The Rise and Fall of the Djakarta-Peking Axis, 1949-1966

=== [PDF page 1] === This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received JU, Woo Jung, 1935THE RISE AND FALL OF THE DJAKARTA-PEKING AXIS, 1949-1966. M ississippi State University, Ph.D., 1967 History, modem University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 2] === THE RISE AND FALL OF THE DJAKARTA-PEKING AXIS, 1949-1966 WOO JUNG JU A D is s e rta tio n S u b m itte d t o th e F a c u lty o f M i s s i s s i p p i S t a t e U n iv e r s it y i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y i n th e D ep artm en t o f H is to r y S t a t e C o lle g e, M i s s i s s i p p i J a n u a r y, 1967 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 3] === THE RISE AND FALL OF THE DJAKARTA-PEKING AXIS, 1949-1966 WOO JUNG JU A pp ro v ed: P ro fe sso r of H i s t o r y ® (Head o f D ep artm en t) SlllSjL A s s i s t a n t p -^y fesso r cl lis to ry (M ajor P r o f e s s o r ) ^ic/kL D ean, C o lle g e o f A r ts and S c ie n c e s Dj^afi o f th e G ra d u a te S ch o o l Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 4] === PREFACE My th a n k s a r e due to th e members o f th e H is to r y D ep artm en t o f M i s s i s s i p p i S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y, p a r t i c u l a r l y P r o f e s s o r D. C la y to n Jam es, my s u p e r v i s o r; P r o f e s s o r H a ro ld S. S n e llg r o v e, d e p a rtm e n t h ead and d i s s e r t a t i o n r e a d e r; and P r o f e s s o r C h a rle s E. L ew is, d i s s e r t a t i o n re a d e r. P e rs o n a L g ra titu d e i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d f o r th e a s s i s t a n c e o f my s i s t e r, M iss Kap Soon J u, and Mr. C u r t i s F lo w ers o f J a c k s o n, M is s is s ip p i. My e d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ould h av e b een im p o s s ib le w ith o u t th e i n s p i r a t i o n and f i n a n c i a l s p o n s o rs h ip o f th e l a t e D r. J o h n M. Chang, p rim e m i n i s t e r o f th e Second R e p u b lic o f K o re a. M i s s i s s i p p i S t a t e U n iv e r s it y J a n u a r y, 1967 Woo Ju n g J u Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 5] === TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE i- ii S in o - I n d o n e s ia n R e la tio n s and th e S o u th e a s t A s ia n S i t u a t i o n up to 1955 Bandung and A f t e r. 22 III. 50 72 The PKI and P e k in g 97 The M a la y s ia n - I n d o n e s ia n C o n f r o n ta tio n and 128 S u k arn o, Chou, and th e Second A fro -A s ia n C o n feren c e 157 V II. 178 205 B ib lio g r a p h y 208 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 6] === CHAPTER I SINO-INDONESIAN RELATIONS AND THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN SITUATION UP TO 1955 D u rin g th e f i v e y e a r s fo llo w in g th e Communist v i c t o r y on th e C h in ese m ain lan d i n 1949, Communist C hina and In d o n e s ia drew c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o eac h o th e r i d e o l o g i c a l l y, e c o n o m ic a lly, and m i l i t a r i l y. The s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s o f th e two n a t io n s in t h e i r t r a n s i t i o n s from f e u d a l to modern s o c i e t y and from f o r e ig n d o m in a tio n to n a t i o n a l in d e pendence a b e tte d th e grow ing r e l a t i o n s h i p. B oth p e o p le s d e s p is e d W estern im p e r ia lis m and ra c is m, and now here i n A sia w ere a n ti- W e s te rn s e n tim e n ts more lo u d ly ex p ressed.'* ' The f i r s t p u b li c m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e d eep e n in g S in o - I n d o n e s ia n a f f i n i t y was s e e n a t th e A sia n R e la tio n s C o n feren ce a t New D e lh i in M arch, 1947. S p o n so red by th e I n d ia n C o u n c il o f W orld A f f a i r s, th is assem b ly marked th e f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t e x p r e s s io n o f th e new n a t i o n a l i s t aw akening w hich was sw eeping a c r o s s E a s t and S o u th e a s t A sia n c o u n t r i e s. L i t t l e came o f th e m e e tin g b e s id e s a s t r o n g l y worded r e s o l u t i o n J e an n e S. M in tx, “M arxism in I n d o n e s ia," in M arxism in S o u th e a s t A s ia, e d. F ran k N. P ra g e r ( S ta n f o r d, 1 9 5 9 ), 2 1 9 -2 2 0; M. Ladd Thomas, "The S o u rc e s o f In d o n e s ia n F o re ig n P o l i c y," S outh A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y, LIV (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 5 4; J u s t u s M. Van Der K ro e f, " P a t t e r n s o f W estern I n f lu e n c e i n I n d o n e s ia," A m erican S o c io lo g ic a l R eview, XVII (A u g u st, 1 9 5 2 ), 4 2 1 -4 2 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 7] === dem anding an end to r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n th e v a r io u s A sia n n a t i o n s. 2 But th e In d o n e s ia n and Communist C h in ese d e l e g a ti o n s a t New D e lh i w ere n o t i c e a b l y i n a c c o rd i n p u b l i c i z i n g th e acc o m p lish m en ts o f t h e i r n a t io n s and p ro m o tin g co m m ercial and p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s w ith o th e r A sian c o u n t r i e s. Few p e r s o n s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e S in o - I n d o n e s ia n team w ork i n p ro p ag an d a e f f o r t s a t t h a t c o n fe re n c e was a h a r b in g e r o f th e n e x t d e c a d e 's d ev elo p m en ts in S o u th e a s t A s ia. Communist C hina and I n d o n e s ia s e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to a n o th e r c o n fe re n c e a t New^ D e lh i in J a n u a r y, 1949, w here f i f t e e n n a t i o n 's d e l e g a te s m et to d is c u s s su n d ry A sian c o l o n i a l p ro b le m s, p a r t i c u l a r l y D utch a t r o c i t i e s a g a i n s t I n d o n e s ia.. The p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n ta k e n a t t h i s m e e t in g was th e p a s s a g e o f a r e s o l u t i o n condem ning D utch m i l i t a r y a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e I n d o n e s ia n R e p u b lic a s a f l a g r a n t b re a c h o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r te r. The New D e lh i m e e tin g, w hich was th e f i r s t c o n fe re n c e o f A sia n and A f r i c a n,n a t i o n s on a g o v e rn m e n ta l l e v e l, was a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v ig o ro u s S in o - I n d o n e s ia n e f f o r t s t o d e v e lo p b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s ^A sian, R e la tio n s O r g a n iz a tio n, A sia n R e l a ti o n s (New Y ork, 1 9 4 8 ), 15; " I n t e r - A s i a n C o n fe re n c e M eets, i n New D e l h i," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y,,LXIV (F e b ru a ry 12, 1 9 4 7 ), 197; P. Oomman P h i l i p, " I n d i a I s H o s t.t o A sia n C o n fe re n c e," i b i d., LXIV; ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 4 7 ), 562; P h i l i p s T a lb o t, " R e v o lt in A s i a," New R e p u b lic, CXVI ( A p r il 2 8, 1 9 4 7 ), 2 4 -2 5. V ir g in i a Thompson and R ic h a rd A d lo f f, "A sia n U n ity," g a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XVII (May 7, 1 3 4 7 ), 9 7 -9 8; I q b a l S in g h, " A ll A sia a t D e l h i," S p e c t a t o r, CLXXVIII ( A p r il 18, 1 9 4 7 ), 4 2 4 -4 2 5; N. M ansergh, "A sia n C o n fe re n c e," I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, X X III ( J u l y, 1 9 4? ), 2 9 5 -2 9 6, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 8] === w ith A f r ic a n a s w e ll a s A sia n c o u n t r i e s. ^ A t th e end o f t h a t y e a r, 1949, th e N e th e r la n d s r e l u c t a n t l y re c o g n iz e d th e in d e p e n d e n t R e p u b lic o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f I n d o n e s ia, w h ich h ad b een c r e a te d i n 1945 b u t n o t a c c e p te d by th e c o l o n i a l o v e r lo r d. I n te n s e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s had b een e x e r te d by I n d i a, Communist C h in a, th e U n ite d S t a t e s, and a h o s t o f o t h e r n a t i o n s upon th e s tu b b o rn D u tch. A p aram o u n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n th e N e th e r l a n d s ’ d e c i s i o n to r e t r e a t was S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e Dean A ch eso n 1s w arn in g t o D r. Sirfcu S t i k k e r, H o lla n d ’ s f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r, t h a t, u n le s s th e D utch g r a n te d r e c o g n i t i o n, th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ould e x te n d no f u r t h e r Econom ic C ooper a t i o n A d m in is tr a tio n fu n d s t o h i s c o u n t r y.^ A t Colombo, C ey lo n, i n A p r i l, 1954, th e p rim e m i n i s t e r s o f Burma, C ey lo n, I n d i a, I n d o n e s ia, and P a k is ta n m et to c o n s id e r, among, o th e r m a t t e r s, a c o u rs e o f a c t i o n w ith r e g a r d to the. c o n tin u in g D u tc h -In d o n e s ia n d e b a c le, now c e n te r e d on c o n t r o l o f I r i a n. (W estern New G u in e a ). The Colombo m e e tin g o c c u rre d s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith th e c r i t i c a l Geneva C o n fe re n c e on K orea and V ietn am. The Colombo spokesm an hoped t h a t - t h e i r d e l i b e r a t i o n s and r e s o l u t i o n s on th e need f o r s t a b i l i t y and p e a c e S. C. P o p la i, A s ia and A f r i c a i n th e W orld (Bombay;,. 1 9 5 5 ), 5 -6, 11; Edward S. S k i l l i n, " C o lo n ia l Swan S o n g,” Commonweal, XXXCTX (F e b ru a ry 4, 1 9 4 9 ), 4 1 3; "W orld o f J a n u a r y 2 0," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXVI (F e b ru a ry 2, 1 9 4 9 ), 1 3 4 -1 3 5. ^LOuis F is c h e r, The S to r y o f I n d o n e s ia (New Y ork, 1959), 125-126, 129 • W a lte r H. M a llo ry, "M aking a F r ie n d o f I n d o n e s i a, " F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Xxixil ( J a n u a r y, 1954), 282-285; " S a b o ta g e a t UNO," New S ta te s m a n, XXXVII (J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 4 9 ), 1; P e t e r Schm id, " I n d o n e s ia S ip s th e Wine o f I n d e p e n d e n c e," Comm entary, X I ( J u n e, 1 9 5 1 ), 536. ^Dharam Chand G u p ta, I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s (New D e lh i, 1 9 6 4 ), 5; "Colombo C o n feren c e M arks New D a y,” C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXI (May 12, 1 9 5 4 ), 572. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 9] === in A s ia w ould a f f e c t th e Geneva t a l k s.7 S u k arn o, th e In d o n e s ia n • p r e s i d e n t, t o l d th e Colombo d e l e g a te s t h a t th e v o ic e o f r e a s o n m ust be in s tille d i n t o w o rld a f f a i r s and t h a t a l l o f th e s p i r i t u a l, m o ra l, and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f A sia and A f r i c a m ust be m o b iliz e d on th e s id e o f peace. L a t e r t h e f i v e m i n i s t e r s a d o p te d a r e s o l u t i o n dem anding t h a t F ra n c e re c o g n iz e u n e q u iv o c a lly th e in d e p en d en ce o f In d o c h in a. a n o th e r r e s o l u t i o n th e y c a l l e d f o r th e a d m is sio n o f th e P e o p le 's R e p u b li c o f C hina i n t o th e U n ite d N a ti o n s. The Colombo m i n i s t e r s a ls o d e c la r e d t h a t, th o u g h m ost S o u th and S o u th e a s t A sian le a d e r s w ere n o t Com m unists, th e y a l l c o n s id e r e d c o l o n ia li s m a s a v i o l a t i o n o f b a s ic human r i g h t s and a menace to p e a c d; th e y w ould, i f n e c e s s a r y, c o o p e ra t e w ith Communists i n e l i m i n a t i n g c o lo n ia lis m. By th e tim e o f th e Colombo and Geneva c o n fe re n c e s P e k in g 's - ^ p o lic ie s to w a rd ■S o u th e a s t A sia had become w ell-k n o w n th ro u g h f r e q u e n t and r e p e t i t i o u s p ro n o u n cem en ts p i c t u r i n g Communist C hina a s th e champ io n o f th e o p p re s s e d S o u th e a s t A s ia n s. P ek in g claim e d t h a t i t w h o le h e a r t e d l y s u p p o rte d th e in d e p en d en ce o f c o l o n i e s, the. o u s t e r o f W estern i m p e r i a l i s t s, and th e so c io -e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t o f th e many -backward, p e o p le s s o u th o f h e r b o r d e r. A lth o u g h Communist C hina a p p e a re d i n d i f f e r e n t a t tim e s a b o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s w ith W este rn Colombo C o n fe re n c e, P r e s s.In f o r m a tio n Department..,. F in a l.Com m unique I s s u e d by th e Colombo C o n feren c e (K andy, 1.954), 9*10. The Colombo P la n was i n i t i a t e d i n 19.50, m a in ly by th e B r i t i s h Commonwealth and th e U n ite d S t a t e s, to r e n d e r econom ic a s s i s t a n c e i n th e d e v e lo p m ent o f th e s e n a t i o n. T h e r e a f te r th e y w ere o f t e n c a l l e d th e Colombo p o w e rs. ^ I b i d., 1 9 -2 0;;,Lenrtox A. M i l l s, " I n d o n e s i a 's Growing P a i n s, " F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXIII (November, 1 9 5 3 ), 7. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 10] === c o u n t r i e s, i t co n clu d ed fo rm al d ip lo m a tic t i e s w ith I n d o n e s ia, Burma, I n d i a, P a k is ta n, and C eylon w ith i n a few m onths a f t e r th e K u o m in tan g 's f l i g h t to T aiw an.^ On th e o th e r h an d, S o v ie t R u s s i a 's e f f o r t s i n S o u th and S o u th e a s t A sia s in c e W orld War I I a p p e a re d f a r l e s s th a n S a t i s f a c t o r y to th e Moscow p la n n e r s. In d e e d, S u k a r n o 's p r e f e r e n c e f o r P e k in g 's f r i e n d s h ip o v e r t h a t o f Moscow may d a te from S o v ie t s tu m b lin g i n 1948. F e b ru a ry o f t h a t y e a r th e S o v ie ts sp o n so re d a t C a l c u tt a th e f i r s t pub l i c g a th e r in g o f A sia n Communists s in c e th e 1 9 3 0 's. The A sia n Youth C o n fe re n c e, a s i t was c a l l e d, was h o s te d by two R u s s ia n - d ir e c te d f r o n t g ro u p s, th e W orld F e d e r a tio n o f D em o cratic Youth and th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f S t u d e n t s. ^ W hile a m a jo r it y o f th e d e l e g a te s w ere Communists, a v o c if e r o u s m i n o r ity v o ic e d d i s c o n t e n t w ith th e p r o c e e d in g s. Some members o f th e I n d ia n S tu d e n t C o n g ress d e l e g a ti o n w alk ed o u t o f th e a s s e m b ly.H S e v e r a l P h ili p p in e and Burmese r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s denounced th e c o n fe re n c e a s a t o o l o f Moscow, whose s o le c o n c e rn in A s ia was to in c r e a s e S o v ie t p r e s t i g e. 10 Upon d e p a r t in g from C a l c u tt a th e Communist d e l e g a te s w ere ^A. Doak B a r n e t t, Communist. G hina and A s ia (New Y ork, 1 9 6 0 ), 7 1 -7 2, 9 2; R o b e rt S h e rro d, " A s i a 's P r i z e H e a d a c h e," S a tu r d a y E v ening P o s t, CCXXV (May 10, 1 9 5 3 ), 33. ^ B r i a n C r o z ie r, S o u th e a s t A sia in T urm oil ( B a ltim o r e, 1 9 6 5 ), 66. 11 Jo h n H. K au tsk y, Moscow and th e Communist P a r ty o f I n d i a (New Y ork, 1 9 5 6 ), 3 3, 4 1 -4 2. 12 R uth T. McVey, The C a l c u tt a C o n feren c e and th e S o u th e a s t A sia n U p r is in g s (New Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ), 6. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 11] === i n s t r u c t e d t o la y p la n s f o r e x p e l l i n g th e re g im e s i n pow er i n t h e i r v a r io u s c o u n t r i e s. The M o sc o w -d irected c o n s p i r a c i e s i n 1948 w ere d e s t i n e d t o f a i l, h o w ev er, l a r g e l y b e c a u se th e S o v ie t Cominform was u n a b le to a d j u s t t o th e changed c o n d itio n s 'in p o s tw a r A s i a. W hereas S t a l i n, l i k e L e n in, h ad r e l i e d upon a h t i - i m p e r i a l i s t i c. s e n tim e n t among A sia n s to f o r g e a bond o f sym pathy, two o f th e m a jo r c o l o n i a l pow ers a f t e r 1945 w ere b u s i l y f r e e i n g t h e i r A sia n c o l o n i e s. Thus th e U n ite d S t a t e s gave th e P h i l i p p i n e s i t s in d e p e n d e n c e, and th e B r i t i s h w ere in p r o c e s s o f f r e e i n g I n d i a, P a k is ta n, C ey lo n, an d B u r m a.^ F u rth e rm o re, th e R u s s ia n s found t h a t t h e i r id e o lo g y and m ethods w ere o f t e n a n ta g o n i s t i c to in d ig e n o u s c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s e le m e n ts i n S o u th e a s t A s ia. A ls o, many o f th e p o s tw a r n a t i o n a l i s t le a d e r s i n t h a t r e g io n w ere j u s t a s s u s p ic io u s o f S o v ie t R u s s ia a s o f th e W e s te rn i m p e r i a l i s t s. - ^ On th e ev e o f th e C a l c u tt a C o n feren c e S ukarno a p p o in te d a n t i com m unist Mohammed H a tta t o su c c e e d P re m ie r S j a r i f u d d i n, who h ad been f r i e n d l y to w ard th e Cominform and th e Communist P a r t y o f I n d o n e s ia, o r PKI ( P a r t i Kommunis I n d o n e s ia ).? ’** The T ass r e p o r t e r a t D ja k a r ta claim ed. 13 C r o z i e r. S o u th e a s t A sia in T u rm o il, 19.. 6 9 -7 1; H a rry J. B enda, "Communism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," Y ale R eview, XXXXV (M arch, 1 9 5 6 ), 427; J. D. L egge, I n d o n e s ia (Englewood C l i f f s, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 3 3 -1 3 4. ^ C r o z i e r, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n T u rm o il, 6 5. C laude A. B u ss, S o u th e a s t A sia and th e W orld Today (New Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ), 15. 16 R uth T. McVey, The D evelopm ent o f th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and I t s R e l a ti o n s w ith th e S o v ie t U nion (C am bridge, M a s s., 1 9 5 4 ), with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 12] === t h a t ’’th e f a l l o f th e S j a r i f u d d i n g overnm ent to o k p la c e u n d e r th e d i r e c t in f l u e n c e o f W all S t r e e t. ''" ^ He c a l le d: upon I n d o n e s ia n s t o r e c o g n iz e th e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r p l i g h t t o t h a t o f th e V ietn am ese and t o o f f e r " t o t a l, arm ed o p p o s iti o n to th e i m p e r i a l i s t s. " 18 S e v e r a l to p S o v ie t l e a d e r s, i n c lu d in g A n d re i Zhdanov and M a rsh a l G eo rg i Zhukov, soon is s u e d p ro n o u n cem en ts a l s o e m p h a siz in g th e s i m i l a r i t y o f th e I n d o n e s ia n and V ietn am ese p r e d i c a m e n t s. ^ G roups in v o lv e d i n th e F r o n t D em okrasi R a k ja t, o r P e o p l e 's D e m o cra tic F r o n t, w h ich S j a r i f u d d i n es-. t a b l i s h e d t o d e v e lo p mass s u p p o r t f o r Communism, demanded t h a t th e H a tt a c a b i n e t y i e l d to a new one w h ich w ould in c lu d e PKI r e p r e s e n t a tio n.