave the National Institute of Sickness Insurance must pa women workers 80 per cent of their wages on the basis of a 40 hour week. — Permanent women agricultural workers receive free medical assistance and 3] sum of 25,000 lira for the period of their leave and seasonal workers a sum| of 15,000 lira. ~ Article 11 of the law obliges the employer to install a room for feeding babies} near the place of work when he employs 30 married women of under 50 ye of age. Also Labour Inspectors can decide when they consider it necessary t0 set up creches for children of under three years, or for the employers to mak a financial contribution for creches when serving several enterprises. The law is generally applied as far as it concerns maternity leave, payment of salary, and securing posts, due to the vigilance of the women and of the trade unions. It is not observed in general where the setting up of creches is concerned. But in certain provinces women haye by continual struggles obtained compensation “for lack of creches”. This law is a great success for the women’s movement, although government opposition and certain amendments have limited its advantages. The law does not give any protection to women workers dependent on the State, women farmers who pay rent in kind, peasant women, home workers, domestic servants. etc. === [PDF page 62] === Therefore the struggle is going on in the country and in Parliament for the improvement of the existing legislation and its extension to categories of women at present excluded from it. The following bills have been introduced in Parliament: - bill No. 2545 (Di Vittorio, of the Italian General Confederation of Labour) on the “regulations for the physical and economic protection of working mothers employed by the State and other public bodies.” — bill No. 3291 (Deputy Gisella Floreanini) on “measures for the protection of women working in the rice fields and their children”. ~ bill No. 829, April 1956 (Deputies Maria Maddalena Rossi and Giuliana Nenni of the Union of Italian Women) on “the physical and economic protection of working mothers belonging to the category of farmers paying rent in kind”. This law provides for the extension to this category of the advantages granted to agricultural workers by law 860. — bill No. 1319 (Senator Lina Merlin) on the “compulsory and free admission of women from poor families to maternity hospitals.” — bill No. 2280, June 1956 (Deputies Ada Del Vecchio and Anna Matera of the U.LW.) on “the practice of dismissing married women.” This bill aims at suppressing the many abuses which occur on this question. — bill No. 2577, November 1957 (Deputies Adela Bei, and Teresa Noce of the Italian General Confederation of Labour) on “payment to women workers of a creche allowance”. The bill aims at obtaining compensation of 5,000 lira monthly for women working in factories employing fewer than 30 married women and now excluded from the creche benefit. ~ bill No. 1991, January 1956 (Deputies M. M. Rossi, L. Viviani and others) for the “compulsory teaching and popularisation of the relaxation method of painless childbirth”. The object of this bill is to create the necessary conditions so that every mother may benefit from the advantages of this method. In Italy the number of beds available in hospitals is very small: 11 beds for 2,000 persons in the North; 6 in the Centre; 3 in the South where the need is greatest. These figures explain and medical assistance the difficulties that expectant mothers have in obtaining a hospital confinement. 75 per cent of confinements take place at home and only 25 per cent in hospitals. | In the whole of Italy there are 1,112 obstetrical and gynaecological consultation centres. 6,698 communes out of 7,874 are completely lacking in them. From 1953 to 1955, O.N.M.I. (the National Institute for Mother and Child) closed 44 homes for mothers and children due to lack of funds from the State. 5D === [PDF page 63] === At present 311 are open for the whole country. On an average there are 3 medico-social assistants for 100,000 inhabitants. Infant mortality is very high, due mainly to the low standard of livi families and to the absence of sufficient health facilities. In 1954, 46,104 dren died in their first year, that is 48.6 per 1,000. The figures are hi the South of Italy, with 6,842 in Campania, 6,190 in Apulia, 6,026 in Si 3,434 in Calabria. Moreover, in the same year there were 26,297 still-births, About 28,000 unmarried women are confined each year. Society grants a minority of these hospital confinement, moral and physical assistance and which would allow them to bring up their child. In 1954, according to the fi of the Central Institute of Statistics, 28,821 illegitimate children were born (( of 896,986 children born that year). The percentage is generally higher in poorer regions of the South. JAPAN Information from the Federation of Japanese Women’s Organisatio According to a census taken in 1956, the number of Japanese women of o1 fourteen years, considered as able to work, reached 32,380,000. 53.6 per of these are active; there are 17,370,000 women workers, 8,460,000 working i agriculture and 8,900,000 in other trades. As regards women working in factories or government employm the law specifies that there must be no discrimination in wages betw men and women and that motherhood must be protected. The law also provid for intervals for feeding babies so that working mothers may work without worry. In enterprises where the trade union is active these clauses figure in contracts or regulations. But it is quite usual for women to be victims of injustices and for measures t0 be taken against their interests in spite of the recent development of activity and consciousness of women workers on these questions. It goes without saying thi the rights of mothers working in small enterprises are completely ignored by their employers. Moreover, the 8,460,000 women who work in agriculture, and who represent 50 per cent of the total number of women workers, are mostly mothers, and have a heavy burden to bear in the present situation. They have to attend to their children and do all sorts of household tasks, while doing the same work as men 56 on the farms. These women do not benefit from any measures for protection of Discrimination === [PDF page 64] === motherhood. In most cases they are obliged to continue their work right up to the confinement and to take it up again immediately afterwards. One of the most widespread consequences of this state of affairs is the premature ageing of women agricultural workers. After the war there was a rapid increase in the number of women looking for work, due to a growing awareness among women regarding work and also to difficult living conditions. Moreover, many women wish to continue to work after marriage or after having had children. This is shown by the growing number of married women workers. But women, especially working mothers, are constantly victims of discrimination and most often work under conditions detrimental to their health. Women workers in textile factories and nurses in the State hospitals have to sleep in dormitories and are not allowed to marry. In many cases women are asked to leave their work when they have a child or even when they marry. Some women leave their work as no system of protection or measures of security are provided for them. The law gives teachers the right to a holiday during which they must be replaced by substitutes, but this is not applied due to lack of funds. Many mothers are obliged to leave their work as there is no creche and no interval is allowed for feeding. Regulation of protection of motherhood concerning women employed in public services, which has been in force since lst May, 1957, says: “The employer must not make a woman work in certain cases when she asks for menstruation leave (health reasons, work harmful to her state); that expectant mothers should be transferred to lighter work when a pregnant woman asks for it, that the employer must not make a woman work six weeks before confinement if she asks for a rest during this period; that the employer must not make a woman work for six weeks after confinement. If a woman begins work five weeks after the confinement, she may be given work which the doctor considers not prejudicial to her health. The leave granted for the protection of motherhood must be honoured and considered as paid holiday, and intervals for feeding (two a day of at least half an hour each) must also be considered as part of the working hours. Social services and medical care for mothers and children are very inadequate in Japan. The law on child welfare prescribes that the State and the local authorities must assume responsibility for the good development of children together with parents and guardians, but no practical measures have been taken. The administrative authorities are responsible for the application of this law, and the Child Welfare Councils, the Child Welfare Centres and the welfare district offices, together with medical workers, are responsible for putting it into practice effectively. Social Assistance 57 === [PDF page 65] === The main function of these centres is to set up and supervise orphanages, guide and protect children who are vagrant, maltreated or mentally or physically retarded or who are young delinquents. Moreover, there are clinics which provide measures of protection for the health of mothers and babies, by registering pregnancy, issuing health books for mothers and babies and giving advice on the care of children up to school age, Mothers who live alone with their children can live in communal homes, and creches exist for the children of working mothers, but the number of these establishments is very limited and many of these families are in great difficulties. Legal provisions are made so that widows are exempted from income tax and given help from national funds for the aid of mothers and children, but these measures are inadequate for the subsistence of these families. The number of mothers who are heads of families reached 1,150,000 in August 1956, and their families represent a total of 4,420,000 persons. The income of 48 per cent of these families is less than 10,000 yens and 16.6 per cent earn less than 5,000 yens. In most cases the mother is a war widow. MONGOLIA Contribution from the Central Council of Mongolian Women The care of mothers and women and the protection of their rights in one of the fundamental principles of the Mongolian Peoples’ Republic and is therefore under State control. In feudal Mongolia there was no state legislation which protected mothers’ rights. Today in the Mongolian Peoples’ Republic the rights of women and mothers are granted by the following laws which are implemented in the country. at present: The Constitution, the Labour Law, the Marriage, Family and Adoption Laws, the Civil Law, the Criminal Law and by Social Insurance. Women in the Mongolian Peoples’ Republic have equal rights in all Protection fields of the country’s economic, cultural, political and public life. The of Motherhood implementation of these rights is guaranteed by labour protection, social insurance, recreation and education facilities, protection of the interests of mother and child and provisions for paid maternity leave. All obstacles, such as marriage of girls under age, the payment of ‘dowry’ to the bridegroom, 58 polygamy and the refusal to send girls to school, are prohibited by law. === [PDF page 66] === Pregnant women are not permitted to work overtime or night shifts during the last three months of pregnancy. Nursing mothers Economie Rights come under the same rules for the first six months after the birth of Women and Mothers of their child. Maternity leave and sick leave for mothers does not shorten their regular holiday leave. (Labour Law) Working women and employees are assured their jobs if they are absent two months in case of illness, and three months in the case of pregnancy and confinement. Wage or salary decreases because of pregnancy are categorically forbidden. (Labour Law) If a medical opinion calls for the transfer of a pregnant woman to a lighter job before her maternity leave falls due, she must be given new work and paid an average wage at her new job estimated on her eannings for the last six months at her previous place of employment. For a period of seven months following the birth of the child, nursing mothers are granted a special interval for breast-feeding in addition to the lunch interval cf not less than half an hour, and these intervals must be counted as part of the working hours. Civil and Criminal Laws contain special clauses concerning the punishment of those who make any attempt to interfere with the right of mothers. Marriage, family and adoption laws in the Mongolian Peoples’ Republic are meant to protect the interests of mother and child. They ensure good family relations and stipulate that parents are equally responsible for bringing up their children, for the health and mecessary education for their children, and for the protection of the interests of the children. Parents by adoption share the same responsibilities. When parents wish to be divorced, the court decrees which parent shall have custody of the child, taking the interests of the child into consideration. The interests of children born out of wedlock are similarly protected. It is also permitted to adopt children who are under age, again taking the interest of the child into account, Social Insurance provides allowances for all citizens, working men and women, for old age, sickness and temporary or permanent Social and incapacity to work. Medical Protection Women enjoy the privilege of being able to spend their holidays with their children in the state-owned rest homes. In feudal Mongolia there was no scientific medical assistance. The transformation in the care and protection of mother and child has taken place since the working people successfully overthrew the old regime of the feudal lords and took the power into their own hands. Special clauses of the labour law deal with the conditions of work of women and mothers, taking into account the special role mothers play in bringing up their children. 