^ ® I n A u g u st, 1948, M usso, th e PKI fo u n d e r who had li v e d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s i n e x i l e in Moscow, r e tu r n e d t o I n d o n e s ia. In h is s p e e c h e s h e e n d o rs e d th e S o v i e t s ' "tw o-cam p" d o c t r i n e and s t r e s s e d th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f n e u t r a l i t y f o r I n d o n e s ia. He a l s o sh re w d ly cham pioned S u k a r n o 's r e f u s a l to n e g o t i a t e w ith H o lla n d a s lo n g a s D utch tr o o p s Q uoted i n R uth T. McVey, The S o v ie t View o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n ( I t h a c a, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 8. 18I b i d., 4 3. 19 R uth T. McVey, The D evelopm ent o f th e In d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and I t s R e l a ti o n s w ith th e S o v ie t U nion and C h in e se P e o p le 's R e p u b lic (C am bridge, M a s s., 1 9 5 4 ), 4 8. 20 A l a s t a i r M. T a y lo r, I n d o n e s ia n In d e p e n d e n c e and th e U n ite d N a tio n s ( I t h a c a, 1 9 6 0 ), 1 4 5 -1 4 6; M a rtin Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," Review o f P o l i t i c s, XXV ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 3 ), R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 13] === rem ain ed i n I n d o n e s i a. ^ On S eptem ber 18 Musso in a u g u r a te d a s e c r e t l y p la n n e d coup d ' e t a t, w hich h e, th e PKI, and Moscow hoped would q u ic k ly s p re a d a c r o s s th e i s l a n d s. T h at day R adio Moscow p r e m a tu r e ly r e j o i c e d i n th e news t h a t " p e o p l e 's co m m ittees a r e b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d i n o th e r m a jo r to w n s. T h is i s a p o p u la r u p r i s i n g a g a i n s t th e governm ent o f th e f a s c i s t J a p a n e s e Q u is lin g s, S ukarno and H a t t a." But th e Moscowin s p i r e d r e v o l t was a b o r t i v e; Musso and o th e r k ey PKI l e a d e r s w ere k i l l e d ’4 n. t h e f i g h t i n g a t M adiun. Not o n ly was th e Communist fo r c e s m a ll i n num bers and p o o r ly t r a i n e d, b u t a l s o Communist p ro p ag an d a had f a i l e d t o co n v in c e th e p e o p le t h a t S ukarno and H a tta w ere t h e i r r e a l e n e m ie s, r a t h e r th a n th e D u tch. S ukarno h e n c e f o r th le a n e d in c r e a s i n g l y to w ard th e Communist C h in e se, who w ere on th e v e rg e o f t h e i r sw eeping triu m p h o v e r Chiang K a i- s h e k 's N a t i o n a l i s t s.22 As S ukarno lo o k e d more f a v o r a b ly tow ard P e k in g, th e I n d o n e s ia n s ' h o s t i l i t y to w ard th e D utch was tra n s fo rm e d i n t o w id e s p re a d b i t t e r n e s s to w ard th e e n t i r e W este rn b l o c. Many I n d o n e s ia n s view ed t h e i r lo n g ^1-McVey, The D evelopm ent o f th e In d o n e s ia n Communist P a r ty and I t s R e l a ti o n s w ith th e S o v ie t U nion and C h in e se P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic, 5 9 -6 0, 6 3; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 98. ^ A r n o l d C. Brackm an, I n d o n e s ia n Communism (New Y ork, 19 6 3 ), 8 3, 9 3, 9 5, 9 8; Peggy D u rd in, " A n a ly s is of'Communism i n I n d o n e s ia," New York Times M ag azin e, M arch 13, 1955, 2 8 -2 9; J u s t u s M. Van Der K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism u n d e r A i d i t, " P roblem s o f Communism, V II (Novem ber, 1 9 5 8 ), 1 6 -1 7; R. S. K a in, "Moscow i n I n d o n e s ia," C u rre n t H is to r y XVII (A u g u st, 1 9 4 9 ), 6 9 -7 0; F. W. R ig g s, "Can I n d o n e s ia S e t P a t t e r n f o r S o u th e a s t A s ia? " F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXIX ( J a n u a ry 6, 1 9 5 0 ), 2 - 3; Ebon, " In d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 100; B ruce G r a n t, I n d o n e s ia (New Y ork, 1 9 6 4 ), 43., Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 14] === s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e D utch a s p a r t o f a g e n e r a l A sia n f i g h t to k i l l c o l o n ia li s m. A nglo-A m erican h o ld in g s in I n d o n e s ia, a s w e ll a s D utch v e s te d i n t e r e s t s, became sym bols o f e x t e r n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n. M oreover, a n ti- W e s te r n s e n tim e n t i n I n d o n e s ia was n o u r is h e d by th e k in s h ip f e l t f o r M alays f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t th e B r i t i s h, V ietnam ese o p p o sin g th e F rench, and ev en th e N o rth K oreans a t t a c k i n g th e S o u th K oreans and A m eric an s. The p o p u la r view in In d o n e s ia d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een th e circ u m s ta n c e s o f th e s e c o n f l i c t s: M alay s, V ietn am ese, N o rth K o re a n s, and In d o n e s ia n s a l l seemed to be lin k e d i n a common w ar a g a i n s t W estern i m p e r i a l i s t s.^3 When news re a c h e d D ja k a r ta in J u n e, 1950, o f th e s t a r t o f th e K orean War, th e governm ent and th e v a r io u s news a g e n c ie s n e g le c te d to in fo rm th e p e o p le t h a t N o rth K orea was c l e a r l y, th e a g g r e s s o r. I t was some tim e b e f o r e t h i s f a c t was m e n tio n e d, and by th e n many In d o n e s ia n s had a l r e a d y made up t h e i r m inds to sy m p ath ize w ith th e N o rth K o re a n s. I n any c a s e, th e prom pt re s p o n s e o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s and th e U n ite d N a tio n s i n K orea was b i t t e r l y c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e i r v a c i l l a t i o n d u rin g th e renew ed D utch a t t a c k s on I n d o n e s ia i n 1948. F u rth erm o re:, th e o p in io n p r e v a i l e d w id e ly in I n d o n e s ia t h a t a d m ir a tio n was due t o th e i l l e q u ip p ed p e a s a n ts com posing th e N o rth K orean arm y, who w ere p e rfo rm in g Mint/x, ’’M arxism i n I n d o n e s i a,’’ 218.-220;. Hans K o n ig s b e rg e r, ’’I n d o n e s ia: Camping i n No M an 's L a n d,” N a tio n, CLXKVI ( J a n u a r y 3, 19 5 3 ), 9; M. Ladd Thomas, "The S o u rce o f I n d o n e s ia n F o re ig n P o l i c y, ’’ S ou th A t l a n t i c Q u a r te r l y, LTV (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 5 3, u n t i l f u r t h e r c i t a t i o n. Under U n ite d N a tio n s a u s p ic e s, D utch and I n d o n e s ia n o f f i c i a l s s ig n e d a t r u c e ab o ard th e U. S. S. R e n v ille in J a n u a r y, 1.948. I t was soon v i o l a t e d by b o th s i d e s. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 15] === 10 so a b ly a g a i n s t th e w e ll-a rm e d, w e l l - f e d A m erican f o r c e s. The. a r r i v a l o f th e f i r s t am b assad o r from P e k in g i n A u g u st, 1950, m arked a d e f i n i t e r i s e i n th e amount o f Communist p ro p a g a n d a e n c o u ra g in g su ch v iew s among th e I n d o n e s ia n s. I n a c c o rd a n c e w ith P e k in g 's lo n g - p u b l ic i z e d g o a l o f a s s i s t i n g A sia n s in th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f W e ste rn i m p e r i a l i s t s, Communist C h in a 's m a ssiv e army e n te r e d th e K orean f r a y j u s t a s th e U n ite d N a tio n s f o r c e s w ere t u r n i n g th e t i d e. ^ So l i g h t l y r e g a rd e d f o r a c e n t u r y, th e C h in e se arm y-w as p o r tr a y e d t o I n d o n e s ia n s a s d e v a s t a t i n g l y e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t th e to u te d A m eric an s, w ith l i t t l e m e n tio n o f th e v a s t n u m e ric a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e C om m unists. The Panm unjon a r m i s t i c e i n J u l y, 1953, r e p r e s e n t e d th e f i r s t m a jo r c o n fe re n c e o f A sia n s and W e s te rn e rs a f t e r th e Second W o r l d W ar. I n d o n e s ia many i n t e r p r e t e d th e t r u c e a s a d i s t i n c t Communist tr i u m p h - - d i p l o m a t i c a l l y, p o l i t i c a l l y, and m i l i t a r i l y. I n d o n e s ia n s g e n e r a l l y view ed Communist C hina a s a n a t i o n, l i k e t h e i r s, w hich had r e p u d ia te d W este rn i n t e r f e r e n c e and s to o d on th e th r e s h o l d o f n a tio n a l g re a tn e s s. F a r s ig h te d p o l i c y m akers i n P ek in g h ad n o t o v e rlo o k e d th e s tr o n g I n d o n e s ia n sym pathy f o r them d u r in g th e K orean War and now p r e p a r e d t o c a p i t a l i z e upon t h i s s e n tim e h t t o make In d onesia an e v e n c l o s e r f r i e n d. ^ 24 B a r n e t t, Communist C h in a and A s i a, 9 1 -9 2. ^ G u y W in t, Communist C h in a 's C ru sad e (New Y ork, 1 9 6 5 ), 7 2 -7 3; A nthony T. B o u sg aren, S o v ie t F o re ig n P o lic y (New Y ork, 1 9 6 2 ), 138. 26 P e t e r S. H. Tang, Communist C h in a Today (W ash in g to n, 1 9 6 1 ), 5 7 2 -5 7 3; D avid L aw ren ce, "Where I s I n d o n e s ia G oing?" F o r e ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXV (Ju n e 15, 1 9 5 6 ), 150. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 16] === 11 No s o o n e r h a d a sh ak y p e a c e come t o th e K orean p e n i n s u l a th a n w o rld a t t e n t i o n s h i f t e d a lm o s t a t once t o In d o c h in a. By l a t e 1953, d e s p i t e i n c r e a s i n g a i d to th e V ietm in h from P ek in g and g row ing A m erican a s s i s t a n c e t o th e F re n c h, b o th s i d e s i n th e In d o c h in e s e c o n f l i c t a p p e a re d e x h a u s te d and re a d y to n e g o t i a t e. Thus i n e a r ly. 1954 th e "B ig F o u r" f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r s a g re e d t o co nvene a s p e c i a l c o n f e r e n c e t h a t s p r in g to t r y t o s e t t l e th e I n d o c h in e s e p ro b le m. ' By th e tim e th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e opened i n l a t e s p r i n g, 1954, th e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n f o r th e F re n c h i n In d o c h in a had d e t e r i o r a t e d d ra s tic a lly. Even w h ile th e Geneva d e l e g a t e s w ere t a l k i n g, news came o f th e o f th e trem en d o u s s t r a t e g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l F re n c h d i s a s t e r a t D ien B ie n P hu, w h ich speeded th e end o f e f f e c t i v e F re n c h r e s i s t a n c e i n I n d o c h in a. M eanw hile a t Geneva th e C h in e se d e l e g a t i o n, le d by F o re ig n M i n i s t e r Chou E n - l a i, p la y e d an i n f l u e n t i a l r o l e i n th e d e l i b e r a t i o n s, th e t h r e a t o f m a ssiv e C h in e se i n t e r v e n t i o n i n In d o c h in a alw ay s o v ersh ad o w in g th e p r o c e e d in g s. P e o p l e 's C hina i n P ek in g b o a s te d t h a t th e C h in e se a t Geneva "h av e p ro v e d t h a t no one can n e g a te th e pos i t i o n o f th e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a i n A s ia and th e w o rld, o r d i s r e g a r d i t s v o ic e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s. ” 28 The s e t t l e m e n t s, form ally c o n c lu d e d i n J u l y, w ere h e a v i l y in f lu e n c e d by D ien B ien P hu, C h o u 's s ta te s m a n s h ip a t G eneva, and th e e v e r - p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t y o f C h in e se 27 B a r n e t t, Communist C h in a and A s i a, 9 8 -9 9. 98 T su n -C h i L in, "Road t o th e P e a c e f u l S o lu tio n o f th e A sia n Q u e s tio n," P e o p l e 's C h in a, May 16, 1954, 1 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 17] === 12 armed i n t e r v e n t i o n. D u rin g th e w eeks o f t a l k s i n Geneva m ost In d o n e s - ia n s com pared th e F ren ch i n In d o c h in a t o th e D utch i n I n d o n e s ia. On th e o p en in g d ay o f th e Geneva C o n feren c e P ek in g o f f e r e d, m a in ly f o r A s ia n a t t e n t i o n, a f i v e - p o i n t s ta te m e n t o f Communist C h in a 's f o r e ig n p o l i c y, known a s th e Panch S h e e la: m u tu al r e s p e c t f o r th e t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y and s o v e r e ig n ty o f o t h e r n a t i o n s, r e n u n c i a ti o n o f a g g r e s s io n, n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e i n th e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f o th e r counh t r i e s, s o c i a l and econom ic e q u a l i t y in i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s, and p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e C h o u expounded upon th e Panch S h e e la i n num er ous s ta te m e n ts a t G e n e v a.^ I d e n t i f y i n g P e k in g 's i n t e r e s t s w ith th o s e o f o t h e r A sia n n a t i o n s, h e n o te d t h a t " th e p e o p le s o f A s ia, l i k e th e p e o p le s o f o th e r p a r t s o f th e w o rld, lo v e p e a c e and freed o m. The p e o p le s o f A s ia s u f f e r e d f o r a lo n g tim e o p p r e s s io n and e n s la v e m e n t. In a n o th e r Geneva s p e e c h h e p r o f e s s e d: 09 "The p e o p le o f C h in a, l i k e a l l p e o p le o f A s ia, a r e co n ce rn ed n o t o n ly a b o u t p eac e i n A sia b u t a l s o a b o u t p e a c e i n E urope and o th e r p a r t s o f th e w o rld. We a l s o c o n s id e r t h a t th e i n t e r e s t s o f p e a c e demand th e te r m in a t io n o f th e arm am ents 29 M in tx, "M arxism in I n d o n e s ia," 219. 30 W. A. C. A d ie, "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," C u rre n t S c e n e, I I I (May 15, 1 9 6 5 ), 10. 31 B a r n e t t, Communist C hina and A s i a, 9 9. 32 G re a t B r i t a i n, S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Documents R e la tin g t o th e D is c u s s io n o f K orea and In d o c h in a a t th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, M is c e lla n e o u s No. 16 (London, 1 9 5 4 ), 14. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 18] === P ro b a b ly b e c a u se o f th e s tr o n g s ta n d ta k e n by th e A m erican d e l e g a t io n a t G eneva, Chou f i n a l l y a g re e d to te rm s t h a t w ere somewhat l e s s th a n he d e s i r e d, A c cp rd in g to th e f i n a l d e c l a r a t i o n o f th e Geneva Con f e r e n c e, s ig n e d on J u l y 2 1, 1954, Vietnam, was d iv id e d a t th e 1 7 th P a r a l l e l, and Laos and Cambodia w ere n e u t r a l i z e d. 3^ V iew ing th e s e t t l e m ents a s a s u r r e n d e r t o Communist i n t e r e s t s, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a n c ti o n a c c o rd e d to th e Communist reg im e i n N o rth V ietnam, th e A m erican and S o u th V ietn am ese d e l e g a te s r e f u s e d t o s i g n. 35 S uk arn o h a i l e d th e Geneva S e ttle m e n ts a s th e b e s t p o s s i b l e s o lu t i o n t o th e ta n g le d I n d o c h in e s e s i t u a t i o n. He was a l s o g r a t i f i e d to s e e th e Communist C h in e se p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a m a jo r i n t e r n a t i o n a l con fe r e n c e w ith th e W e s t.36 M eanw hile Chou, e n r o u te home by a i r, sto p p e d in New D e lh i w here on J u n e 25 h e r e i t e r a t e d P e k in g 's p e a c e f u l i n t e n tio n s: A ll th e n a t io n s in th e w o rld can p e a c e f u l l y c o e x i s t, no m a tte r w h e th e r th e y a r e b ig o r s m a ll o r w eak, and no m a tte r w h a t.k in d o f s o c i a l sy stem eac h o f them h a s. The r i g h t s o f th e p e o p le o f each n a t i o n to n a t i o n a l in d e p en d en ce and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n m ust be r e s p e c te d. The p e o p le o f e ac h n a t i o n h av e th e r i g h t to ch o o se t h e i r own -’-'G re a t B r i t a i n, S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Documents R e la tin g to th e D is c u s s io n o f K orea and In d o c h in a a t th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, M is c e lla n e o u s, No. 1 6, 14. ■ ^ B a rn e tt, Communist C hina and A s ia, 9 9 -1 0 0; "The F in a l D e c la r a t i o n o f th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e on I n d o c h in a," P e o p l e 's C h in a, A u g u st 1, 1954, 1 -2. 35 bu SS, S o u th e a s t A s ia and th e W orld T oday, 15 7. 3 6 io k y o A sa h i Shim bun, A ugust 20., 1954; K. M. P a n n ik a r,. "A fro A sia n C o n fe re n c e: Symbol o f In d e p e n d e n c e," N a tio n, CLXX ( A p r il 2.. 1 9 5 5 ), 28 7. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 19] === 14 s t a t e sy ste m, w ith o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e from o th e r n a t i o n s. R e v o lu tio n c a n n o t be e x p o r te d; a t th e same tim e, o u ts id e i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e common w i l l e x p r e s s e d by th e p e o p le o f any n a t i o n sh o u ld n o t be p e r m i t t e d. I f a l l th e n a t i o n s o f th e w o rld p u t t h e i r m u tu a l r e l a t i o n s on th e b a s i s o f th e s e p r i n c i p l e s, i n t i m i d a t i o n and a g g r e s s io n by one n a t i o n a g a i n s t a n o th e r would n o t h a p p e n, and p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e o f a l l n a t io n s o f th e w o rld w ould be tu r n e d from a p o s s i b i l i t y i n t o a r e a l i t y. ^7 The Moscow New T im es, p r o b a b ly e c h o in g th e s e n tim e n ts o f th e S o v ie t g o v ern m en t, e n d o rs e d th e Geneva A greem ents a s " a p r a c t i c a l ap p ro a c h t o a s o l u t i o n o f I n d o c h i n a 's p o l i t i c a l p ro b lem s b a se d upon f u l l and e f f e c t i v e - o b s e r v a n c e - o f th e n a t i o n a l s o v e r e ig n t y and in d e p en d en ce o f V ietn am, Laos and Cam bodia. O nly a p eac e founded on th e s e p r i n c i p l e s c a n be s t a b l e and r e l i a b l e. R e s o l u t i o n s e n d o r s in g th e Geneva A greem ents and th e P anch S h e e la w ere a d o p te d a t th e t h i r t y - t h i r d s e s s io n o f th e C e n tr a l P e o p l e 's G overnm ent C o u n c il o f th e P e o p le 's Repub l i c o f C h in a.39 I n d e e d, from J u l y, 1954, onward Communist C hina seemed to h av e la u n c h e d a v ig o r o u s d r iv e to c o n v in c e n o n a lig n e d A sia n n a t i o n s t h a t th e Geneva a c c o rd was c o n c lu d e d l a r g e l y b e c a u se o f P e k in g 's Panch S h e e la. Such p e r s u a s io n was d is c o u n te d in th e W est as t y p i c a l P e k in g p ro p a g a n d a, b u t i n f l u e n t i a l Colombo l e a d e r s l i k e S u k arn o and N ehru h a p p i ly r e c e iv e d P e k in g 's p e a c e f u l p r o t e s t a t i o n s "^ P ek in g P e o p l e 's D a i l y, J u l y 2, 1954. 38 V. B erezhkow, "The Geneva C o n f e r e n c e," New T im es, Ju n e 19, 1954, 11. 39 R e p o rt on F o re ig n A f f a i r s, 3 3rd S e s s io n o f th e C e n tr a l P e o p l e 's Governm ent C o u n c il (P e k in g, 1 9 5 4 ), 2 - 3. ^ B a r n e t t, Communist C h in a and A s i a, 100. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 20] === 15 Communist C h in a 's grow ing i n t e r e s t i n S o u th e a s t A s ia gave im p e tu s t o A n g lo -A m erican p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r o rg a n iz in g - a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y ste m i n t h a t r e g io n. S h o r tly a f t e r assu m in g th e p r e s id e n c y in 1953, D w ight D. E isen h o w er p u b l i c l y s t r e s s e d th e n eed f o r u n it e d anti-C om m unist. a c t i o n in S o u th e a s t A s i a. ^ On th e ev e o f th e o p en in g o f th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e a y e a r l a t e r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e Jo h n F o s te r D u lle s w arned t h a t th e im p o s itio n o f a Communist p o l i t i c a l s y ste m upon S o u th e a s t A s ia, by w h a te v e r m eth o d s, w ould be a s e r i o u s m enace t o th e e n t i r e f r e e w o r ld. He c a l l e d upon an ti-C o m m u n ist n a t i o n s f o r " u n ite d a c t i o n " i n S o u th e a s t A s ia, ev en i f i t m eant a n armed c o n f l i c t. ^2 Geneva D u lle s em p h asized: d e r. "P eace i s alw ay s e a s y t o a c h ie v e by s u r r e n Our g overnm ent d o es n o t p ro p o s e t o buy p e a c e a t t h a t p r i c e. do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t th e A m erican p e o p le w ant p e a c e a t t h a t p r i c e. D u lle s was c o n v in c e d t h a t th e e x i s t e n c e o f an an ti-C o m m u n ist s e c u r i t y p a c t f o r S o u th e a s t A sia p r i o r to th e Geneva t a l k s w ould h av e g r e a t l y a s s i s t e d th e W e s t's n e g o t i a t i o n s, b u t th e B r i t i s h p r e f e r r e d t o p o s t pone i t s c r e a t i o n u n t i l a f t e r th e Geneva A greem ents w ere s i g n e d. ^ A t th e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e i r t a l k s i n W ash in g to n in J u n e, 1954, E ise n h o w e r and S ir - W in s to n C h u r c h i ll is s u e d a d e c l a r a t i o n w hich 41 R u s s e l H. F i f i e l d, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n U n ite d S t a t e s P o lic y (New Y o rk, 1 9 6 3 ), 2 7. ^ J o h n F o s t e r D u lle s, "The T h r e a t o f a Red A s i a, ” D ep artm en t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n, XXX ( A p r il 2, 1 9 5 4 ), 540. ^ R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, C a le n d a r and T e x ts o f Docum ents on I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, 1, No. 1 (May, 1 9 5 4 ), 163. ^ T o k y o A sa h i Shim bun, O c to b e r 2, 1954. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 21] === in c lu d e d th e s ta te m e n t: ’tfe r e a f f i r m th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e A t l a n t i c C h a r te r, c o n tin u e o u r s u p p o r t o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s, and we s h a l l, w ith o u r f r i e n d s, d e v e lo p and m a in ta in th e s p i r i t u a l, eco n o m ic, and m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h n e c e s s a r y t o p u rs u e th e s e p u rp o s e s e f f e c t i v e l y. ” The d e c l a r a t i o n w en t on t o s t r e s s th e n e c e s s i t y o f a S o u th e a s t A sian d e fe n s e p a c t. S h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r an A nglo-A m erican com m ission began t o la y p la n s f o r a c o n fe re n c e to draw up a c o l l e c t i v e - d e f e n s e t r e a t y. ^ Upon h i s r e t u r n to London C h u r c h ill en d e a v o re d t o, i n t e r e s t th e f i v e Colombo n a t io n s i n th e p ro p o se d S o u th e a s t A sia n p a c t. None, o f th e Colombo Pow ers had p a r t i c i p a t e d d i r e c t l y i n th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, b u t th e y d id send a j o i n t communique t o F o re ig n S e c r e t a r y A nthony Eden on A ugust 4, 1954, e x p r e s s in g t h e i r r e l i e f a t th e e n d in g o f th e I n d o c h in e s e w ar and t h e i r s u p p o r t o f th e Geneva s e t t l e m e n t s. ^ S e v e ra l w eeks l a t e r, h o w ev er, I n d i a and I n d o n e s ia n o t i f i e d London, t h a t th e y w ould n o t c o o p e r a te i n a s e c u r i t y p a c t f o r S o u th e a s t A s ia. ° N e v e r th e le s s, m i n i s t e r s from f i v e W este rn c o u n t r i e s w ith S o u th e a s t A sia n i n t e r e s t s - - t h e U n ite d S t a t e s, G re a t B r i t a i n, F ra n c e, A u s t r a l i a, and New Z e a la n d --a n d th r e e A sia n n a t i o n s - - T h a i l a n d, th e P h i l - ■ i p p i n e s, and P a k is ta n - - a s s e m b le d a t M an ila i n S ep tem b er, 1954 and ^ R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, C a le n d a r and T e x ts o f Documents on I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, 1, No. 1. 1 7 2 -1 7 3. 46 Chatham House S tu d y G roup, C o l l e c t i v e D efen se i n S o u th E a s t A s ia (London, 1 9 5 6 ), 4. ^ L o n d o n T im es, A ugust 5, 1954. ^•S j b i d., A ugust 14, 1954. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 22] === 17 q u ic k ly ap p ro v ed th e S o u th E a s t A sia C o l l e c t i v e D efen se T r e a ty on th e b a s i s o f a p r e v io u s l y p r e p a re d A n g lo -A m erican d r a f t.^9 Not b in d in g i t s s i g n a t o r i e s a s c l o s e l y as th e NATO P a c t, th e M a n ila t r e a t y s t i p u l a t e d t h a t e a c h s i g n a t o r y w ould c o n s u lt th e o th e r s i n c a s e o f a g g r e s s io n in S o u th e a s t A s ia and w ould ta k e a c t i o n in a c c o rd a n c e w ith i t s c o n s titu tio n a l p ro c e sse s. The t r e a t y a r e a was d e s ig n a te d a s th e la n d s o f th e A sia n s i g n a t o r i e s and o-ther—Sou t he a s t A s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s s o u th o f 21°30* n o r th l a t i t u d e. The t r e a t y a l s o p ro v id e d f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f a p erm a n en t S o u th e a s t A sia T r e a ty O r g a n iz a tio n, w hich was o f f i c i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n e a r l y 1955 w ith i t s h e a d q u a r te r s a t g k o k S ukarno s t a t e d on num erous o c c a s io n s t h a t autumn t h a t h e was ad am an tly opposed t o th e c r e a t i o n o f SEATO and p r e f e r r e d to p la c e h i s t r u s t i n th e P anch S e e la o f P e k in g. He m a in ta in e d t h a t h i s c o u n try had no n eed f o r su ch an a l l i a n c e a s SEATO and t h a t i t s e x i s t e n c e w ould prom ote i n s e c u r i t y and en d a n g e r p e a c e. He a l s o a rg u e d t h a t SEATO sh o u ld be condemned by th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e ra l A ssem bly a s a v i o l a t i o n o f t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n ’ s c h a r t e r. ^1 A t th e F i r s t N a tio n a l P e o p l e 's C o n g re s s, w hich met in P ek in g i n ^ F i f i e l d, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s P o l i c y., 2 9. -*®South E a s t A sia T r e a ty O r g a n iz a tio n, S to r y o f SEATO, (B angkok, 1 9 6 0 ), 1; "F u se o f W orld War I I I, " N a tio n, CLXXX ( A p r il 2, 1 9 5 5 ), ^ T o k y o A sa h i Shim bun, S ep tem b er 14, 1954; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: P a ra d o x e s o f In d e p e n d e n c e," S o u th A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y, LIV ( J u l y, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 2 5 -3 2 6; Van D er K ro e f, "M arxism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXVII (N ovem ber, 1 9 5 4 ), 2 9 7. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 23] === 18 S e p te m b e r, 1954, Chou E n - l a i a s s a i l e d SEATO and a d d e d: " A s ia n c o u n t r i e s s h o u ld c o n s u lt t o g e t h e r and ta k e a l l e f f e c t i v e m e asu re s to pro m o te C ol l e c t i v e c o o p e r a tio n among th e m s e lv e s, and j o i n t l y s t r i v e t o d e fe n d c o l l e c t i v e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y i n A s ia. e x c lu d e an y c o u n tr y o u ts id e A s i a." 52 T h is p r o p o s a l o f o u rs d o es n o t I n th e e n s u in g m onths P e k in g j o u r n a l i s t s r e p e a t e d l y m a in ta in e d t h a t A sia n p ro b lem s c o u ld n o t be s o lv e d w ith o u t th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e Communist C h in e se g o v ern m e n t. D j a k a r t a 's n e w sp ap ers w ere e q u a l l y c r i t i c a l o f SEATO. n e s i a, f o r ex am p le, com mented: Geneva A g reem e n ts. B e r i t a In d d - "The SEATO fo r m a tio n h a s v i o l a t e d th e The a g g r e s s iv e b lo c, o f c o l o n i a l pow ers and t h e i r p u p p e ts i n S o u th e a s t A s ia was. form ed i n M a n ila on A m erican i n i t i a t i v e and u n d e r A m erican p r e s s u r e. I t i s i n c r y in g c o n t r a d i c t i o n to th e G eneva A g r e e m e n t s. O n th e o t h e r h a n d, l e a d e r s o f th e A sia n s t a t e s t h a t s ig n e d th e SEATO P a c t - - P a k i s t a n, T h ia la n d, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s - s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e i r n a t i o n s w ere r e a l i s t i c a b o u t th e t h r e a t o f Commun ism and w ere assu m in g r i s k s w h ich o t h e r A sia n c o u n t r i e s w ere u n w ill in g t o a c c e p t. ■54 By, l a t e summer, 1954, P e k in g h ad s t a r t e d o r g a n iz in g " f r i e n d s h i p a s s o c i a t i o n s " i n a num ber o f uncom m itted n a t i o n s i n A s ia and A f r i c a. ^ C h o u E n - l a i, " F o r C o l l e c t i v e P eace i n A s i a, " P e o p le 11s C h ina (O c to b e r 16, 1 9 5 4 ), 3 5. ^ D j a k a r t a B e r i t a I n d o n e s i a, S ep tem b er 9, 1954^ F i f i e l d, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n U n ite d S t a t e s P o l i c y, 1.2.1; Van D er K r o e f, "M arxism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 2 9 6 -2 9 7; R. D. M urphy, "D e fe n se o f A s i a," U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n, XXXI (November 2 9, 1 9 5 4 ), 8 0 2 -8 0 3; "F u se o f W orld War I I I, " N a tio n, CLXXX, 2 7 7 -2 7 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 24] === T hese g ro u p s, w h ich on th e s u r f a c e w ere d e s ig n e d to pro m o te c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s, a c t u a l l y w ere u se d by P ek in g to s p re a d M a o is t p ro p ag an d a and p ro m o te p ro -C h in e s e r a l l i e s. T h e fo u n d e rs o f th e I n d o n e s ia - C hin a F r ie n d s h ip A s s o c i a ti o n, w h ich was e s t a b l i s h e d i n J a n u a r y, 1955, in c lu d e d Dean T ja n Tjoesom o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f I n d o n e s i a 's S ch o o l o f S in o lo g y, and P r o f e s s o r P r i j o n o, I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t a l i n P eace P r iz e w in n e r. Tjoesom had j u s t r e tu r n e d from a t o u r o f m a in la n d C hina a s a g u e s t o f th e P e k in g re g im e; P r ijo n o was v ic e - c h a ir m a n o f th e Communistd o m in ated I n d o n e s ia n P eace C om m ittee. When an I n d o n e s ia n a r t group v i s t e d Communist C h in a, P ek in g r e p o r te d t h a t th e C h in e se w ere im p ressed by " n o t o n ly th e r ic h n e s s and c o l o r o f I n d o n e s ia n a r t b u t th e s p i r i t o f th e In d o n e s ia n p e o p le — th e s p i r i t i n w hich th e y waged t h e i r dogged f i g h t a g a i n s t a l l o p p r e s s o r s and t h e i r s t r u g g l e f o r freed o m and p e a c e." A r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d " C h in e s e - I n d o n e s ia n F r i e n d s h i p," "An Old F r ie n d s h ip Renewed--A R eview o f S ino-B urm ese R e l a t i o n s, " and th e l i k e a p p e a re d f r e q u e n t l y i n P e k in g c u l t u r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s a f t e r 1953. P rim e M in is te r A li S a s tr o a m id jo jo s ig n e d I n d o n e s i a 's f i r s t com m ercial t r e a t y w ith Communist C hina in l a t e 1954. A lso t h a t y e a r th e A l i m i n i s t r y a tte m p te d t o f o rm u la te a n o n a g g r e s s io n p a c t w h ich w ould in c lu d e C h in a, I n d i a, Burma, and I n d o n e s ia. F o r v a r io u s re a s o n s th e id e a was s t i l l b o r n, b u t A l i 's p r o p o s a l m ust h av e d e l i g h t e d P e k in g. ~^Tang, Communist C hina T oday, 5 7 6 -5 7 7. -^ R o g e r S w e a rin g e r, "T e c h n iq u e s o f Communist A g g re s s io n and th e M oscow -Peking A x is, " i n N a tio n a lis m and P r o g r e s s i n F re e A s i a, e d. P h i l i p W. T h ay er ( B a ltim o r e, 1 9 5 6 ), 322. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 25] === 20 I n th e w in te r o f 1954-1955, a m id s t th e Formosa S t r a i t c r i s i s, In d o n e s ia n o f f i c i a l s made num erous p u b l i c s ta te m e n ts i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r sym pathy f o r P e k in g 1s p o s i t i o n, and s e v e r a l r e s i d e n t C h in e se in D ja k a r ta who h ad been K uom intang members w ere d e p o r te d. The P e k in g - 57 D ja k a r ta a x i s was n o t i c e a b l y grow ing s t r o n g e r. • C o in c id in g w ith P e k in g 's d ip lo m a tic o f f e n s iv e in th e wake o f th e Geneva A greem ents was an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f Communist C h in e se a id to Ho C h i-m in h 's regim e i n N o rth V ietnam, a s w e.ll a s to th e V ietm inh i n S o u th V ietnam. The n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f Laos and Cambodia had b lo c k e d t h e i r e n tr a n c e i n t o SEATO; th e Diem reg im e in S o u th V ietnam was a lr e a d y show ing a p p a l l i n g s ig n s o f w ea k n e ss; and th e t h r e e - n a t i o n n e u t r a l com m is s io n t o s u p e r v is e th e Geneva A greem ents in c lu d e d two n a t i o n s, P o la n d, and I n d i a, known t o oppose SEATO. Communist e x p a n s io n on th e S o u th e a s t A sia n m a in lan d lo o k e d p ro m is in g, p ro m p tin g W a lte r B e d e ll S m ith, A m erican u n d e r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e, t o com mit: "D iplom acy h a s r a r e l y g a in e d a t th e c o n fe re n c e t a b l e w h at c a n n o t be g a in e d o r h e ld on th e b a t t l e f i e l d. " ^ Thanks to grow ing n a t i o n a l i s t s e n tim e n t and Communist p ro p a g a n d a, A sia n o p in io n by 1954 was g e n e r a l l y s u s p e c io u s o f W este rn m o tiv e s. The W est was d is a p p o in te d t h a t f o u r o f th e f i v e Colombo H e r b e r t F e i t h, The D e c lin e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Democracy i n In d o n e s ia ( I t h a c a, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 8 3 -3 8 9; Thomas, "S o u rc e o f I n d o n e s ia n F o re ig n P o l i c y, " 4 5 5 -4 5 6, 45 9. 58 S w e a rin g e r, " T e c h n iq u e s o f Communist A g g re s s io n and th e M oscow -Peking A x is," 3 2 3 -3 2 4. ^N ew Y ork T im es, J u l y 2 4, 1954. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 26] === Pow ers h ad r e f u s e d to j o i n SEATO, p r e f e r r i n g th e ro a d o f n o n a lig n m e n t w ith E a s t o r W est i n th e C old W ar. E a s t-W e s t te n s i o n s a s r e f l e c t e d in A sia n t r o u b l e s p o ts was a t o p i c o f g r e a t c o n c e rn a t th e Colombo C o n fe r en ce o f 1954. A li S a s tr o a m id jo jo, I n d o n e s i a 's p rim e m i n i s t e r, sugrg e s te d a t th e tim e t h a t a h i g h - l e v e l c o n f e r e n c e o f in d e p e n d e n t A s ia n and A f r ic a n s t a t e s c o u ld s e r v e to a l l e v i a t e Cold-W ar t e n s i o n s and r a l l y th e p e o p le s o f th e two c o n t i n e n t s i n t h e i r c o n tin u in g f i g h t a g a i n s t c o l o n ia li s m. A t a m e e tin g w ith N ehru in New D e lh i i n S ep te m b e r, 1954. A li o b ta in e d th e I n d ia n le a d e r,1s e n d o rse m e n t o f an A s ia n - A f r ic a n co n f e r e n c e, p r o v id e d Communist C hina was in c lu d e d. B oth men f e l t t h a t th e c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld d r a f t r e s o l u t i o n s w ith w h ich P e k in g c o u ld c o n c u r, and b o th b e l ie v e d t h a t Communist C h in a s h o u ld be b ro u g h t i n t o c l o s e r a s s o c i a t i o n w ith o t h e r A sia n n a t i o n s, p e rh a p s lo o s e n in g i t s t i e s w ith R u s s ia. In D ecem ber, 1954, th e Colombo f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s m et a t B ogor, I n d o n e s ia, w h ere th e y l a i d p r e l i m i n a r y p la n s f o r th e A fro -A s ia n m eet in g. A j o i n t s e c r e t a r i a t f o r th e c o n f e r e n c e was fo rm ed, w ith e a c h o f th e f i v e Colombo Powers r e p r e s e n t e d and I n d o n e s ia e n t r u s t e d w ith th e c h a ir m a n s h ip. I t was d e c id e d t o co nvene th e asse m b ly on A p r i l 18, 1955, a t Bandung, I n d o n e s ia. C h in a. I t was a l s o a g re e d t o i n v i t e Communist Thus th e s e t t i n g was a r r a n g e d f o r th e g ran d s ta g e p e rfo rm a n c e o f S ukarno and Chou E n - l a i. ^ ^ 60 F e i t h, D e c lin e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Democracy, i n I n d o n e s i a, 3 8 7 -3 8 8; " A f r ic a n - A s ia n C o n fe re n c e, ” W orld T oday, I I (M arch, 1 9 5 5 ), 114: " A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e, 11 -Commonweal, LXI ( J a n u a r y 14, 1 9 5 5 ), 396; " A s ia n - A f r ic a n P a r l e y S e t f o r A p r i l, " C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII ( J a n u a r y 12, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 5; "Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," W orld T oday, I I ( J u n e, R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 27] === CHAPTER I I BANDUNG AND AFTER A l i S a s tr o a m id jo j o, th e a m b itio u s I n d o n e s ia n p rim e m i n i s t e r and PKI s y m p a th iz e r, was an e n t h u s i a s t i c p ro m o te r o f th e Bandung C o n fe r ence. A l i, who f e l t t h a t some o f th e m e e tin g 's g lam o r and p u b l i c i t y w ould ru b o f f on him a s I n d o n e s i a 's to p d e l e g a te n e x t t o S u k arn o, was a n x io u s ly a n t i c i p a t i n g th e c o u n t r y 's f i r s t g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s, s c h e d u le d f o r th e f a l l o f 1 9 5 5.