59 === [PDF page 67] === 60 Social Assistance All citizens, men and women, are given free medical assistance. Aral (population in the countryside) are able to get the necessary medical assistance even in the remotest corners of the Republic. Mothers who give birth to twins are given a State grant. Constant medical advice, and care for the mother and children is ensured if this is necessary. Mothers have the right to full pay if they take sick leave when their children are ill. In 1956 the number of creches (compared with 1952) increased by 77.8 per cent, and the number of children who attended the creches increased by 2.3 times. The total number of hospitals for children, maternity homes and medical centres for women’s diseases increased considerably. In pre-revolutionary Mongolia a great number of mothers died in childbirth because of the lack of medical assistance. The infant mortality rate was even higher, It is worthwhile mentioning that all children, without exception, contracted small-pox, and this was the cause of death of one out of five children. Now the situation is radically changed. Due to medical services the death rate from measles, scarlet-fever and other infectious diseases has also been considerably decreased. The number of pioneer camps and rest homes for mother and child is continually increasing. Women, depending on their type of work, have from thirteen to thirty days holiday. Allocations for the education of children, in the state budget, are constantly increasing. Old Mongolia had no creches or nurseries, and only one single school to which only the children of the feudal lords had access. Today, accommodation in the creches is free for everybody, and the cost of payment for nurseries consists of only a small part of the parents’ earnings. Mothers who have large families are granted a state allowance. In 1957, 39.2 per cent of the national budget was allocated for social and cultural needs, and a considerable part of this was spent on allowances for large families. The April 1957 session of the Mongoiian Parliament adopted a decision that state allowances would be paid to mothers on the birth of the fourth child. Mothers employed in lower paid jobs receive a special grant after the birth of each child. Mothers who have five or six children are awarded the order “Honour of Motherhood” of the second degree, and an order of the first degree to mothers of seven or more children. The implementation of the socialist principles of equality of women in our country hes helped to raise our women from a state of ignorance and inferiority to a new condition in which they have become active and conscious participants in building their country’s future. ar ay eae === [PDF page 68] === POLAND Contribution of Mme. Zofia Bartnicka The equality of our women is guaranteed by law. Women in our country are appointed to high posts in government bodies, in the field of jurisprudence and in higher educational establishments, but we are still of the opinion that the number of women in high posts is inadequate and they are not sufficiently promoted in accordance with their qualifications and cultural standards. As to the protection of mother and child, we are proud to say that we have made great achievements in this field. Pregnant women in our country enjoy good medical care. The dismissal of pregnant women from work is forbidden. The health service bodies have special centres which are known as “kobets” where pregnant women are under the constant care of gynaecologists. In these centres women are also given advice on how to prevent conception. Beginning with the sixth month of pregnancy, women have the right to be transferred to lighter work. This is not always easy to carry out because sometimes a woman has to be moved to a completely different kind of work. Women are entitled to maternity leave for twelve weeks, two of which should be during the pre-natal period and the other ten after the confinement. In the majority of cases working women try to take their normal two or four weeks holiday after the end of the maternity leave in order to prolong the time that they can stay and care for their children. Maternity leave is granted to women even when they have stillbirths. Nursing mothers are entitled to have two intervals of half an hour each during the working day for breast feeding. Maternity grants are paid beginning with the first child and also for every subsequent child. Besides maternity centres we have children’s medical centres at which children under the age of twelve years are examined by specialists in children’s diseases. In general all branches of our women’s organisation are concerned with the problems of child care. In big cities and small towns courses for mothers are organised for this purpose. Young, inexperienced mothers willingly attend these courses where they have the chance to study the proper way to bring up their children. Because of the lack of hospital beds in children’s medical centres a fair number of sick children have to stay at home under the care of their mothers. In these cases women are granted 70 per cent of their basic wages during thirty days. We are aiming that all mothers should receive grants for the entire period of the child’s illness. 61 === [PDF page 69] === 62 RUMANIA Contribution of Mme. Henrietta Anastasiu Measures for the protection of motherhood are given special attention by the State, for these measures aim to guarantee full enjoyment of the broad rights accorded to women in all spheres of economic, political, social and cultural life. Article 83 of the Constitution lays down that: “The State protects marriage and the family; defends the interests of mother and child; grants aid to mothers of large families, and mothers on their own; guarantees paid holidays for expectant mothers who work, and organises creches and nursery schools.” The main character of the new legislation is that it does not merely proclaim certain rights, but guarantees them by ensuring material conditions for their effective application. Free medical care during pregnancy, at the confinement and after confinement is assured for all women. The child also receives all the necessary medical care. The State allocates considerable sums to extending the network of maternity hospitals according to needs; by setting up maternity wards in hospitals; rural maternity nursing homes; children’s wards in hospitals for adults, and children’s hospitals and preventoria. Specialised medical and health personnel have incresed in proportion. The cost of maintaining the creches and play centres is covered partly by payments by the enterprises and partly by a contribution from the parents, worked out in proportion to their pay. It is a very small sum and decreases according to the number of children. The rights of mother and child are strengthened by the Family Code wkich governs relationships within the family on the basis of the principle of full equality of rights between men and women. Consequently husband and wife have the same rights and obligations towards under-age children. The Family Code obliges them to take care of the health, physical development, education, instruction and vocational training of the child. Article 104 of the Labour Code states that: “Social insurance covers all wage earners, whether permanently or temporarily employed, as well as non-wageearning members of their families.” Women working in enterprises and institutions of the Rumanian. People’s Republic represent almost 28 per cent of the total number of wage-earners and benefit therefore from social insurance, as do agricultural wage-earners and women whose husbands are wage-earners. The Labour Code stipulates moreover that: “Expectant and nursing mothers === [PDF page 70] === and women who have poor health cannot be employed on work requiring great effort which would be harmful to their health.” “Women must be employed on easy work during pregnancy without their pay being decreased...” “Expectant mothers starting from the fifth month, and nursing mothers, cannot under any circumstances be employed on night-work, in whatever occupation they may be engaged.” “Expectant mothers have the right to 52 days leave before confinement and 60 days after confinement.” In the case of a confinement before the expected date or in the case of the birth of twins, the mother has the right to a prolongation of her post-natal leave by 45 days. Women who work in craft co-operatives including seasonal ones also have the right to paid leave before and after confinement. For expectant mothers who are members of farming collectives, maternity leave of two months is provided, one month before and one month after confinement. “Maternity aid” is granted to wage-earners by the social insurance. The percentage of “aid” during maternity leave is 100 per cent of the gross salary for employees who have worked for a period of two years in the same enterprise or institution and have totalled three years of paid work. For permanent, seasonal, or temporary employees of the state or of private enterprises, the percentage of the aid is 75 per cent of the gross pay, Permanent employees receive a monthly allowance in money for food supplements from the fifth month of pregnancy, without taking “maternity aid” into account. Women who work on collective farms receive payments equal to 50 per cent of their average earnings during the whole period of pre- and post-natal leave, calculated on the basis of the days of work they did in the course of the six months preceding the maternity leave. The help for the layette consists of a fixed sum representing the cost of a complete outfit for the new-born child and is granted to all wage-earning mothers who receive pre- and post-natal aid. The help for feeding the child is paid monthly and is granted for every child from birth to the age of nine months. Contribution of Dr. Natalia Radulesco The State had to undertake considerable measures to relieve the situation in which medical assistance for women existed under the old regime and to attain the following objectives: a) the application of an organised system of protection for the women and children of the country. 63 Social Services and Medical Assistance === [PDF page 71] === 64 b) the application of a system of prevention of diseases, of active supervision of expectant mothers starting from the first months of pregnancy giving special attention to children up to the age of a year. This is in order to protect and look after mother and child. c) the scientific study of various aspects of obstetrical-gynaecological and child pathology. A large amount of data indicates the success achieved, especially after the unification in 1948 of the medical services for mothers and children under the “Board for the Protection of Mother and Child” of the Ministry of Health. Here are a few figures: “In 1949 and 1950, the Institute of Pediatrics and the Centre for Obstetrics and Gynaecology were set up. In 1948 the number of doctors specialising in pediatrics was 339 (3 per cent of the total of doctors) and the number of obstetricians and gynaecologists was 600. The number of pediatric doctors has now increased in the proportion of 651.6 per cent by comparison with 1948, and the number of obstetricians and gynaecologists in the proportion of 139.2 per cent. This has made it possible to have approximately one pediatrician for 1,200 children in the towns and one obstetrician for two or three health districts (16 to 24,000 inhabitants) as well as specialists from various maternity hospitals. The number of social assistants has risen from 200 to 2,400, and that of midwives from 2,500 to 5,500. While in 1944 there were only 1,868 beds for women in the towns, we have today nearly 8,000. The number of beds for new born children rose from 91 in 1944 to 3,045 in 1955. In the countryside, nearly 1,500 maternity homes with 6,500 beds have been set up so that peasant women may have qualified attention at their confinements. There are now departments in certain regions especially equipped for the care of premature babies. The number of hospitals for children has risen from 7 to 44 and the total number of beds for children has reached 19,226. In the towns, a polyclinic or a consultation service for children functions in connection with every hospital which has a children’s department. In the countryside as well as in the towns, clinics for children, with beds and centres for the distribution of mothers’ milk have been started. The number of places available in the creches has increased by 527.5 per cent, and by 659 per cent in the kindergartens. In spite of this the number of creches and kindergartens is far from meeting the needs of the working mothers. Special homes have been fitted up in spa towns so that mothers can have holidays with their children. === [PDF page 72] === GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Institutions ensure the development of creative abilities and the personality of the child === [PDF page 73] === THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA How many creches, nurseries and schools could be built for the cost of a rocket launching site? === [PDF page 74] === Doctor Rudalesco mentions some other methods of work in the “Units for the Protection of Mother and Child”. She stresses the difficulties they have encountered, especially in the campaign to overcome superstition, empiricism and distrust, as well as the efforts to show women the necessity for pre-natal supervision and continual attention from specialised medical staff. As far as medical attention for children in the town and countryside is concerned, every new-born child is registered at birth with the polyclinic or with the district pediatrician. From then until 14 years, the child remains under the observation of the children’s polyclinic, or the consultation service for children. The pediatrician makes out a card showing the development of every child from birth. For children of less than one year amonthly “uninterrupted observation” is made. All children whose health is poor are placed in the category of “problem children” and remain under the systematic observation of the pediatrician. In the town and country, talks are arranged with expectant mothers and young mothers, together with consultation services for women, and lessons are given on the hygiene of pregnancy, on the development of the healthy child or on the care of the sick child, and can be considered as real “schools for mothers”. Figures which indicate a decrease in maternal mortality, in the number of stillborn babies and in puerperal infections, as well as in infant mortality, show the results of all these efforts. — Maternal mortality: 0.08 per cent in 1955, - Stillbirths: 7 per cent in 1944 — 1.8 per cent at present. ~ Infant mortality: 17 to 20 per cent before the war; 7.8 per cent at present. SOVIET UNION Contribution of Lydia Grechischnikowa The Soviet delegate recalled the struggles which were carried on under the Czarist Govegnment to obtain protection of motherhood and of children. She recalled the struggles against the social oppression of women and the laws which determined women’s position, as follows: “Woman must submit to her husband as the head of the family; she must love him, respect him and obey him in all things, she must satisfy him in everything as a hostess in his house.” === [PDF page 75] === Legislation 66 She also stated that measures for the protection of women, of motherhood j of children were only put into effect at the advent of Soviet power. Article of the Constitution of the U.S.S.R. states that: “Women are granted equal rights with men in all spheres of econom public, cultural, social and political life.” The chance to exercise these rights is.ensured in the following ways: equ rights with men to work and equal pay; equal rights to rest and leisure, soci insurance and education; State protection of the interests of mother and chil State aid to mothers of large families and unmarried mothers; maternity | with full pay and the provision of a wide network of maternity homes, nurs and kindergartens. Soviet laws strictly protect the work of women (who total 45 per cent of th working population) and in particular that of expectant and nursing mothers. In accordance with the existing Soviet laws, the work of women in som fields is strictly forbidden. For instance, in the mining industry, undergroun construction and industries involving the use of zinc, mercury, lead, anili ‘colours and other harmful elements which can have bad effects on the woman organism and can harm her ability to bear children. In the same way, in accon ance with the decree of the Peoples’ Commissariat of Labour of August 14t 1932, women are mot allowed to perform work involving the lifting of h weights. A number of scientific research institutes on the hygiene of labour and ocet pational diseases as well as institutes of gynaecology and obstetrics, trade unions and women’s organisations are continuing their researches into wo conditions for women, and for expectant and nursing mothers, in the various branches of the national economy. They prepare proposals based on scie! facts regarding safety measures for the protection of women who work. At pri the list of occupations in which women‘should not be engaged is being revised with the aim of extending it. In accordance with the Act of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of th U.S.S.R., expectant mothers are not allowed to work overtime after the fourth month of pregnancy, nor to do nightwork when they are pregnant. _ Expectant mothers, from the moment their pregnancy begins, and women with babies under one year, have the right to change their jobs to a place neare their home without loss of seniority. Factory and office managers are required to transfer expectant mothers easier work on the advice of a doctor, and to pay them their average wage fo the six months preceding their change of work. In accordance with government acts, expectant mothers are given spe pre- and post-natal maternity leave. === [PDF page 76] === Under an Act of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. of March 26th, 1956, maternity leave was lengthened from 77 days to 112 days (56 days pre- and 56 days post-natal leave). In cases of abnormal delivery or of the birth of twins, post-natal leave is lengthened by 14 days. Maternity leave is paid for in full from the State Social Insurance Funds. Women cannot be dismissed during their maternity leave. If a mother wishes to prolong her leave, factory and office managers are required to grant her three months without pay and to keep her job open for her. Women who leave work on the birth of a child do not lose their seniority if they return to work not later than twelve months after the birth of their baby. These measures are of the greatest importance for the health of the babies, and for lowering the infant sickness and mortality rate. Soviet statistics and statistics from other countries show that in general 70 per cent of all babies who die in the first year of life do so in the first six months. It follows that it is necessary to take measures to ensure that the child is given maternal care and is breast-fed, especially in the first six months, as these are often of decisive importance for the child’s healthy development. In addition to the lunch-break, nursing mothers also have the thirty minutes additional time off to feed their babies. This break of thirty minutes is granted at least every three hours and is counted as paid working time. According to existent laws, an expectant or nursing mother cannot be refused work because of her condition, nor can her pay be reduced during this period. Such refusals are punishable under the law of October 5th, 1936. It is also forbidden to dismiss a pregnant woman. The honorary title of “Mother Heroine” was introduced for mothers with large families by a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. on July 8th, 1944. The order of “Glory of Motherhood” and the Motherhood Medal were also introduced. Under the same decree a system of grants‘and allowances was started to help mothers of large families and unmarried mothers to support and bring up their children. In 1956 the State spent 8,400 million roubles on these grants and allowances. A widespread network of special institutions, children’s creches and kindergartens helps mothers in bringing up their children, These institutions enable working mothers to take an active part in the economic, cultural, social and political life of the country without neglecting their duties as mothers. Every year the government allocates larger sums for the building and maintenance of creches and kindergartens, and parents only have to pay 15 per cent to 20 per cent of the costs. The creche and kindergarten system takes into account the needs of the mothers, their working conditions in the factories and offices, as well as condi- 67 === [PDF page 77] === 68 tions in the family and the state of health of the children. Children in the er and kindergartens are organised into groups and stay there for eight, ten, fow or more hours per day. Creches for babies still being nursed are placed as close as possible to the mother’s place of work, so that she may come and feed the baby at the appropriate time. Babies who have been weaned are usually placed in creches near their parents home. In 1913 there were only a small number of creches with 550 places. Toda the number of places in creches totals almost one million. Women workers and members of the local Soviets take a very active part in setting up these institutions; they try to find the best premises and help the personnel of the institutions to care for and educate the children. In addition to. permanent creches, seasonal creches are organised in the kolkhozes of the U.S.S.R. at periods when there is a lot of work to be done in the fields. These creches are able to care for over two million children. The number of kindergartens has also grown. In 1913 there were only about 4,000 places in kindergartens in Russia, while in 1956 there were 1,870,000 places. Education in Soviet kindergartens is conducted in the mother tongue, and great importance is attached to the artistic education of the children. They are taught to sing, dance, draw and model, etc. The responsible staff are teachers with special training. Children’s doctors and nurses are in charge of the physical development of the children and of all measures for health, both preventive and anti-epidemic. In spite of the existing network of creches and kindergartens, these are still not sufficient. The sixth Five Year Plan for the development of the national economy of the U.S.S.R. provides for an increase of 45 per cent in the number of creches and kindergartens, and accommodation will be built at two and a half times the rate of the previous five year plan. Children of working mothers are able to stay at school until their mothers return from work, Teachers are there to supervise them, to help them with their homework, and to take them for walks or organise open air games. Children who stay behind are also provided with hot meals. From this short enumeration of the laws for the protection of women’s labour and the labour of expectant and nursing mothers which are in force in the Soviet Union, and from the growth in the number of creches, kindergartens and schools, it can be seen that the Soviet State is constantly and untiringly concerned with the welfare of mother and child, and with creating the best possible conditions for the physical and moral development of a healthy and vigorous future generation. === [PDF page 78] === Yet there are many unsolved problems with regard to the further improvement of the protection of the health of mother and child in the U.S.S.R., especially the problem of preventing measles, scarlet-fever and other children’s diseases. Our research scientists are working hard to find solutions to these problems and are fighting an implacable war against diseases and their causes. From the outset, the Soviet State has worked to organise obstetrical assistance which would be available to every woman. At present women’s clinics, maternity homes and maternity wards in hospitals with gynaecological departments supervise the health of expectant mothers, These establishments are paid for entirely by the State and women can obtain the medical treatment they need free of charge. Women’s Clinics There are over 7,000 clinics in the U.S.S.R. More than 200,000 beds are reserved in the towns and villages for confinement. There is also a wide network of maternity homes maintained by the state farms in rural areas. In towns and workers’ districts almost 100 per cent of the expectant mothers have their confinements in obstetric-gynaecological establishments, and there is continuous improvement in the rural areas. The birth of a child is a source of joy for every family. Painless childbirth is being practised on a wide scale in our country. Before 1950 the reduction of pain during childbirth was obtained by pharmacological means. But from 1950-1951 onwards, the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Medicine, basing themselves on the work of the great Russian physiologist Pavlov, have developed a new method of painless childbirth which is being applied on a wide scale in the obstetric-gynaecological establishments. It is the method of psycho-prophylactic preparation for labour and has no harmful effects on either mother or child. During pregnancy the expectant mother prepares herself methodically for the confinement by attending consultations and special courses which aim at acquainting her with the main physiological stages in pregnancy and labour. She is given exercises to do while in labour. At the present time the psycho-prophylactic method is being applied very widely not only in the obstetric-gynaecological establishments in the towns, but in the villages as well. More than 21,000 gynaecologists and doctors who assist at the birth and more than 153,000 midwives are working in maternity clinics and hospitals. As a result of the measures taken by the State the mortality rate among women in childbirth has been reduced by fourteen times compared with 1915. Mortality 69 === [PDF page 79] === 70 among the newly-born is at a minimum, and mortality due to puerperal fever been completely wiped out. Today children’s health is protected by a wide network of children’s hospita milk distribution centres, sanatoria, creches, etc. and the number of these institutions is increasing from year to year. All these establishments are maintained by the State and medical assistance and prophylaxy is provided free of charge for children. Children’s dispensaries (at present numbering 7,300) supervise the newly-born from the time mother and child leave the nursing home. Children’s clinics provide medical assistance and prophylaxy for children from birth until the day they leave school. The number of hospital beds for children at present totals more than 200,000. | When a baby goes to hospital the mother goes to hospital too and is fully maintained by the hospital. If she is working she is given a certificate freeing her from work and she is paid for this period from the social insurance funds, — [f an older child is taken to hospital and the mother is required to stay at the hospital she is also given a certificate and is paid in the same way. If the sick child of a working woman remains at home the mother also has the right to a certificate freeing her from work. This she obtains from the doctor at the clinic at which the child is registered. In general, children, who are unwell do not go to the doctor but are given attention by the clinic at home until they are completely recovered. Besides the hospitals and clinics there are also milk distribution centres which provide the food for young children as prescribed by the doctor. These centres free the mothers from having to prepare the prescribed food at home, a task which would take a lot of her time every day. Centres for collecting mother’s milk are also arranged in the clinics. This milk is distributed to children whose mothers do not have sufficient milk or who cannot feed their child for one reason or another. The existence of a wide network of children’s clinics and hospitals in residential districts enables the doctors and nurses of these institutions to maintain friendly and close contact with the parents. Another type of institution for children should be mentioned since they play a great part in protecting their health and have been greatly expanded. These are the sanatoria which are to be found in every Republic in the Union and which have a total of 106,000 beds. Here the children suffering from tuberculosis, rickets or from the effects of infantile paralysis or other diseases are given the rest and the treatment which they need. Generally sanatorium treatment for children lasts between two and four months. Children suffering from bone tuberculosis are kept in sanatoria until they are fully recovered, that is to say for one or two years. === [PDF page 80] === Teachers are included on the staff of these sanatoria so that the children are able to continue with their lessons while they are there. In sanatoria caring for children who have to remain for a longer period, schools are organised for children of school age, which enables them to continue their studies in the secondary schools and colleges of the country when they leave the sanatorium. "he Soviet State allocates large sums for the maintenance of these sanatoria for children. The children stay free of charge. Every year more than five and a half million children and youth spend their holidays in pioneer camps organised in the towns and country. In addition children attending creches, kindergartens or who are brought up in children’s homes are sent to the country for the summer. School children are given medical supervision at school by the doctors of the Children’s Medical Centre, and by the doctor and nurses of the clinic to which they are attached. Since 1930 the training of pediatricians in the U.S.S.R. has been taken over by special pediatrics departments of the Medical Institutes. At the moment there are twenty-five of these. The anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the child’s organism are such that a large number of diseases take a different course in children from adults, and specialised study is necessary. At the beginning of 1957 nearly 43,000 children’s doctors were practising in our country. They are true friends of the mothers, and are helping them to bring up a healthy generation. The advances of science and their application goes hand in hand with scientific research in the field of pediatrics, and is carried out by 190 sections of the Medical Institute and by eighteen Scientific Research Institutes. Yet much remains to be done. It is certain that under the sixth Five Year Plan new advances in medicine, new prophylactic measures and a growth in the number of medical workers will provide an even higher standard of medical care for the whole of the population and in the the first place for children, who are surrounded with solicitude by the Government and by the whole of the people. === [PDF page 81] === 72 Legislation State practise this brutal operation which is so dangerous to health, SUDAN Information from the Sudanese Women’s Union The Sudanese Women’s Union deals with the difficult soeial conditions Sudanese women who are kept in ignorance and superstition. Almost all them are illiterate and’they are weighed down by the ancient customs whidi are deeply rooted in the people in this vast country. In the family the woman is completely subjected to the man, because the Islamic law authorises polygamy and divorce at the whim of the man. Because of the social situation, women do not work and are confined to the home, especially in the towns. As far as children are concerned, women have not even the most elementary idea of medicine and hygiene, and the lack of schools results in many children receiving no education. These things have grave repercussions on their moral and physical health. One serious problem affecting motherhood is the custom of female circum: cision. Female circumcision constitutes in itself a very great problem, for this very painful operation performed on girls of six years leads to great suffering in adolescence, on marriage and in child-birth. Circumcision is a custom deeply rooted in the country and a very energetic campaign is necessary to bring it to an end. In 1940 the Sudanese Government promulgated a law according to which midwives practising female circumcision are liable to imprisonment. But this law is not effective as the govern ment does not see that it is applied. Many midwives employed by the without being punished. Women workers have the right according to the Terms of Service Commission, to 28 days maternity leave, either before or after birth. But these decisions have never yet been applied and there are no plans for putting them into practice. Generally mothers have from 10 to 15 days leave, which is insufficient. During pregnancy they work six hours a day. After the confinement, regardless of the baby’s needs, they have to resume their normal working day, The children are left alone because there are no kindergartens to look after them while their mother works. Moreover, mothers receive no assistance in bringing up their children. On the contrary if a worker marries she loses her permanent job and has to be content with a temporary one, and therefore receives no retirement pension, for only women who have worked for at least five years without interruption have a right to this. This privilege is therefore void. As child marriage is common in the Sudan, few women work for five years without interruption. In the Sudan, which has an area of 8 million square kilometres and a population of more than 10 million, there are only 26 health centres, 6 midwifery === [PDF page 82] === training schools and 547 midwives. Most confinements take place at home, with primitive methods and with untrained women. There is only one maternity hospital, and this is restricted to women who can afford the heavy expense of £ 15 per week. The Sudanese Women’s Union concludes its reports with an outline of the activities of the organisation towards the solution of these problems.