^ He was e s p e c i a l l y d e s ir o u s o f w in n in g th e s u p p o r t o f th e r e s i d e n t C h in e se s in c e m ost s m a ll b u s in e s s e s w ere owned by t h a t e le m e n t. S u k arn o and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s r e a l i z e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a 's h o s t i n g o f a m a jo r g a t h e r in g o f n a t i o n s w ould n o t o n ly im p re s s th e d i s g r u n t l e d m asses a t home b u t a l s o en h an ce th e n a t i o n 's p r e s t i g e a b r o a d, p e rh a p s m o b iliz in g g r e a t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r I n d o n e s ia i n h e r u n reso lv ed G. F. H udson, "B alance S h e e t on B an d u n g." Com m entary, XIX ( J u n e, 1 9 5 5 ), 564; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: S e a rc h f o r S t a b i l i t y, " C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXI ( J u l y, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 5 -2 6; C o lin J a c k s o n, "Communist P a r t i e s i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," New R e p u b lic, CXXX (May 3 1, 1 9 5 4 ), 8 -9; > "Coming Bandung C o n fe re n c e W o rrie s th e W e s t," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII ( J a n u a r y 1 9, 1 9 5 5 ), 6 8; " A fro -A s ia n s S p eak f o r T h e m s e lv e s," B u s in e s s Week, May 7, 1955, 136; " A f r ic a n - A s ia n C o n fe re n c e, " W orld T oday, I I, 114. W inburn T. Thomas, "Bandung S i t s on a V o lc a n o," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXlI ( A p r i l 2 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 57 1; Andrew R o th, " I n d o n e s ia: Q u a li f i e d O p tim ism," N a tio n, CLXIX (A u g u st 2 7, 1 9 4 9 ), 20 3; D o ro tiiy Woodman, "Y o u n g e st R e p u b lic," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXII (A u g u st 18, 1 9 5 1 ), 1 7 4-175; " A s ia n s M eet A f r i c a n s, " New R e p u b lic, CLXXXII ( A p r il 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 28] === 23 d i s p u t e w ith H o lla n d o v e r I r i a n. N e v e r th e le s s, i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t S uk arn o la u n c h e d h i s p ro m o tio n o f th e Bandung C o n feren c e w ith o u t p r e v io u s a g ree m en t w ith th e PKI, g u a r a n te e in g t h a t p o w e rfu l o r g a n i z a t i o n 's s u p p o r t. M o reo v er, h i s e a g e r n e s s f o r Communist C h in e se p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e m e e tin g was o b v io u s from th e s t a r t, and C h o u = E n -la i's w i l l i n g n e s s t o a t t e n d was d e te rm in e d d u r in g th e p r e li m i n a r y p la n n in g. Sukarno a l s o seems to h av e a s c e r t a i n e d a t an e a r l y s ta g e t h a t th e S o v ie t U nion w ould n o t be o ffe n d e d by i t s e x c l u s i o n from th e a sse m b ly. Of c o n s id e r a b le c o n c e rn to S ukarno was N e h ru 's a t t i t u d e, w hich a t f i r s t was d is c o u r a g in g i The I n d ia n l e a d e r may hav e d i s l i k e d th e n o ti o n o f fo llo w in g th e le a d o f S u k arn o and A l i, o r h e m ay -h av e, f o r some unknown r e a s o n, d o u b te d th e wisdom o f h o ld in g su ch a m eetin g, a t a ll. To S u k arn o.'s r e l i e f, h o w ev er, N ehru f i n a l l y a g re e d to a t t e n d, a p p a r e n tly h a v in g d e te rm in e d to t r y to h o ld th e c e n t e r o f th e Bandung s ta g e h im s e lf. N ehru may have re a s o n e d t h a t Bandung w ould a f f o r d him an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r tu n i ty to f u r t h e r th e n e u t r a l i s t c a u s e and t o reV a s s e r t I n d ia n le a d e r s h ip among th e n o p a lig n e d n a t i o n s. I n d i a 's p o s i t i o n h ad b een r e s t r i c t e d, i n N e h ru 's th i n k i n g, by th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e M a n ila P a c t, by P a k i s t a n 's m i l i t a r y a i d from th e U n ite d S t a t e s, and by a r e c e n t T u r k i s h - I r a q i s e c u r i t y p a c t. As e v e n ts tu r n e d o u t a t Bandung th e n e x t y e a r, N ehru so v i c i o u s l y a s s a i l e d W e ste rn 1 im p e r ia lis m H udson, " B a la n c e S h e e t on B an d u n g," 5 6 4 -5 6 5; " A f r ic a n - A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," W orld Today, I I f 114; " I n d o n e s i a 's F re s h A p p ro a c h," E c o n o m is t, CLXXVIII ( J a n u a r y 7, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 6; M ich ael S t r a i g h t, "What A s ia N e e d s." New R e p u b lic, CXXXII (J a n u a r y 2 4, 1955)*, 8 -1 0; Van Der K r o e f, "M arxism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 2 9 4 -2 9 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 29] === 24 a n d -W e ste rn -b a c k e d c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y i n A sia t h a t Chou E n - l a i d id n o t f in d i t n e c e s s a r y to add to th e I n d i a n 's a n ti- W e s te r n fo m e n t.^ A t Bogor i n l a t e D ecem ber, 1954, th e Colombo p rim e m i n i s t e r s l a i d p r e li m i n a r y p la n 's f o r th e A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e t o a ssem b le a t Bandung i n A p r i l. ** A li was ch airm an o f th e Bogor m e e tin g and was i n s tr u m e n ta l in d r a f t i n g th e ainis o f th e p r o j e c t e d c o n f e r e n c e: (1 ) To prom ote g o o d w ill and c o o p e r a tio n among th e n a t io n s o f A s ia and A f r i c a, to e x p lo r e and advance t h e i r m u tu a l a s w e ll a s common i n t e r e s t, and to e s t a b l i s h and f u r t h e r f r i e n d l i n e s s and n e ig h b o u rly re la tio n s; ( 2 ) -To c o iis id e r s o c i a l, econom ic, and c u l t u r a l p ro b lem s and r e l a t i o n s o f th e c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d; (3 ) To c o n s id e r p ro b lem s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to A sia n and A f r ic a n p e o p le s, e. g., p ro b lem s a f f e c t i n g n a t i o n a l s o v e r e ig n t y, and o f r a c i a l i s m and c o lo n ia lis m; (4 ) To view th e p o s i t i o n o f A sia and A f r i c a and t h e i r p e o p le s i n th e w o rld o f to d a y, and th e c o n t r i b u t i o n th e y can make t o th e p ro m o tio n o f w o rld p e a c e and c o o p e r a tio n.^ A t b o g o r i t was d e c id e d to l i m i t th e Bandung i n v i t a t i o n l i s t to f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r s o f in d e p e n d e n t A sia n and A f r ic a n s t a t e s who a p p e a re d t o be s y m p a th e tic t o th e d e c la r e d p u rp o s e s o f th e a s s e m b ly. No E u ro p ean n a t i o n was i n v i t e d, th u s e x c lu d in g R u s s ia and le a v in g Communist C hina t o th e r o l e o f th e m ost p o w e rfu l M a r x is t s t a t e r e p r e s e n t e d a t ^H udson, " B a la n c e S h e e t on B andung," 5 66; "A sia n s M eet A f r i c a n," New R e p u b lic, CLXXXII, 5; " A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e, " Commonweal, LXI, ^ P o p la i, A s ia and A f r ic a n i n th e M odern W o rld, 9; Thomas H o d g k in, "B ackground to B andung," S p e c t a t o r, CLXXXV ( A p r il 15, 1955^, 46 2. In d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe r e n c e (B andung, 1 9 5 4 ), 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 30] === 25 Bandung J The tw e n ty -n in e A fro -A s ia n c o u n t r i e s w hich u l t i m a t e l y a c c e p te d i n v i t a t i o n s t o a t t e n d th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e co m p rised an a g g r e g a te p o p u la tio n o f 1,4 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0, o r o v e r h a l f o f th e w o r l d 's p e o p le. M ost w ere " n o n -w h ite " n a t i o n s, and a l a r g e m a j o r i t y u n t i l r e c e n t y e a r s had b e e n E u ro p ea n c o l o n i e s. M o reo v er, m ost w ere e c o n o m ic a lly u n d e r - d e v e l o p ed; t h e i r g o v ern m en ts ra n g e d fro m v W e ste rn -ty p e d e m o c ra c ie s t o Com m u n is t t o t a l i t a r i a n, re g im e s Tim e, among o t h e r A m erican p e r i o d i c a l s, _■ ' p r e d i c t e d t h a t. Bandung w ould be a "Communist ro a d sh o w," b u t th e A fro A sia n d e l e g a t e s, f r e e f o r a change from th e i n f l u e n c e o f R u s s ia, G re a t B r i t a i n, F r a n c e, th e N e th e r la n d s, and th e U nited.. S ta te s,../v jo u ld demon s t r a t e g r e a t e r in d e p e n d e n c e o f ju d g m en t th a n m ost W e ste rn a n a l y s t s im ag in ed p o s s i b l e. The s p o n s o r in g Colombo Pow ers s t r i c t l y c o n t r o l l e d th e i n v i t a t i o n s t o B andung, b u t th e y w ere o b v io u s ly in f lu e n c e d by o t h e r i n t e r e s t b lo c s. The A fro -A s ia n e x c l u s i o n s in c lu d e d th e U nion o f South. A f r i c a, w here a d a r k - s k in n e d m a jo r it y was d o m in ated by a l i g h t - s k i n n e d m inority;. I a n Thomson, The R is e o f M odern A s ia (New Y ork, 1 9 4 8 ), 2 29; " A s ia n - A f r ic a n P a r le y S e t f o r A p r i l. " C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII, 35; M ic h a e l S t r a i g h t, "Do We Want A sia n U n ity? " New R e p u b lic, CXXXII ( A p r il 2 5, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 - 6. ® " A fric a -A s ia M e e tin g." S e n io r S c h o l a s t i c. LXVI (May 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 13; Homer A. J a c k, " A s i a 's L a s t C a l l to t h e - W e s t," S a tu r d a y R eview, XXXIX (M arch 17, 1 9 5 6 ), 1 9 -2 0; A. J o s e y, " M u ltitu d e a t B andung," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIV ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 65; " C o u n c il o f A s i a," E co n o m ist, CLXXV ( A p r il 16, 1 9 5 5 ), 179. W inbum T. Thomas, "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n i t y," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII (May 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 572; S t r a i g h t, "Do Wfe Want A s ia n U n ity? " R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 31] === 26 N a t i o n a l i s t C h in a, w hose i n v i t a t i o n w ould i n f u r i a t e Communist C h ina; I s r a e l, w hich was ig n o re d b e c a u se o f A rab h o s t i l i t y; and b o th N o rth and S o u th K o rea, w ith th e an ti-C o m m u n ists o p p o sin g th e fo rm er and th e Com m u n is ts v e to in g th e l a t t e r. ^ When q u e s tio n e d by a W e ste rn c o rre s p o n c d e n t a b o u t th e c r i t e r i a f o r i n v i t a t i o n s, P re m ie r A li re s p o n d e d th u s: Qc Why w ere th e A rab n a t i o n s i n v i t e d, b u t n o t I s r a e l? A. W h eth er a c o u n try i s t o be i n v i t e d, was d e c id e d by th e f iv e p rim e m i n i s t e r s u n a n im o u sly. The i n v i t a t i o n t o A rab n a t i o n s was a g re e d upo n u n a n im o u sly, w h ereas th e r e was no u n a n im ity c o n c e rn in g I s r a e l, Why was Communist C hina i n v i t e d, b u t n o t N a t i o n a l i s t C hina? The f i v e s p o n o s o rin g c o u n t r i e s r e c o g n iz e o n ly one C h in a, t h a t i s th e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a. Q. Why w ere V ietnam and V ietm in h i n v i t e d, b u t n o t th e R e p u b lic o f K orea? As you know, th e f iv e p rim e m i n i s t e r s o f th e s p o n s o rin g c o u n t r i e s a r e more o r l e s s com m itted w ith r e g a r d to th e i s s u e o f In d o c h i n a, s in c e i n A p r i l, 1954, when m e e tin g f o r th e f i r s t tim e in Colombo, th e y h av e ta k e n a common s ta n d on th e I n d o c h in a p ro b le m. The w o rld a l s o knows t h a t th e Colombo d e c i s i o n s h ad a c o n s id e r a b le i n f l u en c e on th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, r e s u l t i n g i n th e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s p r e v a i l i n g now i n I n d o c h in a. Now t h a t o u r s u g g e s tio n s h av e b een a c c e p te d by th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, we f e l t a s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by i n v i t i n g a l l th e In d o c h in a c o u n t r i e s i n c lu d in g S o u th V ietnam and V ie tm in h. T h a t same r e a s o n in g d id n o t a p p ly t o K o re a. Q. I s t h e r e any f e a r th e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a w i l l u se th e c o n fe re n c e s im p ly t o s tr e n g t h e n th e r o l e o f Communism i n A sia? A. T h ere i §,n o su ch f e a r from th e s id e o f th e f i v e s p o n s o rin g Colombo c o u n t r i e s. The A u s t r a l i a n D a ily T e le g ra p h o f Sydney e x p r e s s e d A u s t r a l i a 's w is h e s t h a t th e Bandung m e e tin g s h o u ld go w e ll d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t A u s t r a l i a was n o t i n v i t e d. The Sydney n ew sp ap er commented, h o w ever,. " A f r ic a - A s ia M e e tin g," S e n io r S c h o l a s t i c, LXVI, 1 3 -1 4; " A fro A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," Commonweal, LXI, 3 9 6; " A s ia n - A f r ic a n P a r le y S e t f o r A p r i l, " C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII, 35; "Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," W orld T oday, I I, 23 6. ■ ^ In d o n e sia n M in is tr y o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe r e n c e, 7. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 32] === t h a t th e Bogor co n se n su s t h a t A u s t r a l i a d id n o t q u a l i f y g e o g r a p h ic a lly was d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s ta n d. I t n o te d f u r t h e r t h a t A u s t r a l i a h ad been I n d o n e s i a 's m ost e f f e c t i v e s u p p o r te r i n t h a t n a t i o n 's f i g h t f o r a s e a t in th e U n ite d N a tio n s, an o r g a n iz a ti o n w h ich, by th e way, d id n o t i n e lu d e J a p a n o r Communist C h in a, b o th Bandung p a r t i c i p a n t s. th e same.o rg a n o b s e rv e d: 19 L a te r "The Colombo le a d e r s in v i t e d tw e n ty -n in e n a t i o n s, in c lu d in g Communist C h in a. I t c o u ld be th e b e g in n in g o f an u p s u rg e o f r a c i a l h a t r e d s a g a i n s t th e W est, s in c e th e r e was no i n v i t i n g S o u th A f r ic a t o j o i n. The Communist in f l u e n c e h a s d i c t a t e d th e d e c i s i o n s. " 13 A t th e Bogor p la n n in g s e s s i o n, h o w ev er, th e i n t e n t i o n o f m ost p a r t i c i p a n t s had b een s in c e r e and p e a c e -m in d e d. B urm a's P rim e M in is te r U Nu em p h asized a t t h a t m e e tin g t h a t "we w ant p eac e more th a n any th in g." He ad d ed, "We sh o u ld s t r i v e t o u s h e r in a new e r a i n A sia n r e l a t i o n s, by d is c a r d i n g th e h a r s h word f o r th e g e n t le o n e, by r e p l a c in g s u s p i c io n and m is u n d e rs ta n d in g w ith t r u s t and c o n f id e n c e." Nehru t o l d th e Colombo m i n i s t e r s a t Bogor t h a t " th e o ld b a la n c e s a r e no lo n g e r t h e r e, and th e y m ust p la c e A s ia and A f r ic a i n p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e in th e w o rld b e c a u se th e o ld p e r s p e c t i v e s no lo n g e r a p p l y.!tl^ The Bandung ag en d a, a s f i n a l i z e d by th e Colombo p rim e m i n i s t e r s. ^ S y d n ey. A u s t r a l i a D a ily T e le g r a p h, A p r il 4, 1955. ^ I b i d., A p r il 6, 1955. ^ Q u o te d i n Homer A. J a c k, B andung: A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e, Bandung, I n d o n e s ia. A p r i l, 1955 (C h ic a g o, 1 9 5 5 ), 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 33] === 28 w ere as f o llo w s: (1 ) Economic c o o p e r a tio n. (2 ) C u l t u r a l c o o p e r a tio n. (3 ) Human r i g h t s and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n. U nder t h i s ite m, th e q u e s tio n s o f P a l e s t i n e and r a c i a l i s m w ould be d is c u s s e d. (4 ) P ro b lem s o f d e p e n d e n t p e o p l e s. T h is w ould in c lu d e d i s c u s s io n s o f T u n is ia, A lg e r ia, and M orocco. (5 ) P ro m o tio n o f w o rld p e a c e and c o o p e r a tio n. The q u e s ti o n o f w eapons o f mass d e s t r u c t i o n and d isarm am en t w ould be in c lu d e d u n d e r t h i s ite m. When th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f many f a i t h s and r a c e s assem b led a t Bandung in A p r i l, 1955, i n an atm o sp h ere p ack ed w ith e x c ite m e n t, P r e s i ' d e n t S ukarno f o r m a lly opened th e c o n fe re n c e w ith an e m o tio n -p a c k e d a d d r e s s t h a t was w arm ly r e c e i v e d. ’’Our p e o p le h av e b een th e v o i c e l e s s on es i n th e w o rld, b u t th e n a t io n s o f A s ia and A f ric a, a r e no lo n g e r t o o l s o f o th e r s and th e p la y th in g s o f f o r c e s th e y c a n n o t c o n t r o l, ” c r i e d S u k arn o. "Look! th e w o rld l i s t e n e d. ” 16 The p e o p le s o f A s ia r a i s e d t h e i r v o ic e s, and T h is f i r s t i n t e r - c o n t i n e n t a l a ssem b ly o f c o lo r e d p e o p le s, S uk arn o b o a s te d, was a new d e p a r tu r e i n th e w o r ld ’ s h is to ry. H e n c e f o r th, h e p r e d i c t e d, A fro -A s ia n s w ould d e l i b e r a t e and c o o p e r a te upon p ro b lem s o f common c o n c e rn. The I n d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t a l s o rem inded th e d e l e g a t e s t h a t, a s lo n g a s huge a r e a s o f A f r i c a and A ndadipuram A p p a d o ra i, The Bandung C o n feren c e (New D e lh i, 1 9 5 5 ), 6; "Com m unists M iss th e B o a t," U. tS. Hews & W orld R e p o rt, XXXVIII ( A p r il 2 9, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 0; S au n d ers R ed d in g, "M eaning o f B an d u ng,” A m erican S c h o la r 4 XXV ( F a l l, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 14; " C o u n c il o f A s i a," E c o n o m is t, CLXXV, 17 9 -1 8 0; i'A s ia n - A f r ic a n P a r le y S e t f o r A p r i l, ” C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXII, 3 5. ^ " U p s e t a B an d u n g,” Tim e, LXV (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 6; C h r is to p h e r Rand, "Our F a r-F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts,” New Y o rk e r, XXXI (Ju n e 11, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 34] === 29 A s ia w ere u n f r e e, th e h a t e d s p e c t e r o f c o l o n ia li s m s t i l l e x i s t e d. 17 O pening a d d r e s s e s by h e a d s o f v a r io u s d e l e g a t i o n s o c c u p ie d th e f i r s t t h r e e p l e n a r y s e s s i o n s a t Bandung. C a r r y in g th e C old War t o th e c o n f e r e n c e h a l l, C a r lo s Romulo o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s a d v is e d th e d e l e g a te s n o t t o p e r m it th e m s e lv e s to become a n t i - w h i t e and w arn ed them o f th e d a n g e rs o f Communist i n f i l t r a t i o n. He ask e d b l u n t l y: "Do we f i g h t to r e g a i n o u r manhood from W e ste rn c o l o n i a l r u l e r s o n ly to s u r r e n d e r i t to t u l e r s among o u r s e lv e s who s e i z e th e pow er t o k eep u s e n s la v e d? " AO T h a i l a n d 's P r in c e Wan p u rs u e d a s i m i l a r th em e, p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t " th e Communists a r e b u s i l y t r a i n i n g T h a i l i v i n g in C h in a f o r i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o T h a ila n d. What d o es c o e x i s t a n c e mean? " 19 I r a q i s ta te s m a n D r. F a d h il J a m a li m a in ta in e d th a t " c o lo n i a li s m, Z io n ism and Communism a r e t h r e e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s i n th e w o rld t o d a y." He w arn ed t h a t " t h e p e o p le s o f A s ia and A f r i c a who h av e b een s t r u g g l i n g f o r d e c a d e s to a c h ie v e t h e i r freed o m and in d e p e n d e n c e a r e l i a b l e th ro u g h Communist m a c h in a tio n to jump fro m th e p a n i n t o th e f i r e. " The T u rk is h d e l e g a t i o n 's spokesm an e x p la in e d how Communist a g g r e s s io n had c o m p elle d ^ I n s t i t u t e o f P a c i f i c R e l a t i o n s, Bandung C o n f e r e n c e: Docu m ents (New Y ork, 1 9 5 5 ), 1, 5; R e d d in g, "M eaning o f B an d u n g," 4 1 5; J o s e y, " M u ltitu d e a t B an d u n g," 565. ^ I n d o n e s i a n M i n i s t r y o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, A s i a - A f r i c a Speak From Bandung ( D ja k a r t a, 1 9 5 5 ), 119; " A s ia n A f te r g lo w.” E c o n o m is t. GLXXV ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 36 1: "Who T old Us th e P e o p le o f A s ia Y earned f o r Communist S la v e r y? " S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t. CCXXVII (MAy 2 1, 1 9 5 5 ), 12. 