* SWEDEN Contribution of Miss Ingalill Andersso For about 25 years there has been a law on the protection of motherhood in Sweden. There is also the possibility for additional agreements between the employers and workers and their organisations to make further improvements. At the end of the 1930's following a great fall in the birthrate in Sweden (since the 1920’s) the authorities and organisations started to take an interest in this alarming situation and serious efforts were made to increase the birthrate. Various proposals were made so that better protection for families and children would be introduced, as well as demands for a just division of the costs of bringing up and educating children, since a family with children has more expenses than childless families or people on their own. During the war many more women were drawn into work and improvements in the law were achieved concerning working hours, labour protection, the building of creches and health protection. After 1945 a number of laws and improvements in existing laws were adopted for the protection of mother and child. The progressive development of these laws continued quite satisfactorily until 1948. Then social progress was hampered, armaments budgets as well as the cost of living rose continually. In 1957 some measures were taken which proved helpful to mothers, according to which a woman worker who has been employed in the same job ' for over one year cannot be dismissed because of pregnancy. She has the right to take up her job again if she has not been absent from work for longer than six months before and after the birth of the baby. An employer cannot refuse to allow a pregnant woman to take six weeks off before and six weeks after the confinement. It is forbidden by law to allow a woman to work for six weeks after the confinement, so it is possible for a woman to have a total leave of Legislation 1 see chapter: “Activities of the Women’s Movement“ 73 === [PDF page 83] === . Woman must have worked for 270 days before her confinement in order t Medical and Social Protection are supplied by doctors, nurses and midwives. In the advisory centres 74 twelve weeks. If she is nursing her child she has the right to have time off nursing. The employer is not obliged to pay her any compensation for loss | wages during the maternity leave and the nursing period. Civil servants a employees are paid their full wages or part of their wages during maternit leave and it is also possible for them to obtain longer periods of leave. 7 Under the law on sick benefit, which was passed in 1955, maternity care home or in hospital is free of charge as is medical care during pregnancy. Unde the health insurance every Swedish citizen is entitled to three crowns per day case of illness. A worker receives more, based on his earnings. On an average worker receives two thirds of his net wages when he is ill. However, a preg qualify for increased health insurance. The basic rate of three crowns per aj is paid to every woman for a period of ninety days. Further state aid also exists, namely, maternity aid which is only paid to especially needy mothers. This s is paid to the mother after the confinement and she cannot dispose of the mo as she likes, but must buy clothes for the child with it, or must keep it for future dental treatment. In the towns and in the countryside of Sweden, medical service for mother and child expectant mothers are examined and treated. Cons tions, treatment, medical examinations and medicines are provided free of ch to mothers and babies. Medical consultation in the centres for children is a free. The children are given regular examinations and preventive vaccinations. Mothers are advised in cases of psychiatric disorders in their children. These institutions are of particular importance for mothers and children in the United Nations as advisors in the setting up of services of this typ Despite this social progress in Sweden, much has still to be done. Frequently, the advisory centres have too large an area to look after and so the personnel i not in a position to give all their patients the care that they should have. It intended now to extend the network of advisory centres for psychiatric treatmen for children and youth. In Sweden, an abortion can be carried out if agreed by a state panel of doctors. Such agreement is given if the life of the woman i likely to be endangered by bearing a child or if the child is liable to contract a dangerous disease from its parents, or if the social situation of the mother is so bad that the birth of a child would worsen her mental or physical state. Abortion is agreed to in about 6,000 cases annually, but unfortunately about twice as many as that, that is about 12,000 women go to quack doctors in order to have abortions. In order to remedy this situation the state subsidises centres to advise and help women who do not wish to have children. There are homes for young pregnant unmarried women who are without any protection from thei === [PDF page 84] === a ee ‘amily. They can stay in these homes during the last weeks before their confinenent and for the first few months after it. When the child is somewhat bigger, then the mother can look for work and put the child in a creche. These homes, like the creches and kindergartens, mean a great deal to Swedish women, especially to working women. The Swedish section of the W.I.D.F. is working in various parts of the country with the object of getting more of these institutions set up. The law on this point is very good and local authorities can apply for state allocations in order to build new creches and kindergartens. But up till now there has not been enough money for all and there is a shortage of places for the children. In order to help families with children and to spread out the costs of bringing up children an allowance is paid to every child under 16 years of age. This sum is 290 crowns per year and in 1958 it will be increased to 400 crowns per year. The money is paid to the mother and is free from taxation. This allowance is of great help to families with a low income: Families or single persons with children living in homes built after 1942 are given a grant for rent if their income is below a certain level. But further improvements must be made. For instance, it is necessary to raise the level of family allowances and to provide more facilities for single mothers: mothers should be given a longer period of time off after the confinement and should not be forced by economic necessity to go out to work. In addition, mothers should have the possibility of working part-time. SYRIA Contribution of Madame Najah Saaty Sibai Some years after the proclamation of the independence of Measures for the Syria, and as a result of the struggles of the people, a law was _Pretection of motherhood?:. and their application promulgated on the protection of motherhood and social security. This law provides women who work in State bodies with: 1. medical care, i.e. free consultations, medicines and hospital treatment. 2. paid sick leave. 3. free confinements. | But in the factories, this law which, among other things, obliges every enter- ( prise to have a doctor, is often infringed by the employers. | The medical care given to the working woman, the peasant woman, the house- | wife, the nomad mother or the resident mother is not satisfactory. In the countryside doctors are rare and there is not a single hospital. 75 === [PDF page 85] === hamnaee to poor children, but very few benefit from this because the S for mother and child does not give sufficient material help to these groups. We have 76 A woman is not helped in childbirth by a certificated midwife but by a fri or by an old woman who has learnt the work by tradition. The government of Syria has promulgated a law obliging all newly doctors (since 1957) to practice in the countryside for two years, and this help to improve the medical care given not only to mothers but also to population as a whole. Often women who have a difficult confinement have to go to the town; that to say they have to make a journey of 60 to 150 kilometres sometimes in vehicle drawn by draught animals or on the back of an animal, and often die on the way. We have assocations which are concerned with distributing certain number of creches which do not, however, fulfil the of the population. Working women, whose wages are very low, cannot pay f their children to be looked after in a creche or kindergaten, but have to | them somewhere, either with the grandmother or with relations. In the count side, most mothers take their children to the fields where they work under scorching sun. That is why the infant mortality rate is much higher in the count side than in the towns. The Ministry of Health is arranging for films to shown in the villages with the object of imbuing the women with hygienic id but this however is not enough. Women civil servants have the right to an allowance for each child, but if the husband is also a civil servant only one of the two benefits from it. We have a good labour law which is applied by State bodies although it is often violated by private enterprises. But imperialism does not give the people the necessary time in which to arrange its internal affairs. It forces them to concern themselves with grave political problems and to be constantly on the look-out against plots for a military coup d'etat. That is why it is very important for Syrian women to struggle for the maintenance of peace in the world whi is the best guarantee of an improvement. in the living conditions of mother and child. It is not sufficient to promulgate a law; it is necessary to see that it is applied. === [PDF page 86] === VIET NAM Information from Madame Phan Thi An During the French domination our people were oppressed and exploited by the colonialists and were a prey to poverty and every disease. Although the colonialists started general and maternity hospitals, these were only very few and were only in the towns (often one hospital for a whole town or even a province). The Government of the Democratic Republic of Viet Nam has made Legislation great efforts to create and develop institutions for medical assistance for the benefit of the people and to carry out the work of protecting mother and child which is always taken into consideration. With the aim of protecting the health of women as workers and mothers, and that of children, the government has promulgated a series of legislative measures: - Pregnant women or mothers nursing a baby of under 6 months are forbidden to do overtime or night work. — Women workers are excused from heavy work or from being out in bad weather. In these cases they can be transferred to lighter work or if this is impossible their production quota should be reduced by half. — During menstruation they can, on medical advice, rest for several days if this is necessary, while still receiving their full salary. An expectant mother in the administration or in State enterprises has the right to absent herself from work three times during her pregnancy for free medical consultations. These hours do not count as part of the regular annual holiday. It is strictly forbidden to employ pregnant women in work on construction sites. In principle, all employees of the State receive maternity leave of two months (one month before and one month after confinement) with full salary, and they also receive a maternity allowance. When twins or triplets are born the allowance is doubled or tripled. Employees of the State who have been engaged for a period of less than a year, or even for a season, after they have worked for 6 months have the right to one month’s maternity leave on full pay, plus the cost of living allowance for the zone in which they work. Workers employed by: the day or by the job receive maternity leave of two months on full salary. In the event of a still birth the mother also receives all the rights mentioned above (leave, allowance). In the event of a miscarriage the woman has the right to 10 to 15 days leave, the length being decided by the doctor or the administrative office. In the case === [PDF page 87] === 78 of sickness she enjoys the same benefits as other sick persons. In the event ¢ premature confinement, she receives leave with pay of 25 days (plus the cost living allowance in the zone). F8r one year after the birth of the child, the mother has the right to on hour’s break per day to feed her child (half an hour for each feeding). If she hi twins, she has the right to 2 hours. When the mother cannot feed her chil herself, she receives on the advice of a doctor a monthly allowance for one yet These hours are not part of the normal annual'holiday. Nurseries are provided for children of under three years during working hou so that employees of the State who have a young child and who live in a com nity can go to work. The building, the equipment and the nurses are paid ft by the State. Kindergartens for children of three to seven years whose mothe occupy important posts in the various government services are also subsidised the State. These measures on the workjng conditions for women and maternity allowani have been strictly applied. The system of maternity allowances has already come into force but tl complexity of the problems which have arisen in its application, due to th different allowances which fall into several categories, has made the Governmen reconsider it with a view to making it simpler. While in 1939 (under colonial domination) there were only 47 clinics hospitals and 15 dispensaries in the whole country, in North Viet Nam the are at present 167 clinics and hospitals, 305 dispensaries and 303 medica services in the chief towns in the districts and provinces. Maternity hospitals are increasing with great rapidity. At present there ar 207 maternity hospitals in the cities and chief towns in the districts, and in thi countryside. There are also some in many villages. State enterprises (factories, mines) have maternity hospitals and clinics fo women. In the mining district of Hongay, a small maternity home for womer who cannot reach the principal maternity hospital of the district in time i attached to each clinic in the sub-districts. 72 gynaecologists, 27 pediatrists and 489 midwives of the first and secon classes circulate among the general and maternity hospitals of the cities an chief towns of provinces and districts. In the countryside there are 5,197 midwi who have received elementary training in the village maternity hospitals. Although the work carried out for the protection of mother and child does n yet meet the great needs of the people adequately because of the prese economic difficulties in our country, the results obtained bear witness to th efforts made for the protection of mother and child. It is due to these efforts and to the determination of our government that 4 present the living conditions and health of our mothers and children has improve === [PDF page 88] === YUGOSLAVIA Contribution of Dr. Alexandra Duranovic-Janda In Yugoslavia, the Constitution determines the fundamental attitude in regard to the status, place and role of women in society. This was approved in January, 1946, and the special article devoted to women reads as follows: “Women have equal rights with men in all spheres of life in the State, in economic, political and social life.” “For equal work women have the right to equal pay with men and to special protection in labour relationships.” “The State gives special protection to mothers and children by setting up maternity hospitals, creches and kindergartens and paid maternity leave.” The laws on health protection for mother and child state that all pregnant women and new mothers, all children under three years, as well as persons suffering from tuberculosis, cancer, venereal diseases, infectious or mental diseases have the right to complete health protection free of charge, including medicines and hospital expenses, without regard to their origin, income or occupation. During 1954, 55.6 per cent of the women had medical care at their confinements, 32.7 per cent of the pregnant women and 46.5 per cent of the children under 7 years received health care at the women and children’s clinics. Two points must be taken into account when we consider the legislation on the protection of working women and mothers in Yugoslavia. — that the right of women to equal pay for equal work is applied consistently. — that legislation for protection applies to all women workers, regardless of occupation or type of work. Although in a different manner, professional women are also protected by social insurance contracts. Expectant mothers whose usual type of work is likely to endanger their health have the right, on the advice of a doctor, to be employed on easier work. | A woman who is six months pregnant cannot have her work changed, cannot | be dismissed, nor be transferred to work away from where she lives. Moreover, | overtime and night work are absolutely forbidden for expectant and nursing mothers. All working mothers receive 12 weeks maternity leave, 3 weeks of which must be taken before the confinement. They also have the right to take their normal annual holiday at this time which if they have worked for 11 months without interruption, is from 14 days to 1 month for all workers. During the time a mother is nursing her child, that is for 6 to 8 months at most, she has reduced working hours (4 hours). For the whole of this period a 79 === [PDF page 89] === working woman receives full pay, part of it paid by social insurance, and the enterprise pays only for the 4 hours work she actually does. To receive full pay she must have worked for 6 consecutive months without interruption during * the preceeding two years. Women who have worked for less than six months receive only 80 per cent of their normal pay. A lump sum of 8,000 dinars for the layette of the baby, and a family allowance of 3,000 dinars monthly for the first child, 2,500 for the second, and a smaller sum for each subsequent child are paid to parents who benefit from social insurance., A mother has the right to 7 day’s leave which may be prolonged to 15 days or to a month in exceptional cases on the advice of a committee of doctors, to look after a sick child. Other facilities are provided. A working mother who has no one at home to care for her child, may be allowed on request to work half time (4 hours) until her child is three months old and to retain all the rights guaranteed in the work contract and by social insurance. In this case the mother receives pay in accordance with the work she does. Moreover, it is forbidden to employ women on work harmful to their health or which demands a physical effort unsuitable to the female constitution. Lastly, women workers have the right to retire at the age of 50 or after 30 years service, while the limits for men are an additional five years. Yugoslavia has ratified or accepted all the conventions and recommendations of ILO on the protection of women. The national laws ensure their application in broader terms than those laid down by the international conventions and recommendations. Yet the protection of mothers and women who work (the number of women workers was 630,000 in 1957, that is 26.5 per cent of the working population) requires considerable efforts to overcome all difficulties and to effectively apply the basic laws of the land. Dr Alexandra Duranovic Janda next pointed out that in examining the problem of the protection of motherhood in Yugoslavia and other countries several aspects must be taken into consideration: The legislation in force, the degree of social evolution in the country, its economic basis, the level of its productive forces, its level of culture, etc. She stressed that the building of socialism in Yugoslavia has demanded and still demands specific solutions, especially in the organisation and administration of the social services. (The first part of an analysis of some experiences in this field is to be found under “Activities of the Women’s Movement — Yugoslavia”). For some years there have been consultation centres for marriage problems in the big towns. These have aroused great interest, but in many cases it is difficult === [PDF page 90] === ver eo tei te Advisers iedieal centres elp mothers === [PDF page 91] === | More medical and social assistance! === [PDF page 92] === Science can transform suffering into joy in childbirth without pain or fear === [PDF page 93] === In Central Congo, mothers are discussing their rights; (on the left) their delegate to the World Congress of Mothers’ Activities of women’s organisations An advisory medical centre organised by the National Federation of Indian Women === [PDF page 94] === to retain these centres due to lack of qualified staff. Another problem is that of caring for children when the mother or both parents work. In the years following the war, when the country was being industrialised rapidly and the economic administration was being centralised, important measures were taken by the State for setting up and maintaining institutions for children, especially in places of work. The expenses of these institutions were very high (the upkeep of a child represented twice the minimum wage of a worker). As all children are not placed in these establishments only some families benefited from these grants, which were paid for by the community. Moreover, parents began to think that the State alone should undertake the care of their children. In the period which followed, when power was decentralised, when the economy became more liberal and when local autonomy was consolidated, children’s institutions had to undergo certain modifications. The running of these institutions was entrusted to a “ Commune” of parents, teachers and specialists on social questions. This management “Commune” and the parents or guardians of the children shared in the expenses of the institutions: the commune bore the expenses of administration and paid the salaries of the teaching and medical staff; parents contributed to the cost of food and maintenance according to their income. As a result of this procedure the number of institutions became less. But the positive fact is that the local economic bodies responsible for the application of the law have sought new forms of child protection. The network of school kitchens and. dairies, services for the provision of food for children, convalescent homes, recreation centres, clubs and social and preventive health protection has been widely developed and extended to a great number of children. Dr. Duranovic Janda stated that the development of the protection of motherhood in her country is based on the following principles: “The family is a fundamental cell of social life and has a very important function in the development of a better and happier life, in particular in the education of children and of the younger generation”: The State must not regulate all social relationships and itself alone undertake the care of children: The “administration of social life must be placed in the hands of an ever growing number of citizens by developing initiative to seek and realise new forms of organisation”. She illustrated some aspects of this problem: The solution of certain common questions (social and family) must be regulated by the principle of pooling the social and family resources, by new forms of associations and an administration to be called “ Communities of tenants”, which is a grouping of families living in one place. The Tenants Community helps to undertake services such as mechanical laundries, central kitchens, care in the home for sick persons, recreation grounds 81 === [PDF page 95] === 82 and centres, care of children, shopping, which make the daily lives of the familie easier, in particular when both parents work. The financial resources of services come from a part of the rents which are placed at the disposal of housing management council (tenants’ council), To this the donations of commune and the possibility of obtaining credits is added. In the local authorities or communes there also exist Councils for Social Protection of the Family which, with the voluntary participation of citizens and specialists in social and occupational problems, seek solutions to the various problems connected with family life. More and more attention is being given to the education of parents on the initiative of the social organisations, because of the importance of the role played by parents in the education of their children. Courses, lectures and evening classes are held for parents, who follow them with great interest. The mai difficulty is how to help the working mother with a child of under 7 years. There is still much to be done on this problem, for instance the possibility of reduci working hours must be considered. Great attention is also given to the development of social services in the enterprises. Workers’ restaurants to distribute meals to households, automatic laundries, the working together of enterprises and communes to care for children whose parents both work (measures introduced by workers’ councils) are still being developed. === [PDF page 96] === CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY DAYS (EXTRACTS) he findings of the Study Days show that the provisions laid down in I.L.O. Convention 103 and further in Recommendation 95 embody the principles and contain the miniumum requirements for the pre-natal, confinement and _postnatal care of mother and child. Therefore, the Seminar recommends that primary attention must be given to securing the ratification of these documents, to the incorporation of their provisions into national law and to bringing about their implementation in every country. It further recommends that the provisions of Convention 103 be extended to the millions of women working in agriculture. The Seminar further recommends, as a minimum need, the provision both in cities and in rural areas of Medical Consultative Centres which would provide adequate medical attention for mother and child; compulsory examination of pregnant women; training of visiting nurses, midwives and doctors for mother and child in rural areas; satisfactory supplies of suitable vaccines for inoculation against infectious diseases; dissemination of knowledge in popular form on hygiene and sex education: advice on nutrition, health and child upbringing. The participants in the Seminar further recommend that knowledge about the provisions and extent of existing laws be made widely known among women; that closer working relationships be established with experts, social workers, doctors, lawyers, etc., to secure their help in formulating drafts of laws and amendments, and in clarifying the meaning of existing laws. Such co-operation can help women to protect themselves against evasions and violations of the laws, and from all forms of discrimination at work and in the family, The participants insisted that it was necessary to impose penalties upon all those who violated the law. The participants heard reports of the difficulties facing mothers and especially working women with family responsibilities who urgently need the help of society to provide facilities that will protect the moral and physical health of 83 === [PDF page 97] === their children. In some countries there are no provisions for creches, nurseries and after-school care of children, while in others the cost is prohibitive. It was shown that as a consequence of this children are exposed to accidents, illnesses and the bad influences of the street, causing anxiety to the mother. The Study Days recommend that creches and nurseries, playgrounds and leisure and recreational facilities should be established in greater number so that children may be looked after in healthy and safe conditions. Creches and nurseries should be located with due regard to the convenience of mother and child and should be under the direction and supervision of competent bodies. We recommend that the Women’s International Democratic Federation seek further co-operation with trade unions and other organisations and institutions concerned with the abolition of child labour. The Study Days recommend that their findings should be made known to the United Nations agencies: I.L.0., W.H.O., U.N.E.S.C.O.; women’s organisations and social institutions, for consideration and action. Most of. the participants in these Study Days emphasized the terrible waste of vast resources on the production of armaments, in the conducting of A- and H-bomb experiments and urged, in the name of humanity, that these resources should be used instead to meet the social needs of the peoples of the world. For it is only in a world where peace and justice prevail for all peoples that social well-being can be secured. === [PDF page 98] === Activities of the Women’s Movement ‘his chapter offers some examples which are characteristic of the activities of a number of women’s organisations. These activities are varied, depending upon the development of the country and its political and economic structure, etc. In some countries as the result of continuous struggles by women, the protection of motherhood has existed for years as an important part of the legislation. In other countries this problem is still one of the main demands of the women’s and trade union organisations. Yet again, in others, after decisive changes in the political and social structure of society, women’s organisations are collaborating closely with the government to put legislation into effect, while at the same time conducting broad educational work among the mass of women. The delegates at the Study Days stressed that the importance of a law is not only in its adoption, but the way in which it is applied. The important part played by the women’s organisations is shown by the following experiences. AUSTRIA The Democratic Union of Austrian Women carries out educational work in advisory centres sct up for this purpose; it issues leaflets and organizes discussions to inform the women about their legal rights. For years the Democratic Union of Austrian Women insisted on the passing of a new law on the protection of motherhood. In fact, some of the clauses now included in the new law, which was adopted in March, 1957, were originally proposed by them. For example the clauses on unpaid extended maternity leave and the right of mothers to collect the children’s allowances. The latter clause was obtained after a great } campaign conducted by the Democratic Union of Austrian Women. 85 j === [PDF page 99] === 86 FINLAND In the recent period the economic situation of Finland has grown worse. There has been a continual outcry about money shortage and the crisis in state finances as an excuse for worsening the conditions of the people and for attacking their social rights. The active struggle of the workers and especially women and mothers in defence of their rights has resulted in defeat after defeat for the government. Especially heated was the campaign for the defence of family allowances im 1957. At the beginning of that year the government proposed that, of the family allowance, which is now 1,200 FM per child, per month, it should be obligatory for one quarter to be drawn by the child at the age of 17. The mothers, who according to the law are entitled to draw the family allowances, considered this as an attack on their rights and fought against it. 4 The Women’s Democratic League in Finland led the struggle which called on and organised women and mothers in defence of their rights and the rights of their children. Over 20,000 signatures were collected, several deputations from all parts of the country came to see the government and the Parliament, thousands of postcards and letters of protest were sent in and two big demonstrations outside the parliament building were held. The result was that the government suffered defeat in Parliament on four different proposals aimed at undermining the law on family allowances. In this struggle the parliamentary fraction of the Peoples Democrats played a decisive and honourable role. In connection with the efforts to undermine the law on family allowances the government also sought to worsen the law on maternity benefits. According to this law, at birth mothers receive 4,500 FM in cash and clothes for the child. The government proposed that this benefit should be paid to only one third of the mothers. Against this proposal too, the mothers took up the fight under the leadership of the Women’s Democratic League in Finland, and it resulted in defeat for the government proposals. The Government was also defeated in its efforts to cut the assistance of families with four children in difficult circumstances. They tried to raise the number of children to six and thus to decrease the number of families receiving assistance by two-thirds. In 1957 the women turned to the Nordic Council on the question of equal pay for equal work and simultaneously they pointed out that it would be necessary _ to have a law established in Finland on paid maternity leave by speeding up the ratification of the ILO Convention No. 103. Paid maternity leave now exists for women only in government or communal service. The majority of mothers still lack paid maternity leave and for this reason the struggle must continue. === [PDF page 100] === FRANCE The Commission on Children and Social Activities, set up