19"U p se t a t B an d u n g," Tim e, LXV, 2 6; " A s ia n A f te r g lo w," E c o n o m is t. CLXXV, 3 6 1 -3 6 2. In d o n e s ia n M i n i s t r y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s. A s i a - A f r i c a Speak from Bandung, 8 3, 8 6; J o s e y, " M u ltitu d e a t B an d u n g," 5 6 5. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 35] === 30 T u r k e y 's e n t r y i n t o NATO and how th e t h r e a t o f Communism had prom pted th e c r e a t i o n o f th e B alk an P a c t, th e T u r k i s h - P a k i s t a n i T r e a ty o f F r ie n d l y C o ll a b o r a ti o n, and th e T u r k i s h - I r a q i P a c t. 21 R esp o n d in g t o th e s e d i s t i n c t l y a n ti-C o m m u n ist s p e a k e r s, Chou E n - l a i spoke a t le n g th a b o u t th e W e ste rn im p e r ia lis m w h ich u n d e r la y th e t r o u b l e s from M orocco and Suez to Goa and K o re a. He a t ta c k e d a p a r t h e id i n S o u th A f r i c a, condemned th e D utch p o s i t i o n on I r i a n, a s s a i l e d A m eri can s u p p o r t o f C hiang K a i- s h e k, and g e n e r a l l y damned th e W est a s re s p o n s i b l e f o r e v e r y t r o u b l e s p o t i n th e w o rld o f 1955. Of c o u r s e, Chou was r e g a rd e d a t Bandung a s th e c h i e f spokesm an f o r th e e n t i r e Communist b lo c I n v iew o f th e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f f a i t h s r e p r e s e n t e d a t B andung, r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n was th e o r d e r o f th e day f o r th o s e s p e a k e r s who came t o sway o r c a j o l e n o n a lig n e d n a t i o n s. S ukarno i n h i s o p en in g speech, n o te d t h a t th e b i r t h p l a c e s o f a l l th e w o r l d 's r e l i g i o n s w ere r e p r e s e n t e d among th e n a t i o n s a t Bandung and t h a t r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l f o r th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f £b.e r i g h t s o f the. i n d i v i d u a l. He ev en c o n c lu d e d h i s a d d r e s s by in v o k in g th e b l e s s i n g s o f God. S u k a r n o 's s o - c a l l e d " F iv e P r i n c i p l e s, " o r P a n tj a S i l a, w ere p r a i s e d by a num ber o f s p e a k e r s, in c lu d in g Chou; b e l i e f i n one God was th e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e o f th e P a n t j a S i l a. Chou s u r p r i s e d some by p u b l i c l y s t a t i n g I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, A s ia n - A f r ic a Speak from B andung, 136. ^ T h o m so n, R is e o f M odern A s i a, 2 3 2 -2 3 3; " A sia n A f te r g lo w," E c o n o m is t, CLXX, 3 6 1 -3 6 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 36] === 31 t h a t "we Communists a r e a t h e i s t s, b u t we r e s p e c t a l l th o s e who h av e re lig io u s b e lie f s." 23 Communist C h in a, he n o te d, had i n a d d i t i o n to sev en m i l l i o n C om m unists, te n s o f m i l l i o n s o f I s l a m i s t s and B u d d h is ts and m i l l i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n s. A Mohammedan le a d e r was in c lu d e d in C hou's d e l e g a t i o n, a f a c t w hich was a c c la im e d by A rabs and th e la r g e I s la m ic p o p u la c e o f I n d o n e s i a. ^ P re m ie r Mohammed A li o f P a k is ta n, whose c o u n try was d e d ic a te d to e s t a b l i s h i n g an I s la m ic th e o c r a c y, spoke a t le n g th a b o u t th e ways to a c h ie v e p e a c e w ith o u t m e n tio n in g r e l i g i o n. 25 When a n ti-C o m m u n ists spoke o u t a g a i n s t s u b v e r s io n and th e t h r e a t o f A sian M arxism, Chou r e f u s e d to r i s e to th e c h a lle n g e, rem in d in g a l l t h a t "we came t o s e e k u n i t y, n o t to q u a r r e l. " ^ M eanw hile Nehru and h i s c h i e f f o r e ig n a d v i s e r, K ris h n a Menon, w orked c l o s e l y w ith th e C h in ese d e l e g a ti o n in a r r a n g in g s m a ll g a t h e r in g s and la r g e b a n q u e ts w here s e l e c t e d d e l e g a te s c o u ld t a l k w ith Chou. 23 Thomas, "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n ity," 573; I n d o n e s ia n Min i s t r y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Toward Freedom and th e D ig n ity o f Man: A C o ll e c t io n o f F iv e S p eech es by P r e s i d e n t S ukarno ( D ja k a r ta, 1 9 6 1 ), 1 8 -1 9; Guy J. P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia n Im ages p f T h e ir N a tio n a l S e l f, " P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y. XXII ( F a l l, 1 9 5 8 ), 3 1 4 -3 1 5. P a n tj a S i l a was an e a r l y s ta te m e n t o f S u k a rn o ’ s p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y, I t c o n ta in e d f iv e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s: (1 ) b e l i e f in one God, (2 ) r e s p e c t f o r human v a l u e s, (3 ) d em ocracy, (4 ) s o c i a l j u s t i c e, and (5 ) n a t io n a li s m. ^ T h o m so n, R is e o f Modern A s i a, 23 3. ^ T h o m a s, "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n ity," 573, 582. ^ F o r e i g n Language P r e s s, C h in a and A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n feren c e (P e k in g, 1 9 5 5 ), 12; "A sia n A f te r g lo w," E c o n o m ist, 3 6 1 -3 6 2; Rand, "Our F a r-F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts," 4 8; " C h o u 's T ric k y P erfo rm an ce a t B andung,” Newsweek, XXXXV (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 2; R ed d in g, "M eaning o f B andung," 415; " C o u n c il o f A s i a," E c o n o m ist, CLXXV, 1 7 9-180; S t r a i g h t, "Do We Want A sia n U n ity? " 5 -6; Rand, "Our F a r-F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts," 50. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 37] === 32 Some o f th e I n d ia n i n f a t u a t i o n f o r Chou was o f f s e t, h o w ev er, b y th e a d d r e s s e s o f C e y lo n 's S i r Jo h n K o te la w a la, who found N e h r u 's f l i r t a t i o n re p u g n a n t and p u b l i c l y c r i t i c i z e d C h o u 's h y p o c r i t i c a l m an eu v erin g a t Bandung. I f Chou b e lie v e d i n c o e x i s t e n c e, K o te la w a la a sk e d i n one s p e e c h, "Why d id h e n o t c a l l o f f th e s u b v e r s iv e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Com m u n is t p a r t i e s th ro u g h o u t A s ia? " Thanks t o su ch p o in te d re m in d e rs a s t h a t o f th e C ey lo n e se s ta te s m a n, N e h r u 's moves a t Bandung t o condemn W e ste rn c o l o n ia li s m w h ile ig n o r in g P e k i n g 's im p e r ia lis m w ere somewhat fru s tra te d. R e g a r d le s s o f th e a u r a o f harm ony and s e l f l e s s n e s s d is p la y e d by Chou a t Bandung, h e found to h i s d ism ay t h a t m ost d e l e g a t e s, th ough r e c o g n iz in g th e P e k in g reg im e a s th e l e g i t i m a t e go v ern m en t o f C h ina, a g re e d w ith th e A m erican p o s i t i o n t h a t th e Form osan d i s p u t e s h o u ld be p e a c e fu lly s e t t l e d. U n ite d S t a t e s o b s e r v e r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t m ost Bandung d e l e g a te s w ere n o t h o s t i l e to A m erican s u p p o r t o f C hiang K a is h e k, w h ile Chou found t h a t a Communist in v a s io n o f Form osa w ould a l i e n a t e much o f A f r ic a and A s ia a g a i n s t h i s re g im e. H is s u r p r i s i n g l y c o n c i l i a t o r y a t t i t u d e a t Bandung was u n d o u b te d ly b a se d i n p a r t upon th is r e a liz a tio n. " U p s e t a t B andung," Tim e. LXV, 2 6 -2 8; " C h in e se Communist I n v i t a t i o n to T a l k." New R e p u b lic. LXXXII (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 3; "Hope f o r. P eace R a ise d by Bandung C o n fe re n c e," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII, 524; "Who T old Us th e P e o p le s o f A sia Y earned f o r Communist S la v e r y? " S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXVIII, 12. ^"Communists Miss the Boat," U. S. News & World Report, XXXVIII, 4 0; S t r a i g h t, "Do We Want A sia n U n ity? " 5 - 6; "Chou E n - l a i E a se s T e n s io n," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX, 59 7. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 38] === 33 Chou i n v i t e d Romulo, who h ad e a r l i e r a c c u se d P e k in g o f p r e p a r in g to a t t a c k F orm osa, t o t o u r th e e n t i r e C h in e se c o a s t and t r y t o f in d e v id e n c e o f w a r lik e p r e p a r a t i o n s. He a l s o rem inded th e P h i l i p p i n e le a d e r t h a t Communist C hina h ad no n a v y." Chou p ro c la im e d on A p r il 23: "We a r e w i l l i n g t o s e t t l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e s by p e a c e f u l m eans. The C h in e se go v ern m en t i s w i l l i n g t o s i t down and e n t e r n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s governm ent to d i s c u s s th e q u e s ti o n o f r e l a x i n g te n s i o n i n th e F a r E a s t, and e s p e c i a l l y th e q u e s ti o n o f r e l a x i n g te n s io n i n th e Taiwan a r e a. " The S t a t e D ep artm en t r e p l i e d t h a t i t w ould welcom e any s i n c e r e peace g e s tu re. The W ash in g to n s ta te m e n t c o n tin u e d: "O f c o u r s e, th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ould i n s i s t on f r e e N a t i o n a l i s t C h in a 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s an e q u a l i n any d is c u s s i o n c o n c e rn in g th e a r e a. I f Communist C hina i s s i n c e r e, t h e r e a r e a number o f s t e p s i t c o u ld t a k e. " The S t a t e D e p a r tm e n t's l i s t o f p r e r e q u i s i t e s t e p s f o r P e k in g in c lu d e d a n imme d i a t e c e a s e f i r e i n th e Form osa S t r a i t, r e l e a s e o f c a p tu r e d A m erican a irm e n, and a c c e p ta n c e o f th e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l 's i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n n e g o t i a t i o n s to end h o s t i l i t i e s,in th e Taiw an r e g i o n. When P e k in g announced i n a n o f f i c i a l r a d i o b ro a d c a st, o f A p r il 25, 1955, t h a t i t c o u ld n o t a c c e p t th e " u n r e a s o n a b le " A m erican te rm s, one c o rre sp o n d e n t 29 J a c k, B andung, 1 6 -1 7. 30 Q uoted i n G eorge K ah in, A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e ( I t h a c a, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 8. A lic e L. H s ie h, Communist C h in a 's S t r a t e g y i n th e N u c le a r E ra (Englewood C l i f f s, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 3; " C h in e se Communist I n v i t a t i o n to T a l k," New: R e p u b lic. LXXXII, 3; "Hope f o r P eace R a ise d by Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXII, 5 23; Sam A. J a f f e, "Chou E n - l a i T a lk s t o th e W e s t," N a tio n, CLXXX (May 7, 1 9 5 5 ), 385. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 39] === 34 com mented, "Chou E n - l a i h a s s h o t down h i s own p e a c e p ig e o n. M eanw hile a t Bandung C h o u 's s u r p r i s e o f f e r to n e g o t i a t e th e Form osan i s s u e c a u g h t N ehru o f f g u a r d. The I n d ia n le a d e r was a l s o s u r p r i s e d by th e la r g e d e g re e o f a n ti-C o m m u n ist t a l k a t Bandung. U n lik e Chou, N ehru d id n o t a d j u s t a s r e a d i l y and c o n tin u e d to h a ra n g u e th e W est and SEATO. H is b i t t e r a n t i - O c c i d e n t a l rem ark s seemed somewhat o u t o f to n e w ith th e c o n fe re n c e a tm o s p h e re, p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e Chou res t r a i n e d from an open o f f e n s iv e a g a i n s t th e W est i n h i s s p e e c h e s. N e h r u 's s t a t u r e a s a n e u t r a l i s t spokesm an d e c lin e d c o n s id e r a b ly a t Bandung. B e s id e s show ing g r e a t f r i e n d l i n e s s to w ard S ukarno and A li i n s id e th e c o n fe re n c e h a l l, Chou a l s o b u s ie d h im s e lf o u ts id e th e Bandung assem b ly cem en tin g f u r t h e r h i s t i e s w ith I n d o n e s ia. H is fo re m o st a c h ie v e m e n t a t th e tim e was th e n e g o t i a t i o n o f a S in o - I n d o n e s ia n t r e a t y r e s o l v i n g th e is s u e o f. t h e d u a l n a t i o n a l i t y o f th e many C h in e se r e s i d e n ts o f I n d o n e s ia. 33 " A f r ic a - A s ia M e e tin g," S e n io r S c h o l a s t i c, LXVI, 14; "A sia n A f te r g lo w," E c o n o m ist, CLXXV, 961; "Chou E n - l a i E ases T e n s io n," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX, 39 7. ^ J a c k, Bandung, 17; "A fro i-A sian s Speak f o r T h e m se lv e s." B u s in e s s Week, May 7, 195.5, 136; " C o u n c il o f A s i a," E c o n o m is t, CLXXV, 1 7 9 -1 8 0; "B andung: A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e,” New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 9 9 -6 0 0; Sam A. J a f f e, "N ehru and Chou E n - l a i, " N a tio n; CLXXX (May 2 8, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 5 3. 33 I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y, o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, A s ia n - A f r ic a n B u l l e t i n ( D ja k a r t a, 1 9 5 5 ), 19; D in k e r S a k r ik a r, "B andung: A fro -A s ia n Confer.*-. e n c e," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX, 5 9 9 -6 0 0; Shannon McCune, " I n d o n e s ia: T e s ts o f In d e p e n d e n c e," F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXI (J a n u a r y 1, R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 40] === 35 The t r e a t y s t i p u l a t e d t h a t C h in e se r e s i d e n t s m ust ch o o se one n a t i o n a l i t y o r th e o th e r w ith i n two y e a r s. A t th e end o f t h a t p e r io d th o s e s t i l l u n d e c id e d w ould be c o n s id e r e d l e g a l l y a s p o s s e s s in g th e n a t i o n a l i t y o f th e f a t h e r. Those who ch o se C h in e se n a t i o n a l i t y w ere r e q u ir e d to r e s p e c t th e law s o f I n d o n e s ia and c o u ld r e t u r n to Communist C hina w ith e q u a l r i g h t s to th o s e o f m a in lan d r e s i d e n t s. ^ The t r e a t y was in te n d e d t o a l l e v i a t e th e p a r a d o x ic a l s i t u a t i o n f a c in g th e two m i l l i o n C h in e se i n I n d o n e s ia, who w ere f e a r e d by some In d o n e s ia n s a s f o r e ig n i n f i l t r a t o r s and e n v ie d by o th e r s a s s u c c e s s f u l com m ercial l e a d e r s in I n d o n e s ia. 33 E x a c tly how th e te rm s Would r e s o lv e th e C h in ese p ro b lem, h ow ev er, was m oot. Chou u n d o u b te d ly im p re sse d many Bandung d e l e g a te s as a m ost ch arm in g, p e r s u a s iv e, and r e a s o n a b le s ta te s m a n. ^ He p a id p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to T atsu n o su k e T a k a s a k i, J a p a n 's c h i e f d e l e g a t e. N ippon Times o f Tokyo r e p o r te d t h a t Chou was o f t e n se e n " m e e tin g w ith him f o r p r i v a t e t a l k s, an d, to th e a p p a r e n t dism ay o f h i s b o d y -g u a rd s, m archin g a c r o s s th e s t r e e t o r room to a p p ro a c h T a k a sa k i p e r s o n a l l y. " 37 T h a y e r, N a tio n a lis m and P r o g r e s s i n F re e A s i a, 2 46; "Hope f o r P eace R a ise d by Bandung C o n f e r e n c e." C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry., LXXII (May 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 523. ■^Thomas, "Bandung S i t s on a V o lc a n o," 4 7 1; K in g s le y M a rtin, "C h in a We F a c e," N a tio n, CCXXX (May 1 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 1 5; "B andung; A fro A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX. 5 9 9 -6 0 0. ^ " C h o u E n - l a i: Red C h in a 's S m o o th ie," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXVIII (May 6, 1 9 5 5 ), 7 1 -7 2. ■^Tokyo N ippon T im es, A p r il 2 4, 1955. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 41] === 36 Chou a l s o a s s u r e d th e T h ai d e l e g a te s t h a t t h e i r l i t t l e n a t i o n had n o th in g t o f e a r from th e T h ai autonom ous r e g io n o f Yunnan p r o v in c e and i n v i t e d th e T h a i r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to to u r th e a r e a. - 0 Chou a l s o n e g o t i a t e d a s t i l l s e c r e t t r e a t y a t Bandung w ith th e spokesm en f o r L aos and N o rth V ietnam, little i s known a b o u t i t, but a p p a r e n tly th e a g re e m e n t gave L a o tia n Comm unists some v o ic e i n th e H anoi reg im e and s tr e n g th e n e d th e m i l i t a r y and econom ic com m itm ents o f P e k in g and H anoi t o th e L a o tia n Communist movement. 