by the Vth Congress of the Union of French Women, has consistently conducted activities in defence of children and the family. It has helped women to act together to improve the Social Security System and Family Allowances, and makes demands against low wages, bad and insanitary housing, the shortage of schools and the high cost of living. At the beginning of 1956 and in November 1957 this commission organised a Housing Conference which was held in Paris and in various departments. Delegations to these sessions called on the Minister of Reconstruction and presented him with a Memorandum on Bad Housing expressing the concern of the people and their determination to obtain decent homes. The Housing Problem was examined at the VIth Congress of the Union of French Women which was held in May 1957, and showed that French women have carried out activities in more than 71 departments for an additional one month’s payment to the existing Family Allowance. Many administrative councils of the Family Allowance Offices and municipal councils declared their approval of this demand. A campaign for an increase of 20% in the family allowances has also been conducted throughout the whole of France. At the VIth Congress the following social programme was adopted: Higher wages, increased family allowance, support to and improvement of the whole system of social security and family allowance and an increase in the social security and family allowances to agricultural workers and artisans. The Conference in Defence of Women’s Rights made a detailed examination of a whole series of questions relating to women’s work. It proposed: better security and hygienic conditions at work for everyone, especially for mothers-to-be. The Conference also proposed improvements in social services for working women, The Conference also proposed improvements in social services for working mothers, such as a home help service, family help, a home nursing scheme, collective laundries and repair centres, school canteens, day nurseries, creches (at present there are 17,000 places available in 43 creches), holiday camps, play centres, and baby sitters. One of the social activities of the UFW has been the widespread popularisation of the method of painless childbirth, which won support among all sections of the population, Now this method is applied in most of the maternity homes, hospitals and clinics in Paris. A pamphlet published by the Union of French Women states: “In Paris at the Metal Workers Clinic 82% of the results have been satisfactory since the first confinement on March 28th, 1952. More than 87 === [PDF page 101] === 88 2,000 doctors and midwives from France and other parts of the world have come to Paris to study this method. Large sums have been set aside by the Paris City Council to equip maternity clinics belonging to the public health service — 16 million francs in 1954 and 30 million in 1955. ITALY Before 1950 there was no law protecting working mothers. It is due to the democratic women’s movement and the trade union movement that a law guaranteeing adequate physical and economic protection for a large number of working mothers has been in force since 1950. The first bill on this subject was introduced in parliament by Teresa Noce, leader of the Textile Trade Union. The Trade Unions and the Union of Italian Women conducted broad campaigns in its support. Hundreds of thousands of signatures were collected and numerous delegations called on the parliamentary commission responsible for formulating this law. Since the law was adopted, activities continue to make it known to women workers so that they can help in securing its application. Widespread campaigns have been carried on for some years in order to extend the benefits of the law to women workers who are at present excluded. Several draft laws on this point have been presented by members of parliament who are also leaders of the Union of Italian Women. Women workers are also demanding the setting up of creches and day nurseries. Agricultural seasonal workers won their demand to have a number of nurseries set up during the season. In some industrial undertakings the women succeeded in obtaining money compensation for the lack of creches. The magazine ‘Noi Donne’ has conducted an enquiry into the conditions of confinement among Italian women. A large number of women have described their experiences. Well-known women and specialised agencies made proposals to eliminate the difficulties of confinement throughout the country, such as increasing the number of midwives, providing the necessary medical supplies and instruments which would enable them to carry out their job properly. The survey showed the need of larger numbers of ambulances, more beds in hospitals and greater obstetric and gynaecological consultation services especially in the most backward areas. They also agreed to the need for greater assistance to young unmarried mothers by finding work for them after the confinement and by setting up hostels. The Union of Italian Women organised a special campaign to apply the method of painless childbirth on a large scale in Italy. A draft law was presented in 1956 stipulating that this method be taught in the Universities of Gynaecology and the Midwives’ Institutes. === [PDF page 102] === GREAT BRITAIN The National Assembly of Women recently conducted an enquiry in the course of which it collected a large amount of information through group discussions, talks with doctors, health visitors and midwives, through door to door discussions in many localities, letters and answers to questionnaires. On the basis of their information a report was drawn up and sent to the Committee of Enquiry into the Maternity Services run by the government. It includes the following proposals: That some method be found of ensuring that the pregnancy of each woman is followed through to childbirth and after by the same medical and nursing personnel. Clinics should be opened together with day nurseries and play centres, so that mothers can leave their children there during hours of consultations. Relaxation classes and education talks available to all, training for all nursing staff in methods of relaxation at childbirth. Sufficient maternity beds and domiciliary midwives, so that mothers can choose where they ‘will be confined. Attention to be focussed on painless childbirth and the lessening through this method of post-natal complications. Post-natal convalescent homes for mothers who need them. An adequate home help service at a reasonable charge to the parent, to operate during the confinement whether domiciliary or hospital, with an option to be continued until mother is able to cope with the tremendous demands of the family. Removal of purchase tax from all necessitous goods; (inclusion of first child for family allowance.) Under Conditions of Equality In the countries where absolute equality of women in all spheres of social life is an established fact in law and in practice, the reports of the women’s organisations stress that the protection of mother and child and social security i are a responsibility assumed by the State and Society. Women are playing an active part in both drafting and carrying out these laws, by suggestions and amendments. Proposed legislation is discussed by women at thousands of meetings before being introduced and their suggestions, advice and opinions are taken into consideration in drafting the final clauses of the law. The women are very attentive in seeing that the laws are strictly applied by all institutions and in all places of work. 89 === [PDF page 103] === 90 The organisations report that economic ‘development is accompanied by an increase in material and cultural needs of the people and thus constantly raises new problems, especially in countries which prior to 1945 were backward. — Consequently, the most important tasks of the women’s organisations and women’s committees in these countries is to make known to women their rights, their duties and the relationship between the possibilities of satisfying their growing needs and the economic advances and development of the country. Countless interesting examples show the different methods used by the different countries and demonstrate the extent to which women who are free of discrimination have become rapidly aware of their role in helping to solve their problems. CZECHOSLOVAKIA A special commission of the Committee of Czechoslovakian Women is systematically studying the problems of working women. In preparation for the Women’s Congress in 1956, a commission composed of members of mass organisations, ministries and other institutions was set up on the initiative of the Women’s Committee. As its work produced useful results in preparation for the Congress, it was made into a permanent commission, which together with the Women’s Committee studies the problems of women and examines their experiences and opinions. Basing itself on these studies, the Women’s Committee submits to the government and to the competent authorities proposals for the improvement of the conditions of working women and their children. Czechoslovakian women also see to it that all regulations in favour of — mothers and children are respected. YUGOSLAVIA Social, trade union and women’s organisations play an important part in the drawing up and putting into practice of all regulations for the protection of women and mothers. In Yugoslavia it is considered that the protection of motherhood begins with the preparation of young people for married life. For the education of women in the countryside the Yugoslav Red Cross holds regular courses on health, for 5 month periods during two winter seasons when there is less work in the fields. These courses give special attention to personal and general hygiene, to child welfare and feeding. In addition, certain courses === [PDF page 104] === are devoted to conjugal relations, the education of children etc. 500,000 girls have attended the course and have been passing on their knowledge to the members of their families. They furthermore undertake social activities especially in the sphere of child care. As quite a large number of women factory workers come from the countryside, short courses on a similar line have been held in these enterprises, Lectures are also arranged on legislation relating to the protection of women workers, on the rights of the family and on all the general problems concerning women. These are intended to acquaint them with their rights and to help the enterprise take such measures as would make provision of places of personal hygiene for women, proper food, washbasins etc. VIET NAM The Public Health Services and the Union of Viet Namese Women are collaborating closely in order to provide medical and social assistance. Their activities cover: 1. To establish and develop institutions for medical assistance (hospitals, maternity homes, consultation centres) as well as the training of doctors, nurses, midwives, etc. 2. To popularise the principles of hygiene and preventive methods which help mother and child. The Union of Viet Namese Women pays special attention to the organising of mutual help groups for lying-in mothers and mothers in the countryside. The basic organisation of the Health Service arranges two campaigns every year in every village and hamlet, to popularise and apply preventive measures. Anti-smallpox vaccination campaigns and anti-cholera campaigns are carried out every year. In the work of imparting hygiene knowledge to women, the Public Health Services and the Union of Viet Namese Women have published a number of pamphlets directed especially to country women, explaining the methods of hygiene practice for a woman and a mother-to-be, as well as the care of the newly-born. The journal “Applied Medicine” issued by the Public Health Service, and the Viet Namese Women’s Journal, regularly publish articles on health protection for mother and child. Mutual help groups for mothers lying-in are organised by the Union of Viet Namese Women to help the mothers by carrying on with their household duties and by continuing to perform the work which they have had to interrupt because === [PDF page 105] === of their confinement. These groups exist in every village and hamlet and do great service in the countryside. In co-operation with the Peasants’ Association the Union of Women has organised mutual aid groups to look after children, thus enabling their mothers to take part in the work in the fields. These groups guarantee that the young children are looked after and at the same time that the number of hands in the fields is increased, which is so necessary for the development of agricultural production. In many Asian countries the main problem is the inadequate medical facilities for pre-natal and post-natal care. In spite of the efforts made by some countries since winning their independence, this problem remains grave, as can be seen from the following facts. In Indonesia there was only one doctor per 60,000 in 1957, despite some progress, In India, 400,000 trained nurses and 400,000 midwives are needed. Despite progress made in recent years there are still only approximately 22,386 nurses and 26,832 midwives for a population of 350 million. In some Asian countries protective laws exist but they do not always cover every category of women nor are they always applied. Women’s organisations pay great attention to this problem. They organise activities to place demands before the governments. They also help the governments and social agencies to extend health services for mother and child. They also work for the implementation of existing laws. INDIA The National Federation of Indian Woman, in its first conference held in Calcutta in 1954, adopted a resolution demanding one maternity centre per 10,000 inhabitants. In all states where the N.F.I.W. has local organisations, signatures were collected in support of this demand. At the end of 1955 an all-India Day was observed at which time the demand for maternity homes was taken to local, provincial and central authorities by mass deputations of women. In addition the N.F.I.W. units, in many places helped the government materially in order to start maternity welfare centres and hospitals. In the state of Andhra, (after mass signature collections and mass deputations of women) the government agreed to establish three such centres; in Penamburu, Peranki and Indupalle. In === [PDF page 106] === Penamaluri, the Mahila Sangham (affiliated to the N.F.I.W.) collected Rs. 55,000 for the construction of the buildings of the maternity hospital and contributed Rs. 2,000 each year towards its maintenance. Such efforts were made by organisations of several other states. Together with working mothers, the Mangalore Stree Seva Samity (affiliated to the N.F.I.W.) started a creche for cashew nut workers with the help of financial grants from the Social Welfare Board which is a semi-government organisation in charge of financing the social welfare work by the government of India. The Loke Istri Sabha of the Punjab organised a medical conference in Chekarta (a working class area near Amritsar) which was attended by 1,000 men and women including doctors and other medical personnel. The conference demanded a Family Planning Centre, pre-natal centre and extension of medical insurance for workers. In several cities such as Amritsar, Hyderabad, Patna, Delhi and many areas of West Bengal, the N.F.I.W. sections run centres for free distribution of milk to expectant and nursing mothers and infants. JAPAN A general conference of women workers took place for the first time in 1956. Women belonging to various organisations from various parts of Japan met and discussed the conditions of work, women’s rights, protection of motherhood, problems of children, etc. In April 1957, another conference of 1,700 women delegates discussed the same problems and considered ways of strengthening and advancing the women’s movement. They called for protection of the rights of working women and for protection of motherhood. The Japanese Teacher’s Union in its annual report of 1955 complained very bitterly that according to a survey of women teachers who had given birth during the academic year of 1953-54, 19% had no leave at all before the delivery and 44% had only one week. Therefore they showed that abnormal deliveries are a very high percentage of the total (34%). As a result of widespread activities carried out by women of different categories, the women teachers have succeeded in securing legislation establishing a system of enlisting “substitute Teachers” during maternity leave. Demands for more nurseries, for mother’s homes are taken up by many women’s organisations. The Japanese delegate to the W.I.D.F. Council meeting in 1957 reported that the slogan “‘use remilitarisation budgets for social security” has now become one of the strongest cries heard throughout the country. === [PDF page 107] === 94 INDONESIA Tn Indonesia women workers and employees are entitled by law to three months — maternity leave( i.e. one and a half months before and after confinement). But this law is only applied in government enterprises. The Indonesian Women’s Movement (Gerwani) which has about 660,000 members, together with other organisations demand that this law be put into effect in all enterprises and that violation of this law be punishable by the government. It has held local and district conferences where resolutions were adopted and together with delegatioas presented the demand to the Ministry of Labour, to Parliament and to the President. CEYLON In Ceylon, the Mathar Sangam (Women’s Committee of the Democratic Workers’ Congress of Ceylon, a trade union of plantation workers) took up the issue of maternity benefit for women workers in rubber, tea and cocoa plantations. The Mathar Sangam brings this issue to the women and also wages an active struggle for the realisation of better facilities. Until August, 1957, the women — workers in the plantations got only a miserable sum as maternity benefit. In August, 1957, the Mathar Sangam took a deputation to employers and pressed for a maternity benefit of at least Rs. 120. With the active support of the entire trade union movement they succeeded in making the employers pay Rs. 79, as a compromise while continuing to campaign for the realisation of their full demand. They also demand light work for pregnant women without a cut in their wages, and have succeeded in several plantations. In Africa the struggle of the people is directed against discrimination and racial segregation, for national independence as a fundamental condition for all social progress. The African trade unions have succeeded in winning Labour Codes in colonies in 1952, which included family allowance. But racial discrimination still exists in the application of the laws on soci security. In French Equatorial Africa, in the Cameroons, and in French Wi Africa, only European workers receive these allowances. In the Belgian C and in South Africa, family allowances and old age pensions are provided, only one fifth of the native population receive them. === [PDF page 108] === In recent years, African women have played an active part in all the political struggles and jointly with the trade union organisations and other organisations have pressed for their demands. In South Africa they are struggling against every form of discrimination affecting the education of their children, against the “reserves” where they are relegated with their families, for the extension of social and medical services and schools and for better housing. In Madagascar they are asking for a greater number of creches, maternity hospitals, doctors and midwives. In Senegal they are demonstrating against the great poverty in which the people live, for the reduction of credits allocated to military expenditure, for schools, for the education of their children and for maternity hospitals and child welfare centres. The elementary needs of mother and child are not satisfied in Africa. In Tanganyika, the budget devoted to “social services” decreased from 29 per cent to 12 per cent from 1946 to 1950. In Madagascar there are 417 doctors for 4,937,000 inhabitants and 388 midwives, 1 for every 10,000 inhabitants. In the Cameroons for a population of 3,174,00 inhabitants, there are only 125 doctors, many of whom only attend Europeans. In Sudan, Tunisia, Ghana, and Egypt which have recently gained their independence, they have made some important advances in the social situation and in raising the living standards of families, although the backward heritage has made progress very slow. The women and the organisations of these countries are actively pressing their claims, insisting on their rights, and urging the leaders of the States, the elected assemblies, and those drafting the new constitutions | to include legislation to protect mother and child as one of the most important | tasks of the State. At the same time, women’s organisations are setting up centres to help mothers, especially in the education of children. They are collaborating with government agencies in social schemes initiated by the State. The Union of Sudanese Women has undertaken the following: ~ A memorandum was sent to Parliament in January and June, 1957, asking for economic, political and social rights for women. | — The celebration of International Children’s Day on 1st June, when the problems ' of Sudanese mothers and children were explained. | - On June 20th a memorandum calling for the setting up of centres for children in towns and in the countryside was sent to the Ministry of the Interior. — Women’s Festival Week is celebrated each year from 31st January to 7th February. During this week, all the problems of women are discussed. — The campaign against female circumcision. Contact has been made with the Ministry of Health to see that the law forbidding this practice is enforced. — Requests for laws on the protection of the family have been put forward. 95 === [PDF page 109] === 96 — The U.S.W. is also calling for an improvement in social assistance and health services by increasing the number of hospitals, health centres, and the number of doctors and midwives trained each year. The Afro-Asian Solidarity Conference held in December, 1957, adopted a resolution on the problems of social development and in particular on those relating to women’s and children’s rights in the countries of Asia and Africa. The League of Arab Women, at its Fourth Congress in Damascus in September 1957 adopted a resolution favouring measures for the protection of mother and child. The protection of motherhood is included in the legislation of all the countries of Latin America. The women’s organisations, since their foundation, have carried on a struggle for the improvement of these laws, to remove all discriminatory practices and to apply their provisions. The women of Argentina, political parties and women’s organisations, have, introduced various bills since 1942, calling for improvements to the existing laws. A “Round Table on the problems of women” set up in 1956 composed of well known women and women’s organisations including the Union of Argentine Women drew up a new bill around which a great campaign is developing. All over the country signatures are being collected in its support when it comes before the Legislative Assembly. Many trade unions support this campaign. The women of Argentina are also insisting that creches be set up, that the existing ones be improved and that the existing law on this subject be respected by the enterprises. The National Women’s Unity Committee in Chile worked out a draft law in 1954 on the setting up of nurseries and the extension of the law on creches. A committee for nurseries, including teachers, social workers, doctors, lawyers, women workers and leaders of political parties was set up in order to win support for this proposal. This proposal was made known in the entire country. It also won the recognition of the Pan American Conference on Children held in Panama in 1955, which recommended the governments of Latin America to take legislative action to open nurseries. This bill remains unsettled in the Chamber of Deputies because of the opposition to the financing of it. Faced with the urgency of the problem, the women’s organisations of the === [PDF page 110] === At the Study Days in Potsdam === [PDF page 111] === Visiting the creche at the “Friedrich Engels” Works in Premnitz (Potsdam) === [PDF page 112] === working class districts are, in spite of difficulties, arranging for nurseries to be opened. For example the women’s association of La Encalada, Santiago, had a nursery built and equipped on their own initiative. Having collected the money required for constructing the modest building, for the furniture and equipment and having obtained the collaboration of other groups interested in these problems, the mothers at last saw the nursery finished and opened under the suppervision of a teacher appointed by the Ministry of Education and under the auspices of the Mothers’ Committee. The energetic action of the Union of Chilean Women helped to secure the reform of the law on family allowances in July 1957, which provides for payment from the sixth month of pregnancy to all women covered by social insurance. The question of the protection of motherhood has been widely discussed at national working women’s conferences in every Latin American country and in whose preparations the women’s organisations participated. The resolutions passed by these conferences in Argentine, Equador, Chile, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Brazil and Mexico have demanded a just solution to this problem. === [PDF page 113] === 98 INTERNATIONAL LABOUR CONFERENCE Convention Nr. 103 Concerning Maternity Protection (Revised 1952) The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation, Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office, and having met in its Thirty-fifth Session on 4 June 1952, and Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to maternity protection, which is the seventh item on the agenda of the session, and Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an international Convention, adopts this twenty-eighth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and fifty-two the following Convention, which may be cited as the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952. Article 1 1. This Convention applies to women employed in industrial undertakings and in non-industrial and agricultural occupations, including women wage earners working at home. 2. For the purpose of this Convention, the term “industrial undertaking” comprises public and private undertakings and any branch thereof and includes particularly— a) mines, quarries, and other works for the extraction of minerals from the earth; b) undertakings in which articles are manufactured, altered, cleaned, repaired, ornamented, finished, adapted for sale, broken up or demolished, or in which materials are transformed, including undertakings engaged in shipbuilding, or in the generation, transformation or transmission of electricity or motive power of any kind; c) undertakings engaged in building and civil engineering work, including constructional, repair, maintenance, alteration and demolition work; === [PDF page 114] === d) undertakings engaged in the transport of passengers or goods by road, rail, sea, inland waterway or air, including the handling of goods at docks, quays, wharves, warehouses or airports. 3. For the purpose of this Convention, the term “non-industrial occupations” includes all occupations which are carried on in or in connection with the following undertakings or services, whether public or private: a) commercial establishments; b) postal and telecommunication services; c) establishments and administrative services in which the persons employed are mainly engaged in clerical work; d) newspaper undertakings; e) hotels, boarding houses, restaurants, clubs, cafés and other refreshment houses; f) establishments for the treatment and care of the sick, infirm or destitute and of orphans; g) theatres and places of public entertainment; h) domestic work for wages in private households; and any other non-industrial occupations to which the competent authority may decide to apply the provisions 6{ the Convention. 4. For the purpose of this Convention, the term “agricultural occupations” includes all occupations carried on in agricultural undertakings, including plantations and largescale industrialised agricultural undertakings.. 5. In any case in which it is doubtful whether this Convention applies to an undertaking, branch of an undertaking or occupation, the question shall be determined by the competent authority after consultation with the representative organisations of employers and workers concerned where such exist. 6. National laws or regulations may exempt from the application of this Convention undertakings in which only members of the employer’s family, as defined by national laws or regulations, are employed. Article 2 For the purpose of this Convention, the term “woman” means any female person, irrespective of age, nationality, race or creed, whether married or unmarried, and the term “child” means any child whether born of marriage or not. Article 3 1. A woman to whom this Convention applies shall, on the production of a medical certificate stating the presumed date of her confinement, be entitled to a period of maternity leave. === [PDF page 115] === 100 2. The period of maternity leave shall be at least twelve weeks, and shall include a period of compulsory leave after confinement. 3. The period of compulsory leave after confinement shall be prescribed by national — laws or regulations, but shall in no case be less than six weeks; the remainder of the total period of maternity leave may be provided before the presumed date of confinement — or following expiration of the compulsory leave period or partly before the presumed — date of confinement and partly following the compulsory leave period as may be prescribed by national laws or regulations. 4 4. The leave before the presumed date of confinement shall be extended by any period elapsing between the presumed date of confinement and the actual date of confinement and the period of compulsory leave to be taken after confinement shall not be reduced on that account. 5. In case of illness medically certified arising out of pregnancy, national laws or regulations shall provide for additional leave before confinement, the maximum duration of which may be fixed by the competent authority. 6. In case of illness medically certified arising out of confinement, the woman shall be entitled to an extension of the leave after confinement, the maximum duration of which may be fixed by the competent authority. Article 4 1. While absent from work on maternity leave in accordance with the provisions of Article 3, the woman shall be entitled to receive cash and medical benefits. 2. The rates of cash benefit shall be fixed by national laws or regulations so as to ensure benefits sufficient for the full and healthy maintenance of herself and her child in accordance with a suitable standard of living. 3. Medical benefits shall include pre-natal, confinement and post-natal care by qualified midwives or medical practitioners as well as hospitalisation care where necessary; freedom of choice of doctor and freedom of choice between a public and private hospital shall be respected. 4. The cash and medical benefits shall be provided either by means of compulsory social insurance or by means of public funds; in either case they shall be provided as a matter of right to all women who comply with the prescribed conditions. 5. Women who fail to qualify for benefits provided as a matter of right shall be entitled, subject to the means test required for social assistance, to adequate benefits out of social assistance funds. 6. Where cash benefits provided under compulsory social insurance are based on previous earnings, they shall be at a rate of not less than two-thirds of the woman's previous earning taken into account for the purpose of computing benefits. 7. Any contribution due under a compulsory social insurance scheme providing === [PDF page 116] === maternity benefits and any tax based upon payrolls which is raised for the purpose of providing such benefits shall, whether paid both by the employer and the employees or by the employer, be paid in respect of the total number of men and women employed by the undertakings concerned, without distinction of sex. 8. In no case shall the employer be individually liable for the cost of such benefits due to women employed by him. Article 5 1. If a woman is nursing her child she shall be entitled to interrupt her work for this purpose at a time or times to be prescribed by national laws or regulations. 