39 N e v e r th e le s s, Chou fa c e d some d is a p p o in tm e n ts a t Bandung. Numerous p h r a s e s i n th e many r e s o l u t i o n s h u r r i e d l y p a s s e d on th e l a s t d ay m ust h a v e ir k e d h im. One r e s o l u t i o n, f o r ex am p le, a t t a c k e d a l l ty p e s o f g o v ern m en t t h a t s u p p re s s e d th e r i g h t s ■o f A sia n p e o p l e s, im p ly in g t h a t th e i m p e r i a l i s t had no m onopoly on s u p p r e s s io n and bondage.^® I n th e c l o s i n g s e s s i o n s s e v e r a l s p e a k e r s, in c lu d in g th e o n es from T u rk e y, I r d q, and T h a ila n d, rem in d ed th e a sse m b ly t h a t a new form o f c o l o n ia li s m was s p r e a d in g in A s ia and A f r i c a t h a t was more m enacing th a n th e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v a r i e t y. P r in c e Nan o f T h a ila n d c h a rg e d t h a t e x - P r e m ie r P re m ie r P r i d i was a t. t h a t moment t r a i n i n g Communist c a d r e s i n Yunnan f o r th e p u rp o se o f i n f i l t r a t i n g and s u b v e r ti n g th e " A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n f e r e n c e,” C u r r e n t N o tes on I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, XXVI: (May, 1 9 5 5 ), 316; "Hope f o r P eace R a ise d by Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXII, 52 3. 39 A f r ic a - A s ia n S p eak f o r T h e m s e lv e s," B u s in e s s W eek, May 7, 1955, 136; D avid Landman, "Bandung Com prom ise, " New: R e p u b lic, CXXXII (May 16, 1 9 5 5 ), 8 - 9. 40 Sam uel A. J a f f e, "Chou E n - l a i a t B andung," The N a tio n,, CLXXVI ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 359. R eprod u ced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 42] === 37 th e l e g i t i m a t e T h ai g o v ern m e n t. I n che e n d, how ever C h o u 's s u a v i t y and t a c t a t Bandung d id much t o l e s s e n th e im p act o f h is. o p p o n e n ts ' c 1h. a r g e s. 41 Many d e l e g a t e s e x p r e s s e d th e n e e d f o r g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e upon th e U n ite d N a tio n s a s an in s tr u m e n t to g u a r a n te e p e a c e and in s u r e A fro A sia n c o u n t r i e s a g a i n s t new g u is e s o f c o l o n i a l i s m. Numerous s p e a k e rs q u o te d from v a r io u s U n ite d N a tio n s d o cu m en ts, e s p e c i a l l y th e C h a r te r. S uk arn o em p h asized t h a t A fro -A s ia n s c o u ld n o t hope to be s p a re d i f W orld War I I I came b e c a u se o f th e new w eapons sy stem s t h a t w ould s u r e l y be em ployed b y th e g r e a t p o w e rs. He a l s o p o in te d t o the. in a d e q u a te A fro -A s ia n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n th e im p o r ta n t S e c u r i t y C o u n c il and recom mended t h a t th e n o n p erm an en t s e a t s i n t h a t body be i n c r e a s e d C h o u commented t h a t h i s c o u n tr y was " f u l l y l o y a l t o th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r t e r," b u t, b e c a u se o f A m erican d o m in a tio n o f th e G e n e ra l A ssem bly, f e l t "no l o y a l t y w h a te v e r t o th e U n ite d N a tio n s A ssem bly, w hich th e c h a r t e r c r e a t e s and empowers to a c t. " He a d d ed: "The C hinese, p e o p le c o n s i s t e n t l y s u p p o r t th e p u rp o s e s and p r i n c i p l e s o f th e C h a r te r o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s. We u n d e r ta k e no o b l i g a t i o n to w ard th e r e s o l u t i o n s, o f th e U n ite d N a ti o n s. We a r e alw ay s f i r m l y opposed t:o th e s e U n ite d Thomas, "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n ity, 5 82; C. P. F i t z g e r a l d, "What Bandung A c h ie v e d," N a tio n, CLXXX (Ju n e 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 50; R ed d in g, "M eaning o f B an d u n g," 4 1 5 -4 1 7; J o s e y, " M u ltitu d e a t B an d u n g," 565; "Bamboo C u r t a i n," E c o n o m i s t CLXXV ( A p r i l 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 7 3;.."Who T old Us th e P e o p le s o f A s ia Y earn ed f o r Communist S la v e r y? " S a tu r d a y E vening P o s t, CCXXVII, 12. 42 ‘T homas, "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n ity," 5 8 2 -5 8 3; J o s e y, " M u ltitu d e a t B an d u n g," 565. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 43] === 38 N a tio n s r e s o l u t i o n s w h ich go a g a i n s t th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r te r and are t o t a l l y u n ju s t." Chou su c c e e d e d and N ehru f a i l e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e f f o r t s to c o u r t A rab r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a t Bandung. The P e k in g spokesm an s tr o n g ly s u p p o rte d an A rab r e s o l u t i o n on the P a l e s t i n e q u e s t i o n, and h i s b a c k in g was e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y, acknow ledged by th e A ra b s. On th e o th e r h a n d, A rab d e l e g a te s c h a rg e d t h a t N ehru was e n d e a v o rin g to p ro d u ce d i s u n i t y i n th e Moslem w o r ld. As f o r A l i Mohammed o f P a k is ta n, who le d h i s c o u n try i n t o SEATO, th e A rab le a d e r s acknow ledged t h a t he was a weak l i n k i n th e c h a in o f Moslem l e a d e r s h i p. They c a u tio n e d, h o w ev er, t h a t ev en A li c o u ld n o t e x te n d h i s f l i r t a t i o n w ith th e W est much f a r t h e r w ith o u t e n d a n g e rin g h i s p o l i t i c a l s e c u r i t y w ith th e P a k i s t a n i popula n c e A t l e a s t t h r e e A s ia n b lo c s w ere d i s c e r n i b l e a t Bandung d e s p i t e th e atm o sp h ere o f u n i t y t h a t p r e v a i l e d on su ch g e n e r a liz e d m a tte r s a s p e a c e and a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m. Of c o u r s e, one f a c t i o n was th e Comm unist, le d by Chou, w hich d e s i r e d to d e s tr o y e v e r y s h r e d o f O c c id e n ta l i n f l u en ce i n A s ia. A n o th e r b lo c, w hich in c lu d e d th e d e l e g a te s from J a p a n, "Chou E n -L a i: I t Was a Famous V i c t o r y," The New R e p u b lic, CXXXII (May 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 3; R o b e rt C. N o rth, " P e k in g 's D riv e f o r E m p ire," P ro b lem s o f Communism, LX ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 3 -2 4. ^ J a f f e, "Chou E n - l a i a t B an dung," 3 59; Rand, "Our F a r-F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts,” 5 6 -6 0, 6 8; Landman, "Bandung C om prom ise," 8 - 9; "A rabs a t B andung," N a tio n, CLXXX ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 357; J a f f e, "N ehru and Chou E n - l a i, " 352; "Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," W orld T oday, I I, 23 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 44] === 39 T h a ila n d, P a k is ta n, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s, was re a d y t o c o o p e r a te w ith W este rn n a t io n s in a c h ie v in g common p o l i t i c a l, eco n o m ic, and m i l i t a r y a im s. A t h i r d f a c t i o n, l e d by N ehru and S u k a rn o, was s ta u n c h ly a g a i n s t th e u s e o f W este rn a i d o r in f l u e n c e in d e te rm in in g th e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts i n A s ia. " A s ia f o r th e - A s ia n s " was th e m o tto o f t h i s g ro u p, w hich found i t s e l f somewhere i n th e m id d le betw een th e o t h e r two b l o c s. ^ Adam C la y to n P o w e ll, J r., th e Negro D e m o c ra tic C ongressm an from New Y ork, was an o b s e r v e r a t Bandung. He dommented: "We o v e r e s tim a te d th e s t r e n g t h o f Bed C h in a am ongst i t s A sia n and A f r ic a n e q u a l s. H ere a t Bandung, C hina h a s b een ex p o sed t o p e o p le who a r e g e o g r a p h i c a ll y and r a c i a l l y i n th e same company. I t was one th i n g f o r th e C h in e se Reds to h av e s to o d on th e c o a s t o f C hina w ith Quemoy one m ile away and; y e l l e d a t A m erica 6,0 0 0 m ile s aw ay. I t 's a n o th e r th i n g to s i t down a t a c o n f e r e n c e - ta b l e a t Bandung w ith y o u r r a c i a l e q u a l s. " c lu d e d: A s ia. P o w e ll c o n "M ost d e f i n i t e l y, Red C hina came h e r e p o s in g a s th e m a s te r o f She h a s now b een ex p o sed a s j u s t a n o th e r A s ia n - A fr ic a n po w er. Though th e docum ent was a t v a r ia n c e w ith Communist d o c t r i n e on some p o i n t s, Chou s ig n e d th e o f f i c i a l c o n fe re n c e d e c l a r a t i o n. He e x p la in e d t h a t, d e s p i t e th e c o n t r a s t i n g i d e o lo g ie s o f many o f th e s ig n a t o r i e s, th e A f r ic a n and A sia n n a t i o n s w ere co m p elle d to c o o p e r a te Peggy D u r id in, "B ehind th e F acad e o f A sia n U n ity." New York Times M agazine ( A p r il 17, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 3; S t r a i g h t, "Do We Want A sia n U n ity? " 5 -6. "Red C hina E x p o sed —N ot D om inant i n A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. XXXVIII ( A p r il 2 9. 1 9 5 5 ). 4 2; R ed d in g, "M eaning o f B andung," 4 1 8. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 45] === 40 b e c a u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s and p r e s e n t p ro b le m s. Chou c la im e d t h a t i t was f o r th e sak e o f c o o p e r a tio n t h a t he y ie ld e d on some p o i n t s a t Bandung. A t th e same tim e h e a c c u se d th e W est o f t r y i n g t o u n d erm ine th e c o n f e r e n c e: "We c o u ld n o t make th e c o n f e r e n c e a f a i l u r e i n co n fo rm ity, w ith th e d e s i r e o f su ch p e o p le. T h e r e f o re we a d o p te d th e a t t i tu d e o f s t r i v i n g f o r u n i t y and a v o id in g q u a r r e l. " ^ The Bandung communique p le d g e d t h e; s i g n a t o r i e s t o p r o t e c t b a s i c human r i g h t s, r e s p e c t th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r t e r, r e f r a i n from i n t e r f e r e n c e in. o t h e r..c o u n t r i e s 1 a f f a i r s, and s e t t l e d i s p u t e s by d ip lo m a c y r a t h e r th a n by f o r c e. " A ll t h e s e, " Chou com mented, " a r e p r i n c i p l e s w hich C h in a h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y o b se rv e d."^ ® One o f th e m ost o b je c tio n s a b le p r o v i s i o n s t o him was th e Bandung en d o rse m e n t o f A sia n n a t i o n s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n s e sy ste m s t h a t w ere n o t d o m in ated by one o f th e b ig p o w e rs, E a s t o r W est. Many d e l e g a t e s, b e s id e s Chou, had t o m o d ify p o s i t i o n s w hich th e y had lo n g h e ld i n o r d e r t o s ig n th e Ban dung c o m m u n iq u e.^ One o f th e e a s i e s t p r o v i s i o n s f o r m ost t o s a n c ti o n was t h a t d e a l in g w ith th e n eed f o r g r e a t e r econom ic c o o p e r a tio n and ex ch an g e b etw een member n a t i o n s. Both P e k in g and D ja k a r ta made u s e o f "Chou E n - l a i: I t Was a Famous V i c t o r y," The New R e p u b lic, CXXXII, 3; "Bamboo C u r t a i n," E c o n o m is t, CLXXV, 2 73; " C h in e s e Communist I n v i t a t i o n t o T a l k," New R e p u b lic, LXXXII, 3. 48 "Chou E n - l a i: I t Was a Famous V i c t o r y, " New R e p u b lic, CXXXII, 3 - 4; Landman, "Bandung C om prom ise," 8 - 9; "Bandung L e f t U. N. a L e g a c y," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXII (O c to b e r 19, 1 9 5 5 ), 1195. 49 Norman C o u s in s, " R e p o rt from B andung, 1 S a tu r d a y R eview, XXXVIII (May 2 1, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 46] === 41 t h i s o p e n in g w ith o u t d e l a y, t h e i r t r a d e m isso n s su d d e n ly i n c r e a s i n g in vogue. 50 One o f C h o u 's m o st d i f f i c u l t t a s k s a t Bandung was to a c c e p t and to j u s t i f y th e r e s o l u t i o n condem ning a l l form s o f c o l o n ia li s m. Chou in g e n io u s ly d e f in e d " c o lo n i a li s m " a s " a p r o d u c t o f c a p i t a l i s m, " so th e c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld n o t h ave in te n d e d th e r e s o l u t i o n t o a p p ly t o Communist e x p a n s io n: "The p h r a s e d e n o te d c o l o n ia li s m in a l l i t s p o l i t i c a l, m i l i t a r y, c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s, and th e r e c a n n o t p o s s i b l e be any o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n. " H ow ever, th e c o n s e n s u s o f many d e l e g a te s a t Bandang was t h a t th e in te n d e d m eaning c o v e re d Communist a s w e ll as W e ste rn i m p e r i a l i s m. ^ Many o b s e r v e r s and p a r t i c i p a n t s a t Bandung spoke o f th e atm os p h e re o f "new u n i t y " b etw een A sia n s and betw een A sia n s and A f r ic a n s. Chou was a p r i n c i p a l s u p p o r te r o f th e r e s o l u t i o n c a l l i n g f o r f r i e n d l y c o o p e r a tio n and n o n a g g r e s s io n b etw een A fro -A s ia n n a t i o n s. F u rth e rm o re, he r e p e a t e d l y a s s u r e d th e d e l e g a te s p u b l i c l y and p r i v a t e l y t h a t Com m u n ist C h in a w ould s ta n d f a i t h f u l l y b e h in d h e r p le d g e n o t to v i o l a t e th e t e r r i t o r i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n t e g r i t y o f h e r n e i g h b o r s. T h is p le d g e, a s f a r c i c a l a s i t seemed t o W e s te r n e r s, was w elcom ed by many Thomson. R is e o f M odern A s i a, 2 3 7; "C h in a and A f r o - A s ia," I n d ia n and F o re ig n R eview, 1 (Decem ber 15, 1 9 6 3 ), 1; F i t z g e r a l d, " A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e: I s s u e s a t S t a k e," 2 8 8 -2 8 9; N o rth, " P e k in g 's D riv e f o r E m p ire," 2 3 -2 4. -^"C hou E n - l a i: I t Was a Famous - V i c t o r y, " New R e p u b lic, CXXXII.3; W inburn T. Thomas, "Community o f th e H u r t," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII (May 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 59; A. C. P o w e ll "My M is s io n to B an d u n g," N a tio n, CLXXX ( A p r il 2 8, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 5 5 -4 5 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 47] === 42 A sia n s who f e a r e d th e c o n tin u e d e x p a n s io n o f Communism and by many A f r ic a n s whose^ h o m elan d s w ere i n th e th r o e s o f g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n a r y u p h e a v a ls. The Bandung C o n feren c e had i t s f a i l i n g s, o f w hich f o u r o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t w i l l be m e n tio n e d. F i r s t, no p r o v is ib n was made f o r a p erm a n en t A fro -A s ia n o r g a n iz a ti o n o r ev en f o r a s e c r e t a r i a t t o im p le m e n t th e num erous r e s o l u t i o n s o f th e m e e tin g. S eco n d, some o f th e h ig h l y to u te d u n if y i n g f o r c e s r e p u te d ly d e v e lo p in g i n th e M id d le E a s t and e ls e w h e re w ere m a n if e s te d a t Bandung a s i d e a l s, n o t r e a l i t i e s. F o r ex am p le, th e o n ly u n i t y among th e A rab League n a t io n s was i n t h e i r common h a t r e d o f I s r a e l; on m ost o t h e r i s s u e s, th e y w ere s p l i t b a d ly. T h ir d, i t was o b v io u s t h a t th e A f r ic a n.b lo c a t Bandung, r e p r e s e n t i n g o n ly s i x n a t i o n s, p la y e d a m ost i n f e r i o r r o l e i n co m p ariso n t o th e A s ia n s. No s tr o n g A f r ic a n s ta te s m e n em erged, e x c e p t N a s s e r, who was more a b s o rb e d i n M iddle E a s t e r n p ro b lem s th a n i n th o s e o f A f r ic a p ro p e r. F o u r th, th o u g h t h e r e was much t a l k a b o u t p e a c e a t Bandung, th e d e l e g a te s p ro d u ced no new g u id e lin e s f o r p eac e-m ak in g and e x h i b ite d an a lm o s t p a t h e t i c r e l i a n c e upon th e U n ite d N a tio n s. 53 On th e o th e r h a n d, W este rn o b s e r v e r s n o te d h o p e f u ll y t h a t th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e d id n o t seem t o be a h a r b in g e r o f a c o l o r w a r. R acism p e r s e was seldom r a i s e d in th e s e s s i o n s. S in c e many o f th e J a c k, "Bandung i n P e r s p e c t i v e, " 191; F i t z g e r a l d, "What Bandung A c h ie v e d," 503; Landman, "Bandung C om prom ise," 8 9. 53 J a c k, "Bandung i n P e r s p e c t i v e, " 190; "A rab s a t B andung," N a tio n, CLXX, 3 57; Landman, "Bandung C om prom ise," 8 - 9. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 48] === 43 Bandung n a t io n s had b een lo n g s tr u g g l i n g to e r a d i c a t e th e r a c e is s u e w i t h i n t h e i r own b o u n d a r ie s, t h e i r le a d e r s w ere a n x io u s n o t to a llo w t h i s " c o lo r e d U n ite d N a tio n s " to f a l l p r e y t o th e e v i l o f r a c is m. Thus t h e r e was much t a l k o f b ro th e rh o o d o f men and a d e l i b e r a t e d e -e m p h a sis o f c o n c e rn f o r a c o lo r e d t r i u m p h. ^ S ukarno u n d o u b te d ly ra n k ed n e x t t o Chou a s o u ts ta n d in g s ta te s m a n a t Bandung. Among o t h e r t h i n g s, h e p e rs u a d e d th e d e l e g a te s t o p a s s a r e s o l u t i o n a s k in g th e N e th e rla n d s to h o n o r i t s p r e v io u s a g re e m e n ts w ith I n d o n e s ia and t o s u r r e n d e r I r i a n t o th e new r e p u b l i c. ^5 S uk arn o a l s o b u s ie d h im s e lf t r y i n g t o d e v e lo p an in f o r m a l b lo c a g a i n s t SEATO, co n s i s t e n t l y e x h i b i t i n g a s tr o n g a n ti-A m e ric a n co m p lex. M o reo v er, he p u b l i c l y e n d o rs e d th e Bed C h in ese p o s i t i o n s on K orea and T aiw an. was aw are, o f c o u r s e, t h a t h i s I n d o n e s ia n c o n s t i t u e n t s f o r th e m ost p a r t s u p p o rte d h i s p ro -P e k in g s ta n d, t h e i r p r i n c i p a l news com ing;. th ro u g h th e s t r i c t l y c e n s o re d p ro p ag an d a o rg a n s o f th e D ja k a r ta r e g i m e.