2. Interruptions of work for the purpose of nursing are to be counted as working hours and remunerated accordingly in cases in which the matter is governed by or in accordance with laws and regulations; in cases in which the matter is governed by collective agreement, the position shall be as determined by the relevant agreement. Article 6 While a woman is absent from work on maternity leave in accordance with the provisions of Article 3 of this Convention, it shall not be lawful for her employer to give her notice of dismissal during such absence, or to give her notice of dismissal at such a time that the notice would expire during such absence. Article 7 1. Any Member of the International Labour Organisation which ratifies this Convention may, by a declaration accompanying its ratification, provide for exceptions from the application of the Convention in respect of— a) certain categories of non-industrial occupations; b) occupations carried on in agricultural undertakings, other than plantations; c) domestic work for wages in private households; d) women wage earners working at home; e) undertakings engaged in the transport of passengers or goods by sea. 2. The categories of occupations or undertakings in respect of which the Member proposes to have recourse to the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall be specified in the declaration accompanying its ratification. 3. Any Member which has made such a declaration may at any time cancel that declaration, in whole or in part, by a subsequent declaration. Creer a a aT aT 104 === [PDF page 117] === 102 4. Every Member for which a declaration made under paragraph 1 of this Article is in force shall indicate each year in its annual report upon the application of this Convention the position of its law and practice in respect of the occupations or undertakings to which paragraph 1 of this Article applies in virtue of the said declaration — and the extent to which effect has been given or is proposed to be given to the Convention in respect of such occupations or undertakings. 5. At the expiration of five years from the first entry into force of this Convention, the Governing Body of the International Labour Office shall submit to the Conference a special report concerning the application of these exceptions, containing such proposals as it may think appropriate for further action in regard to the matter. Article 8 The formal ratifications of this Convention shall be communicated to the Director- General of the International Labour Office for registration. Article 9 1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director-General. 2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratifications of two Members have been registered with the Director-General. 3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any Member twelve moaths after the date on which its ratification has been registered. Article 10 1. Declarations communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 35 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation shall indicate— a) the territories in respect of which the Member concerned undertakes that the provisions of the Convention shall be applied without modification; b) _ the territories in respect of which it undertakes that the provisions of the Convention shall be applied subject to modifications, together with details of the said modifications; c) the territories in respect of which the Convention is inapplicable and in such cases the grounds on which it is inapplicable; d) the territories in respect of which it reserves its decision pending further consideration of the position. === [PDF page 118] === nn ne 2. The undertakings referred to in subparagraphs a) and b) of paragraph 1 of this Article shall be deemed to be an integral part of the ratification and shall have the force of ratification. 3. Any Member may at any time by a subsequent declaration cancel in whole or in part any reservation made in its original declaration in virtue of subparagraphs b), c) or d) of paragraph 1 of this Article. 4. Any Member may, at any time at which the Convention is subject to denunciation in accordance with the provisions of Article 12, communicate to the Director- General a declaration modifying in any other respect the terms of any former declaration and stating the present position in respect of such territories as it may specify. Article 11 1. Declarations communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office in accordance with paragraph 4 or 5 of Article 35 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation shall indicate whether the provisions of the Convention will be applied in the territory concerned without modification or subject to modifications;when the declaration indicates that the provisions of the Convention will be applied subject to modifications, it shall give details of the said modifications. 2. The Member, Members or international authority concerned may at any time by a subsequent declaration renounce in whole or in part the right to have recourse to any modifiation indicated in any former declaration. 3. The Member, Members or international authority concerned may, at any time at which this Convention is subject to denunciation in accordance with the provisions of Article 12, communicate to the Director-General a declaration modifying in any other respect the terms of any former declaration and stating the present position in respect of the application of the Convention. Article 12 1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce it after the expiration of ten years from the date on which the Convention first comes into force, by an act communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration. Such denunciation shall not take effect until one year after the date on which it is registered. 2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which does not, within the year following the expiration of the period of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph, exercise the right of denunciation provided for in this Article, will be bound for another period of ten years and, thereafter, may denounce this Convention at the expiration of each period of ten years under the terms provided for in this Article. EG ere 5. 103 === [PDF page 119] === 104 Article 13 1, The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall notify all Members of the International Labour Organisation of the registration of all ratifications, declarations and denunciations communicated to him by the Members of the Organisation. 2. When notifying the Members of the Organisation of the registration of the second ratification communicated to him, the Director-General shall draw the attention of the Members of the Organisation to the date upon which the Convention will come into force. Article 14 The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall communicate to the Secretary-General of the United Nations for registration in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations full particulars of all ratifications, declarations and acts of denunciation registered by him in accordance with the preceding Articles. Article 15 At such times as it may consider necessary the Governing Body of the International Labour Office shall present to the General Conference a report on the working of this Convention and shall examine the desirability of placing on the agenda of the Conference the question of its revision in whole or in part. Article 16 1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this Convention in whole or in part, then, unless the new Convention otherwise provides— a) the ratification by a Member of the new revising Convention shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of this Convention, notwithstanding the provisions of Article 12 above, if and when the new revising Convention shall have come into force; b) as from the date when the new revising Convention comes into force this Convention shall cease to be open to ratification by the Members. 2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual form and content for those Members which have ratified it but have not ratified the revising Convention. Article 17 The English and French versions of the text of this Convention are equally authoritative. === [PDF page 120] === aaa Recommendation (No. 95) Concerning Maternity Protection The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation, Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office, and having met in its Thirty-fifth Session on 4 June 1952, and Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to maternity protection, which is the seventh item on the agenda of the session, and Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of a Recommendation supplementing the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952, adopts this twenty-eighth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and fifty-two the following Recommendation, which may be cited as the Maternity Protection Recommendation, 1952. I. Maternity leave 1. (1) Where necessary to the health of the woman and wherever practicable, the maternity leave provided for in Article 3, paragraph 2, of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952, should be extended to a total period of 14 weeks. (2) The supervisory bodies should have power to prescribe in individual cases, on the basis of a medical certificate, a further extension of the ante natal and post-natal leave provided for in pragraphs 4, 5 and 6 of Article 3 of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952, if such an extension seems necessary for safeguarding the health of the mother and the child, and, in particular, in the event of actual or threatening abnormal conditions, such as miscarriage and other ante-natal and post-natal complications. II. Maternity benefits 2. (1) Wherever practicable the cash benefits to be granted in conformity with Article 4 of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952, should be fixed at a higher rate than the minimum standard provided in the Convention, equalling, where practicable, 100 per cent. of the woman’s previous earning taken into account for the purpose of computing benefits. (2) Wherever practicable the medical benefits to be granted in conformity with Article 4 of the said Convention should comprise general practitioner and specialist out-patient and in-patient care, including domiciliary visiting; dental care; the care given by qualified midwives and other maternity services at home or in hospital; 105 === [PDF page 121] === 106 nursing care at home or in hospital or other medical institutions; maintenance in hospital or other medical institutions; pharmaceutical, dental or other medical or surgical supplies; and the care furnished under appropriate medical supervision by members of such other professions as may at any time be legally recognised as competent to furnish services associated with maternity care. (3) The medical benefit should be afforded with a view to maintaining, restoring or improving the health of the woman protected and her ability to work and to attend to her personal needs. 4. The institutions or government departments administering the medical benefit should encourage the women protected, by such means as may be deemed appropriate, to avail themselves of the general health services placed at their disposal by the public authorities or by other bodies recognised by the public authorities. (5) In addition, national laws or regulations may authorise such institutions or government departments to make provision for the promotion of the health of the women protected and their infants. ss (6) Other benefits in kind or in cash, such as layettes or payment for the purchase of layettes, the supply of milk or of nursing allowance for nursing mothers, etc., might be usefully added to the benefits mentioned in subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this paragraph, Ill. Facilities for nursing mothers and infants 3. (1) Wherever practicable nursing breaks should be extended to a total period of at least one-and-a-half hours during the working day and adjustments in the frequency and length of the nursing periods should be permitted on production of a medical certificate. (2) Provision should be made for the establishment of facilities for nursing or day care, preferably outside the undertakings where the women are working; wherever possible provision should be made for the financing or at least subsidising of such facilities at the expense of the community or by compulsory social insurance. (3) The equipment and hygienic requirements of the facilities for nursing and day care and the number and qualifications of the staff of the latter should comply with adequate standards laid down by appropriate regulations, and they should be approved and supervised by the competent authority. IV. Protection of employment 4. (1) Wherever possible the period before and after confinement during which the woman is protected from dismissal by the employer in accordance with Article 6 of the Maternity Protection Convention (Revised), 1952, should be extended to begin === [PDF page 122] === as from the date when the employer of the woman has been notified by medical certificate of her pregnancy and to continue until one month at least after the end of the period of maternity leave provided for in Article 3 of the Convention. (2) Among the legitimate reasons for dismissal during the protected period to be defined by law should be included cases of serious fault on the part of the employed woman, shutting down of the undertaking or expiry of the contract of employment. Where works councils exist it would be desirable that they should be consulted regarding such dismissals. (3) During her legal absence from work before and after confinement, the seniority right of the woman should be preserved as well as her right to reinstatement in her former work or in equivalent work paid at the same rate. V. Protection of the health of employed women during the maternity period 5. (1) Night work and overtime work should be prohibited for pregnant and nursing women and their working hours should be planned so as to ensure adequate rest periods. (2) Employment of a woman on work prejudicial to her health or that of her child, as defined by the competent authority, should be prohibited during pregnancy and up to at least three months after confinement and longer if the woman is nursing her child. (3) Work falling under the provisions of subparagraph (2) should include, in particular— a) any hard labour involving— i) heavy weight-lifting, pulling or pushing; or ii) undue and unaccustomed physical strain, including prolonged standing b) work requiring special equilibrium; and c) work with vibrating machines. (4) A woman ordinarly employed at work defined as prejudicial to health by the competent authority should be entitled without loss of wages to a transfer to another kind of work not harmful to her health. (5) Such a right of transfer should also be given for reasons of maternity in individual cases to any woman who presents a medical certificate stating that a change in the nature of her work is necessary in the interest of her health and that of her child. 107 === [PDF page 123] === Index Activities of the Women’s Movement.-...--+---20e0 85 Argentina....-----+++++++++ 9,96 (ATMTHA! \astes mews onmenn dns d 12, 85 Cameroons.....-.--+---++++ 18 Coylon...+-scsesecsceendsene 94 Chile a Fa etidetiemn gee 20, 96 Chin Ho entrateieeoitaione Sit 15 Conclusion of the Study Days 83 Czechoslovakia.........+++++ 22,90 Denmark: ‘sowiscanescwwssces 25 EQ@ypt i sie seuneeeomeetons tse ly | Finland -!:.ccetitbewscesscsn 28, 86 Rrdiitie ois accept a oe 30, 87 German Democratic Republic 34 German Federal Republic..-- 38 Hungary.....-------+se+eee- 44 India <3 So0rscscenueqe eee 46, 92 Indonesia | «i. -2 222s den ee 48, 93 International Labour Conference ©..<..s-aesse 98 Introduction ©. «<0 \yeicsie cure 3 lerael |..sésc0s0cen ee 51 Ttaly:..sas00s.00 eee 51, 88 Japan «+ s.032ssdes eee 56, 93 Mongolia ««:..s'ssi sashes 58 Poland! seas2daed eee 61 Rumania ««sseessess eetacen 62 SOAK vem trnahs sede cuaueten 12 Swetlat: wssczscies tates caren 73 Syria: swmerysmmeugewsvans ese 15 US/SR:. cimastucsssagacs 65 VENA caysxiseasiannevne 77,91 Segodlatias. <. ns cniees rated 79,90