^ C h o u 's r o l e a t Bandung was c l e a r l y th e m o st w id e ly p u b l i c i z e d and i n f l u e n t i a l o f any d e l e g a t e. H is e v e r y a p p e a ra n c e a t th e co n v e n tio n h a l l and i n th e s t r e e t s was m et by w ild a p p la u s e from 54 J a c k, "Bandung i n P e r s p e c t i v e," 1 9 1 -1 9 3; H odgkin, "B ackground t o B an dung," 4 6 2 -4 6 3. ^ T h o m s o n, R is e o f Modern A s ia. 2 3 8 -2 3 9; " I n d o n e s ia n O u tlo o k," E c o n o m ist. CLXXIX (J u n e 3 0, 1 9 5 6 ), 1 2 93-1294. ^ B u s s, S o u th e a s t..A siaa and: W orld T o d ay. 4 5; F i t z g e r a l d, " A fro A sia n C o n fe re n c e: I s s u e s a t S t a k e," 2 8 8 -2 8 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 49] === b y s ta n d e r s and by in n u m e ra b le cam era f l a s h e s. ^ Many o f h i s s t r e e t a d m ir e r s w ere from th e two m i l l i o n C h in e se r e s i d e n t s o f I n d o n e s ia; h i s a r r i v a l a t Bandung w as g r e e t e d by th e c h e e r s o f n e a r l y 2 0,0 0 0 su ch p e rso n s. O th e rs who came i n t o c o n t a c t w ith th e P e k in g l e a d e r w ere a l s o im p re s s e d, e s p e c i a l l y by h i s dem eanor o f " s w e e tn e s s and l i g h t. 1' One c o r r e s p o n d e n t e p ito m iz e d th e g e n e r a l f e e l i n g a b o u t Chou: he s m ile d, h e c o n q u e r e d." "He cam e, As m e n tio n ed e a r l i e r, Chou c o u ld a f f o r d to s m ile s in c e th e b r u n t o f th e a n ti- W e s te r n o f f e n s i v e was u n d e r ta k e n by N eh ru. Toward th e end o f th e Bandung g a t h e r in g th e M a n c h e ste r G u a rd ia n r e p o r te d t h a t, a s f a r a s th e p o p u la r im p r e s s io n o f Bandung was c o n c e rn e d, i t h ad b een "Chou E n - l a i* s co n fe r e n c e." * * ® D e s p ite ec few d is a p p o in tm e n ts Chou was a b l e t o e x p l o i t Ban dung e f f e c t i v e l y i n r e a s s u r i n g th e n o n a lig n e d pow ers and i n d i s t u r b i n g th e m o ra le o f th e A s ia n s t a t e s o f SEATO. 61 P e o p l e 's C h in a b o a s te d t h a t " th e r e s u l t s o f th e A s ia n - A f r ic a n c o n f e r e n c e a r e a new v i c t o r y ^ T h o m a s, "B andung Shows S p i r i t o f U n i t y," 5 7 3; R ed d in g, "M eaning o f B andung," 4 1 4. "Red C hina E x p o se d --N o t D om inant i n A s i a." U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXVIII, 4 2; R and, "O ur F a r - F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts," 4 1 - 4 2, 4 4. -^H udson, " B a la n c e S h e e t on B an d u n g," 5 65; F i t z g e r a l d, "What Bandung A c h ie v e d," 5 0 3; "C h in e se Communist I n v i t a t i o n t o T a l k," New R e p u b lic, LXXXII, 3. **®Richard J. K o z ic k i, "Bandung from A f a r," U n ite d A s i a, y i l (May, 1 9 6 5 ), 147; D avid Landman, "Nobody Won a t B andung," New R e p b u lic CXXXII (May 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 3; "Bandung C o n f e r e n c e." W orld T oday, I I, 237. ^ J a c k, "Bandung i n P e r s p e c t i v e," 1 9 1 -1 9 2; ^ I n d o n e s ia T o d a y," C o n tem p o rary R eview, CLXXXVIII (Ju ly -D e c e m b e r, 1955) 1 0 4 -1 0 6; C. P. F i t z g e r a l d, " E a s t A s ia a f t e r B an d u n g," F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XXIV (A u g u st, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 0; Thomas, "Community o f th e H u r t," 5 5 9 -5 6 0. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 50] === 45 f o r th e f o r c e s o f p e a c e th r o u g h o u t th e w o r ld. A f r i c a w i l l no lo n g e r be t o l e r a n t. The p e o p le s o f A s ia and The C h in e se s u p p o r t i t s r e s o l u t i o n s on th e s u b j e c t, and th e C h in e se p e o p le g r e e t th e r e s u l t s o f th e A sia n A f r ic a n c o n f e r e n c e w ith jo y." 6 2 The P e k in g o rg a n c o n tin u e d: Bandung a c h ie v e m e n ts d id n o t come e a s i l y. "The They w ere won d e s p i t e th e e f f o r t s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s g o v ern m e n t, w hich does n o t w an t th e A sia n A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s to e n jo y in d e p e n d e n c e, p e a c e and c o o p e r a tio n. B oth b e f o r e and d u r in g th e c o n f e r e n c e, th e U n ite d S t a t e s t r i e d t o w reck and su b v e rt i t. " ^ The Moscow New Tim e’ s c o r r e s p o n d e n t a t Bandung c la im e d t h a t " th e C h in e se d e l e g a te s and t h e i r l e a d e r, Chou E n - l a i, h av e been th e c e n t e r o f a t t e n t i o n e v e r s in c e t h e i r a r r i v a l i n I n d o n e s ia. One had o n ly to w itn e s s th e r e c e p t i o n g iv e n them t o r e a l i z e how p o p u la r th e C h in e se P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic i s h e r e. Crowds f o llo w them e v e ry w h e re, e f f u s i v e l y m a n if e s tin g t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p. " Moscow u n d o u b te d ly w atch e d th e d ev e lo p m e n ts a t Bandung w ith s h a r p i n t e r e s t and p e rh a p s some a la r m. The s ig n s w ere u n m is ta k a b le t h a t P e k in g was r a p i d l y a t t a i n i n g a p r e s t i g i o u s p o s i t i o n w h ich am ounted t o l e a d e r s h i p o f A sia n C om m unists. The le a d e r s o f S o v ie t R u s s ia r e a l iz e d t h a t some move m ust be made to r e g a i n th e i n i t i a t i v e, i n A sia f o r th e E u ro p ea n Communist c h a m p io n.^ Thus i n November, 1955, B u lg a n in and ^ H o Chen, "The G re a t A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n f e r e n c e," P e o p le.'s C h in a, May 2 1, 1955, 4. 63I b i d., 5 - 6. : ^ N. S e rg e y e v a, "The Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," New T im es, A p r il 27, 1955, 2 3. 65Thomas, R is e o f A s i a, 24 0; " C h in e s e Communist I n v i t a t i o n to T a l k. ” New R e p u b lic, LXXXII, 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 51] === 46 K hrushchev s e t o f f on a g ra n d to u r o f S o u th A s ia. T h e ir m ain a c h ie v e m ents w ere i n th e a r e a o f b u il d in g c l o s e r tr a d e t i e s w ith I n d i a and Burma. T hese r e s u l t s, n e g l i g i b l e a t th e b e s t i n th e e y e s o f many a n a l y s t s, p r o b a b ly in c r e a s e d M oscow's c o n c e rn o v e r R u s s i a 's d e c l in in g r o l e i n A s ia and th e m ounting s t a t u r e o f Communist C h in a. 66 By th e tim e o f t h i s t o u r th e " d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n " p r o c e s s was in f u l l sw ing i n S o v ie t R u s s ia, p r e c i p i t a t e d by K h ru sh c h e v 's o n s lo u g h ts a g a i n s t th e fo rm er p re m ie r i n a CPSU a d d r e s s e a r l i e r i n 1955. The new l i n e o f S o v ie t f o r e ig n p o l i c y a l s o in c lu d e d an em p h asis on p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e and on p a r lia m e n ta r y means a s th e p r e f e r r e d m ethod o f a c h ie v in g s o c i a l i s t triu m p h s. 67 K hru sh ch ev a s s u r e d n e u t r a l i s t le a d e r s l i k e S uk arn o and N ehru t h a t R u s s ia n a i d was n o t a m ere smoke s c r e e n c o n c e a lin g c o n s p ir a c ie s o f l o c a l Communist p a r t i e s ' p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r coup d ' e t a t s.^ ^ W hile c o n s o lin g n e u t r a l i s t s w ith news t h a t R u s s ia had abandoned th e h eav y -h a n d ed t y r a n n i c a l p r a c t i c e s o f S t a l i n, how ever, K rushchev was i n a d v e r t e n t l y s p l i t t i n g th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communist move' m en t. The la u n c h in g o f th e d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n d r iv e o f 1955 m arked th e b e g in n in g o f th e S in o - S o v ie t i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t, a s f a r a s im m ediate c a u s a l f a c t o r s a r e c o n c e rn e d. H owever, lo n g s ta n d in g h i s t o r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s a l s o u n d e r la y th e c l a s h, and th e grow ing ra p p ro a c h e m e n t betw een 66 V. P. N ikham ih, I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la tio n s i n S o u th e a s t A sia a f t e r W orld War I I (Moscow, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 7. 67 Thomson, R is e o f M odern A s ia, 2 4 2 -2 4 5; Jo h n G i t t i n g s, The S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te (London, 1 9 6 4 ), 1. 68 G. F. Hudson and o t h e r s, The S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ), 30, 4 1. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 52] === 47 P ek in g and D ja k a r ta was a l s o a m a jo r p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r. 6 9 I n S e p te m b e r'O c to b e r, 1956, S u k arn o v i s i t e d m a in lan d C h in a a t th e i n v i t a t i o n o f Chou and C hairm an Mao T s e - tu n g. A num ber o f c o r d i a l b u t f r a n k t a l k s en su ed b etw een th e P ek in g -^ D jak arta l e a d e r s. L ittle i s known a b o u t th o s e c o n f e r e n c e s, b u t a m a jo r a d d r e s s by S u k arn o i n P ek in g in d i c a t e d t h a t th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a x i s was grow ing s t r o n g e r: "The triu m p h o f th e C h in ese P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic i s I n d o n e s i a 's triu m p h, to o. The triu m p h o f I n d o n e s ia i s a l s o th e triu m p h o f th e C h in e se P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic. The triu m p h o f th e C h in e se P e o p le 's R e p u b lic i s th e triu m p h o f a l l A s i a. " ^ T h is s p e e c h and o th e r s by S uk arn o a l s o showed t h a t h e was im p re sse d by th e t o t a l i t a r i a n p ro g ram o f P ek in g c a l l e d "G uided D em ocracy."71 Soong C hing L in g, v ic e - c h a ir m a n o f th e Communist P a r t y Committe e o f C h in a, v i s t e d I n d o n e s ia t h a t same y e a r, w ith many p e r s o n s h a i l in g th e o c c a s io n a s a h ig h - w a te r m ark i n S in o - I n d o n e s ia n r e l a t i o n s. 72 In d e e d, from 1956 onward th e t i e s b etw een th e two pow ers grew c l o s e r, w h ile S u k a r n o 's in tim a c y w ith th e PKI became more o b v io u s. By 1956 th e PKI h e ld t h i r t y - n i n e o f 257 s e a t s i n th e I n d o n e s ia n p a r l i a m e n t - 69 Thomson, R is e o f M odern A s i a, 2 4 2 -2 4 6, 2 5 0 -2 5 1. ^^Achmed S u k arn o, " C o lo n ia lis m W ill P e r is h: P e o p le 's C h in a, November 1, 1956, 12. I t is C e rta in," ^ G e o r g e K ah in, e d., M ajo r G overnm ents o f A sia ( I t h a c a, 1 9 6 3 ), 6 3 6 -6 3 7, 6 39; H aro ld H. M a r tin, " T ro u b le d I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A sia.," S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXX ( J a n u a r y 3, 1 9 5 9 ), 6 3. ^ E n -Y u a n Wang, " P r e s i d e n t S uk arn o i n P e k in g," P e o p l e 's C h in a, November 8, 1956, 10. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 53] === 48 more th a n e v e r b e f o r e - - a n d h ad p o ll e d o v e r 25% o f th e v o te s i n th e la te s t e le c tio n s.^ D. N. A i d i t, ack now ledged l e a d e r o f th e PKI by t h a t y e a r, s t a t e d t h a t " t h e PKI d id n o t demand la n d re fo rm b u t o n ly r e d u c t io n o f la n d r e n t s, and demanded th e a d m is s io n o f th e Communist P a r t y t o a c o a l i t i o n g o v e rn m e n t.1’^ S u k arn o e x p r e s s e d s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e l i m i t e d g o a ls o f th e PK I, b u t H a tt a b ro k e w ith th e P r e s i d e n t i n 1956 o v e r th e i s s u e o f Communists i n th e h ig h e c h e lo n s o f g o v e rn m e n t.^ When i n A u g u st a la rm in g d i s t u r b a n c e s and v io l e n c e b ro k e o u t i n S u m a tra, P e k in g s to o d s o l i d l y b e h in d th e D ja k a r t a reg im e and blam ed th e u n r e s t on A m erican i m p e r i a l i s t s. ^ S u k arn o re sp o n d e d by p u b l i c l y r e a f f i r m i n g h i s f r i e n d s h i p f o r Communist C h in a and h i s deep a d m ir a tio n f o r th e C h in e se m a s s e s, who, h e c la im e d, w ere much h a p p i e r and f r e e r th a n th e R u s s ia n p e o p l e. ^ On F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1957, S u k arn o announced h i s new p la n o f "G uided D em o cracy," w h ereb y th e many d i f f i c u l t i e s p la g u in g I n d o n e s ia w ould be s o lv e d. The crow ds c h e e re d th e new s o c i a l i s t i c p ro g ra m, s o c l o s e l y p a t t e r n e d a f t e r th e s o c io -e c o n o m ic p la n s o f P e k in g; many f e l t t h a t a d r a s t i c change was e s s e n t i a l t o com bat th e n a t i o n 's g r e a t p ro b lem s o f u n r e s t and econom ic b a n k r u p tc y. On th e o t h e r h a n d, c r i t i c s fo re sa w th e b e g in n in g o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m t h a t w ould o u td o th e t y r a n n i c a l ^ P e k i n g P e o p l e 's D a i l y, J a n u a r y 3 0, 1957. ^ P e k i n g P e o p le ' s D a i l y, A u g u st 4, 1956; J e a n n e S. M in tx, I n d o n e s ia ( P r i n c e t o n, 1 9 6 1 ), 1 4 6 -1 4 7. 75u. S. H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e, C om m ittee on U n-A m erican A c t i v i t i e s, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Communism (W ash in g to n, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 7; M a r tin, " T ro u b le d I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," 6 3.. ^ P e k i n g; P e o p l e 's D a i l y, J a n u a r y 3 0, 1957. ^ B u s s, S o u th e a s t A s ia and th e W orld T oday, 4 5. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 54] === 49 D u tc h.78 A p p a re n tly a t th e tim e S uk arn o d id n o t e n v is io n th e e x a c t t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n o f P e k in g 's s y ste m, a t l e a s t n o t w ith th e PKI in co n tro l. He seemed to d e s i r e s i m i l a r so c io -e c o n o m ic re fo rm s to th o s e o f Communist C hina w ith o u t succum bing c o m p le te ly to Communism. 797 I n th e y e a r f o llo w in g Bandung, I n d o n e s i a 's i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e had s o a re d t o r e c o r d h e i g h t s. The a sse m b ly was an In d o n esian, id e a, and Bandung was an I n d o n e s ia n c i t y. M o reo v er, I n d o n e s ia now had more s u p p o r t th a n e v e r f o r h e r c la im s to I r i a n. The I n f o r m a tio n M in is t r y made c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e o p le h e a rd and re a d much a b o u t th e g l o r i e s o f S uk arn o and A li i n th e n e g o t i a t i o n s a t Bandung, th e r e b y g a in in g s t r o n g e r p o p u la r h a c k in g f o r th e P r e s i d e n t and h i s m i n i s t r y. The s tr e n g th e n e d t i e s w ith P ek in g w ere a n a t u r a l co n seq u en ce i n th e a f t e r m ath o f Bandung. B u t th in k in g p e r s o n s i n I n d o n e s ia w ondered w h at th e f u t u r e h e ld f o r t h e i r c o u n tr y. Some p r e d i c t e d t h a t them i n t o Communism w i t h i n f i v e y e a r s. su ch n o t i o n s. S ukarno w ould le a d O th e rs o p t i m i s t i c a l l y r e j e c t e d The g r e a t S u k a rn o, th e y b e l i e v e d, co u ld p la y w ith f i r e w ith o u t g e t t i n g b u rn e d - 80 78I b i d., 1 2 7 -1 2 9. ^ K a h i n, e d., M ajo r G overnm ents o f A s i a, 639; Thomas, " I n d o n e s ia G iven New R u lin g U n i t, ” 853; K eyes B eech, " S tr u g g le f o r Power U nder th e P a lm s," S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXX (O c to b e r 12, 1 9 5 7 ), 104; Jam es H. M ysbergh, " I n d o n e s ia n E l i t e, " F a r E a s te r n S u rv e y, XXVII (M arch, 1 9 5 7 ), 40. 80 F e i t h, D e c lin e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Democracy i n I n d o n e s ia, 392.-293; " I n d o n e s ia Snubs th e W e st. " B u s in e s s Week, O c to b e r 15, 1955, 1 7 2 -1 7 3; R o e sla n A b d u lg an, " I n d o n e s ia 1 N a tio n a l C o u n c il: The F i r s t Y e a r," F a r E a s te r n S u rv e y, XXVII ( J u l y, 1 9 5 8 ), 97; I n g b e r, " I n d o n e s ia T o d a y," 1 0 4 -1 0 6. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 55] === CHAPTER I I I RESURGENCE OF THE PKI P o s t-1 9 4 5 I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by com plex con f l i c t s in v o lv in g id e o l o g i e s, p e r s o n a l i t i e s, and i n t e r e s t g ro u p s w hich w ere d i f f i c u l t f o r o u t s i d e r s to com prehend. The m ain i d e o l o g i c a l c u r r e n t s w ere r e l i g i o u s, n a t i o n a l i s t, and s o c i a l i s t, w ith p o l i t i c a l, p a r t i e s u s u a l l y em bodying a m ix tu re o f a l l th r e e and d i f f e r i n g l a r g e l y i n e m p h a sis. The PNI, o r N a t i o n a l i s t p a r t y, f o r i n s t a n c e, was le d by p o l i t i c i a n s who w ere s tr o n g Moslems b u t en d ea v o red to k eep r e l i g i o n out of p o litic s. On th e o t h e r h an d, th e M asjum i, th e l a r g e s t "m odern i s t " Moslem p a r t y, p u sh ed f o r s o c i a l i s t re fo rm s w h ile s im u lta n e o u s ly a d v o c a tin g a form o f I s la m ic th e o c r a c y. The p r i n c i p a l p e r s o n a l i t y c o n f l i c t s in v o lv e d an e l i t e g roup t h a t a t t a i n e d in f l u e n c e a f t e r W orld War S e v e r a l o f I n d o n e s i a 's many p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w ere l i t t l e more th a n th e p e r s o n a l f o llo w in g s o f dynam ic l e a d e r s. G eorge M. K ah in, G. V. P a u k e r, and L. W. P y e, "C o m p arativ e P o l i t i c s o f N on-W estern C o u n t r i e s," A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview. LXIX (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1033, 1038; S. W. R eed, In d o n e s ia! A rea Hand book on In d o n e s ia (New H aven, 1 9 5 6 ), 70; F red R. Van Der Mehden, "M arxTsm and E a r ly In d o n e s ia n I s la m ic N a tio n a lis m," P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e Q uart e r l y, LXXIII (S ep tem b er, 1 9 5 8 ), 3 4 6 -3 4 7; J a n M. P l u v i e r, C o n fro n ta t i o n s (London, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 0; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: P a ra d o x e s o f In d e p e n d e n c e, 3 1 4 -3 1 6; R eed, I n d o n e s ia: A rea Handbook on I n d o n e s ia, 6 4 0 -6 4 1; A le x a n d e r M arshak, " U n re p o rte d War in I n d o n e s ia," A m erican M e rc u ry, LXXIV (F e b ru a ry, 1 9 5 2 ), 4 4; Guy J. P a u k e r, "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n i n I n d o n e s ia," F a r E a s te r n S u rv ey. XXVII (S ep tem b er, 1 9 5 8 ), 136. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 56] === 51 R e l i g i o u s l y - o r i e n t e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s in c lu d e d, i n a d d i t i o n to th e M asjum i, th e NU (N a h d a tu l U lam a), o r League o f M uslim s, a c o n s e r v a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n founded i n 1926. A t th e o t h e r p o l a r o f I s la m ic g ro u p s was th e f a n a t i c a l D aruk I s la m movem ent. M inor Moslem p a r t i e s w ere th e P S I I, o r U n ite d I s la m ic p a r t y, and th e P e r t i. C h ris tia n p o l i t i c a l g ro u p s in c lu d e d th e P a r k in d o, o r P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n p a r t y, and th e C a th o lic p a r t y. M a r x is t p a r t i e s c o n s is te d o f th e PKI, o r In d o n e s ia n Communist p a r t y; th e P S I, o r I n d o n e s ia n S o c i a l i s t p a r t y; th e BURUH, o r W o rk e rs ' p a r t y; and th e MURBA, o r P r o l e t a r i a n p a r t y. ^ A lth o u g h th e Moslem g ro u p s a l l w ish ed t o c r e a t e some k in d o f I s la m ic s t a t e i n I n d o n e s ia, o n ly th e D a ru l I s la m b e lie v e d i n armed r e v o l t t o g a in i t s e n d s; th e o t h e r I s la m ic p a r t i e s w ere s a t i s f i e d to w ork th ro u g h o rth o d o x c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n n e ls. M o reo v er, th e D a ru l I s la m ic dream o f an I s la m ic s t a t e b a s e d on th e c o n c e p t o f th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y A rab c a l i p h a t e and e s t a b l i s h e d by means o f a h o ly w ar d i f f e r e d g r e a t l y from th e M a sju m i's r a t i o n a l i s t i c e x p o s i t i o n o f an I s la m ic s t a t e b a s e d on th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e K oran r a t h e r th a n th e e x a c t h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t o f th e e a r l y Moslem o r g a n i z a t i o n. On th e o t h e r h a n d, th e P N I 's p la tf o r m was c e n te r e d on th e F a n t j a S i l a, o r " F iv e P r i n c i p l e s " o f n a tio n a lis m, and s o c i a l i s m n a tio n a lis t lu m in a rie s. e n u n c ia te d by S u k arn o and o t h e r p o s tw a r By 1955 th e PNI was n u m e r ic a lly th e l a r g e s t L eg g e, I n d o n e s ia 1 3 8 -1 3 9; M iriam S. B u d ia r d jo, " P r o v i s i o n a l P a r lia m e n t o f I n d o n e s i a," F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XXV ( F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 6 ), 20. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 57] === 52 p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n I n d o n e s ia. D u rin g th e p e r io d 1954-1955 th e PNI and th e PKI form ed a lo o s e p a r li a m e n ta r y c o a l i t i o n. S in c e th e PKI a t t h a t tim e p r o f e s s e d a s i t s s o l e o b j e c t i v e th e c r e a t i o n o f a s t a t e w h e re in a l l th e means o f p r o d u c tio n w ere owned by th e p e o p le and u sed f o r th e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e, PNI le a d e r s saw l i t t l e to a la rm them i n su ch a r e s t r i c t e d p ro g ra m, e s p e c i a l l y s in c e PKI p o l i t i c i a n s p u b l i c l y e n d o rs e d th e P a n t j a S i l a. ^ The p o l i t i c a l p i c t u r e was c o m p lic a te d, h o w ev er, by th e m o u n tin g in f l u e n c e o f th e arm y, w hich i n 1955 was d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r e s s u r e t h a t f o r c e d th e r e s i g n a t i o n o f th e P K I-s u p p o rte d A li c a b i n e t. H ence f o r t h th e army w ould be a p aram o u n t f a c t o r i n a l l p o l i t i c a l m aneuver- The p o p u la r e l e c t i o n, in a u g u r a te d i n 1955 and e a g e r l y a n t i c i p a te d a s a p a n a c e a f o r th e body p o l i t i c, p ro d u c e d l i t t l e change 'W. F. W erth eim, I n d o n e s ia n S o c ie ty i n T r a n s i t i o n (B andung, 1 9 5 6 ), 3 3 6 -3 3 7; C. D. Cowan, " I n d o n e s ia and th e Commonwealth in S o u th e a s t A s ia: A R e - a p p r a i s a l, " I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, XXXIV (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 6 0; M i l l s, " I n d o n e s i a 's Growing P a i n s, " 5 -7; Woodman, "Y o u n g est R e p u b l ic," 1 7 4 -1 7 5; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Com munism i n I n d o n e s i a, " 2 6. ^R eed, I n d o n e s i a. 6 4 7 -6 4 8; " C o a l i t i o n i n D j a k a r t a," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXVI (A u g u st 2 9, 1 9 5 3 ), 2 2 2; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: P a ra d o x e s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e," 3 1 5 -3 1 6; B u d ia r d jo, " P r o v i s i o n a l P a r lia im ent o f I n d o n e s i a, " 2.2. R o b e rt C. Bone, J r., "New Hope i n I n d o n e s ia? " F o r e ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXV (O c to b e r 1, 1 9 5 5 ), 15; Cowan, " I n d o n e s ia and th e Common w e a lth i n S o u th e a s t A s ia: A R e - a p p r a i s a l, " 4 6 1 -4 6 3; " I n d o n e s i a 's Army T akes a H an d," E c o n o m is t. CLXXXII ( J a n u a r y 19, 1 9 5 7 )9 2 14; " P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le i n I n d o n e s i a," W orld T o d ay, XIV ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 5 8 ), 2 - 3; B u rto n R a f f e l, " I n d o n e s i a," Y ale R eview, XXXXVI (M arch, 1 9 5 7 ), 383. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 58] === 53 a c t u a l l y i n th e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n. ued t o o f f e r l i t t l e g o v e rn m e n t.^ E m b itte re d p a r t i s a n s h i p c o n t i n fo u n d a tio n f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n and b e t t e r, I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t i n 1956 S ukarno began a cam p a ig n t o o b ta in g r e a t e r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n, o s t e n s i b l y to com bat b e t t e r th e n a t i o n 's many p r o b le m s. A f t e r h i s v i s i t to Communist C h in a he p r o c la im e d t h a t p a r lia m e n ta r y dem ocracy was i l l s u i t e d f o r I n d o n e s ia and t h a t th e g o vernm ent was u n d e r ta k in g an a m b itio u s new p ro g ram u n d e r th e c o n c e p t o f D em okraski T e rp im p in, o r G uided D em ocracy.^ In h is p ro c la m a tio n o f F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1957, th e P r e s i d e n t s a i d: The e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e s e e le v e n y e a r s h av e c o n v in ced me t h a t th e dem ocracy we h av e a d o p te d, th e dem ocracy we h av e u s e d, i s a dem ocracy w h ich i s n o t i n harm ony w ith th e s o u l o f th e In d o n e s ia n n a t i o n. B re th r e n, i n t h i s W e ste rn p a r lia m e n ta r y d em o cracy, we come a c r o s s th e id e a o f o p p o s iti o n. I t i s t h i s v e r y id e a o f o p p o s iti o n, b r e t h r e n, w h ich h a s made u s go th ro u g h h a r d s h ip s f o r e le v e n y e a r s, b e c a u se we i n t e r p r e t t h i s id e a o f o p p o s iti o n i n a m anner w h ich d o es n o t a g re e w ith th e In d o n e s ia n s o u l. I t i s c l e a r t h a t o p p o s iti o n i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s d o w n rig h t c r i t i c i s m o f th e g o v ern m en t, c o u te que c o u t e I I t i s c l e a r t h a t o p p o s i t i o n i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s th e en d e a v o u r t o o v e r tu r n th e e x i s t i n g g o v e rn m en t, w h en ev er p o s s i b l e, and i t s r e p la c e m e n t by a g overnm ent o f th e o p p o s iti o n i t s e l f. What th e n i s my c o n c e p t? My c o n c e p t c o n s i s t s o f two ite m s: th e f i r s t c o n c e rn s th e c a b i n e t; th e seco n d c o n c e rn s th e n a t i o n a l coun c i l. What a b o u t th e c a b in e t? As t o th e c a b i n e t, my b r e t h r e n, we s h o u ld form a G otong-R ojong c a b i n e t. I t i s a s o - c a l l e d m u tu al a s s i s t a n c e R o b e rt C. Bone, J r., " O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e In d o n e s ia n E l e c t i o n, " A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview, XLIX (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1084. ^ P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 3 1, 4 4; H a rry G o ld b erg, "S u k arn o and G uided D em o cracy," A m erican F e d e r a t i o n i s t, LXVI (A u g u st, 1 9 5 9 ), 1 9 -2 0; Guy J. P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia i n 1964: Toward a P e o p le 's D em ocracy?" A sia n S u rv e y, V (F e b ru a ry, 1 9 6 5 ), 89; " S u k a r n o 's R e tu r n," New S t a t e s man, LXXX ( J u l y 11, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 5; " D is u n ite d I n d o n e s i a," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXII (M arch 16, 1957) 9 2 3 -9 2 4; O sc ar G ass, " F r u s t r a t e d C o lo n ia l R e v o lu tio n: I n d o n e s i a," Comm entary, XXIX (F e b ru a ry, 1 9 6 0 ), 1 6 0 -1 6 1; Gordon W alk er, " I n d o n e s ia: Growing O p p o s itio n t o S u k a r n o 's G otong R o to n g," R e p o r t e r, X II (Ju n e 13, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 8 -2 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 59] === 54 c a b i n e t. I e x p r e s s ly u s e th e te rm G otong-R ojong b e c a u se t h i s i s an a u t h e n t i c In d o n e s ia n te rm w hich g iv e s th e p u r e s t r e f l e c t i o n o f th e • In d o n e s ia n s o u l. The c a b i n e t sh o u ld c o m p rise a l l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and g ro u p s r e p r e s e n t e d i n p a r lia m e n t w h ich h av e a t t a i n e d an e l e c t o r a l q u o t i e n t. P a r lia m e n t g oes o n. N ext to th e G otong-R ojong c a b i n e t I p ro p o s e a n a t i o n a l c o u n c i l, w hich s h a l l in c lu d e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f la b o u r c i r c l e s, th e p e a s a n t s, th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a, th e group o f n a t i o n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s, th e P r o t e s t a n t g ro u p s, th e C a th o lic g ro u p, th e A lim Ulama M uslim t h e o lo g ia n s, th e women's g ro u p, th e y o u th g ro u p. B e s id e s t h e s e, my b r e t h r e n, I w ish t h a t th e n a t i o n a l c o u n c il s h a l l a l s o in c lu d e th e c h i e f o f s t a f f o f th e a i r f o r c e, th e c h i e f o f s t a t e p o l i c e, th e a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l, s e v e r a l m i n i s t e r s who h o ld im p o rta n t p o r t f o l i o s; an d, my b r e t h r e n, God w i l l i n g, t h i s n a t i o n a l c o u n c il w i l l be le d by m y s e lf. 8 On A ugust 17, 1957, th e t w e l f t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f I n d o n e s i a 's in d e p e n d e n c e, S ukarno la u n ch ed hi.s "New L i f e M ovem ent," th e im p lem en ta t i o n o f th e c o n c e p t o f G uided D em ocracy.^ Now, more th a n e v e r, h e a s s a i l e d " im p o rte d " dem ocracy and summoned th e m asses f o r g r e a t e r d e d i c a t i o n to th e new g o a l s. H e n c e fo rth th e p a r lia m e n t b eg an t o lo s e one p r e r o g a t i v e a f t e r a n o th e r to th e P r e s i d e n t, c u lm in a tin g i n i t s d is m is s a l. y e a r. The s t a t e was th u s an a u t h o r i t a r i a n reg im e by th e end o f th e 10 G uided D em ocracy was a c t u a l l y n o t a new id e a in I n d o n e s ia, and th e c r e a t i o n o f a c o a l i t i o n governm ent t h a t in c lu d e d th e PKI d id n o t mean t h a t S ukarno had become a Communist t o o l. I n r e a l i t y, t h e r e w ere In d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s. New C oncept o f G overn ment S t r u c t u r e by P r e s i d e n t S ukarno ( D ja k a r t a, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 - 5. In d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f I n f o r m a tio n, A Y ear o f D e c is io n by P re s i d e n t S ukarno ( D ja k a r t a, 1 9 5 7 ), 1 -5. l^ L eg g e, I n d o n e s ia, 1 4 8-149, 161; B u ss, S o u th e a s t A s ia and th e W orld Today, 127; "S to rm W arning i n I n d o n e s i a," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXIV (March 6, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 8 4 -2 8 5; " P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le i n I n d o n e s i a," W orld Today, XIV, 2 - 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 60] === 55 good r e a s o n s f o r d o u b tin g w h e th e r I n d o n e s ia a t t h a t tim e c o u ld make W e ste rn d em ocracy w o rk. The c o n c e p t o f G o to n g -R o jo n g, o r m u tu a l h e l p, was d e e p ly r o o te d i n th e J a v a n e s e - B a lin e s e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e. f a m ily m ores i t had lo n g b e e n cu sto m a ry t o em ploy G o to ng-R ojong by h a v in g f a m ily d i s c u s s i o n s t o s o lv e p ro b lem s and by s u p p o r tin g a s a f a m ily a member who m ig h t be i n some s o r t o f d i f f i c u l t y. Thus In d o n e s i a n s d id n o t view S u k a r n o 's G otong-R ojong p r o p o s a l i n th e same l i g h t a s W e ste rn o b s e r v e r s who w ere p o s s e s s e d by f e a r o f Communist ex p ans i o n. 11* A m arked p o l a r i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o c c u r r e d a s Sukarno s e t h i s p ro g ram i n m o tio n i n 1957. B oth th e PNI and th e PKI e n d o rs e d h i s p l a n s, b u t a s to rm o f p r o t e s t a r o s e, le d by th e M asjum i, whose members i n th e c a b i n e t r e s i g n e d. M eanw hile i n th e o u t l y i n g r e g io n s o f J a v a and on th e o t h e r i s l a n d s l o c a l le a d e r s s t r i v i n g f o r autonom y in t h e i r r e g io n s became i n c r e a s i n g l y a n ti-C o m m u n is t. ^ The N a h d a tu l Ulama and th e army l e a d e r s a l s o o p posed S u k a r n o 's p la n s f o r c o a l i t i o n R o b e rt C. Bone, J r., " W ill I n d o n e s ia D i s i n t e g r a t e? " F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXVI (May 1, 1 9 5 7 ), 127; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, ".The C hanging P a t t e r n o f In d o n esian s R e p r e s e n t a ti v e G o v ern m en t," C an ad ian J o u r n a l o f Econom ics and P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e, XXVI (May, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 2 8 -2 2 9, 2 3 5 -2 3 5; " F a m ily L i f e in I n d o n e s i a," E c o n o m is t, CLXXII j(ljarch 2, 1 9 5 7 ), 7 1 7 -7 1 8; W alk er, " I n d o n e s ia: Growing O p p o s itio n to S u k a r n o 's G otong R o to n g," 31. ^ W i l l i a m H e n d e rso n, " I n d o n e s ia D r i f t s Toward C h a o s," F o re ig n P o l i c y B u l l e t i n. XXXVII ( A p r i l, 1 9 5 8 ), 106; "M r. S u k arn o P la y s f o r T im e." E c o n o m is t. CLXXXII (M arch 2 3, 1 9 5 7 ), 9 8 8 -9 8 9; R a f f e l, " In d o n e s i a, " 3 8 4 -3 8 5; "G uided D em ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a." W orld T oday. X I I I ( A p r i l, 1 9 5 7 ), 141. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 61] === 56 gov ern m en t w hich in c lu d e d C o m m u n is ts.^ D r. H a tt a, th e fo rm e r v ic e - p r e s i d e n t, commanded a la r g e f o llo w in g; h e a c c u se d S uk arn o o f i n s i n c e r i t y and o f t r y i n g t o c r e a t e a d i c t a t o r s h i p. The P r e s i d e n t r e p l i e d t h a t, j u s t a s in th e d ay s o f h i s y o u th when th e T jo k ro a m in o to h o u s e h o ld c o n s o r te d a m ia b ly to g e th e r i n r e a c h in g d e c i s i o n s, so now I n d o n e s ia w ould become one g r e a t h appy f a m ily. He, S u k arn o, w ould p r e s i d e p a t e r n a l l y and g r a c i o u s l y a s a l l p a r t i e s and i n t e r e s t g ro u p s w ere ’’s e a te d a b o u t th e f a m ily b o a r d. D u rin g th e y e a r s s in c e W orld War I I th e m id d le c l a s s had e n jo y e d th e p o l i t i c a l and econom ic b e n e f i t s o f in d e p e n d e n c e, b u t th e lo w er c l a s s e s found th e m s e lv e s e x p l o i t e d a lm o s t a s much a s i n th e days o f D utch o v e r lo r d s h ip. The d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t o f f e r e d th e PKI a g ran d o p p o r tu n i ty, w h ich i t r e a d i l y s e i z e d. Communist p ro p a g anda em p h asized th e f a i l u r e o f th e m id d le c l a s s n a t i o n a l i s t le a d e r s to e f f e c t an y w o rth w h ile p ro g ram s o f econom ic re fo rm. q u e n tly and p u b l i c l y b e w a ile d th e f a c t t h a t i t, The PKI a l s o f r e th e t r u e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t, had n o t b een re p ic e se n te d i n any o f th e f i r s t sev en n a t i o n a l c a b in e t s. ^ • ^ J u s tu s m. Van Der K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia C o n s e rv a tis m and R efo rm," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXVII ( J u n e, 1 9 5 5 ), 362; "F am ilv L i f e i n I n d o n e s i a,” E c o n o m is t, Cl Xx X I I, 7 1 7 -7 1 8; W a lk e r, " I n d o n e s ia: G rowing O p p o s itio n t o S u k a rn o ' s G o to n g jR o to n g," 31. 14 W illa r d H anna, "A g ain Bung K arno C ounts on H is L u c k,” New York Times M a g azin e, J a n u a r y 19, 1958, 6 4 -6 5; "D r. S u k a r n o 's B ra in C h i l d," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXIII (J u n e 2 2, 1 9 5 7 ), 105 5 -1 0 5 6. ■ ^ P lu v e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 3 5 -3 6; B u d ia r d jo, " P r o v i s i o n a l P a r lia m e n t o f I n d o n e s i a," 2 0 -2 1; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism in I n d o n e s i a," 3 0; D avid Landman, " I n d o n e s ia ’ s F i r s t E l e c t i o n, " New R e p u b lic, CXXXIII (O c to b e r 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 9 -1 0; I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Toward Freedom and th e D ig n ity o f Man, 5 -9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 62] === 57 S in c e th e b i t t e r le s s o n o f M adiun, 1948, th e PKI l e a d e r s h ip had been z e a lo u s ly w o rk in g to im prove i t s o r g a n iz a ti o n and e f f e c t i v e n e s s, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e a r e a o f o rg a n iz e d la b o r. D. N. A i d i t, M. H. Lukman, N jo to, and Susidm an w ere s tr o n g u n io n l e a d e r s who w ere r e c r u i t e d i n t o th e PKI f o l d. Soon th e PKI had c o n t r o l o f such la r g e tr a d e u n io n s a s th e SOBSI ( S e t r a l Q r g a n is a s i Buruh S e lu r h I n d o n e s ia ), o r C e n tr a l O rgan i z a t i o n o f W orkers i n A ll o f I n d o n e s ia, and th e B a r is a n T a n i In d o r n e s i a. 16 I n a l l o f i t s e f f o r t s th e PKI was c a r e f u l to a v o id o p e n ly a n ta g o n iz in g th e governm ent o r th e arm y. S u k arn o, o f c o u r s e, was a l e r t t o th e grow ing s t r e n g t h o f th e PKI. I n o r d e r to c u rb th e p o te n t i a l t h r e a t to h i s p o l i t i c a l s e c u r i t y p o sed by th e PKI, Sukarno saw two c o u n te r moves he c o u ld m ake. The f i r s t was to prom ote p ro g ram s w h ich 'th e PKI.w o u ld.s u p p o rt and w h ich w ould a l s o d i v e r t th e p e o p l e 's a t t e n t i o n from th e n a t i o n 's g ra v e s o c i a l and econom ic p ro b le m s. seco n d was to r e s o r t to d i c t a t o r s h i p. The S ukarno u t i l i z e d b o th means c o n c u r r e n t ly a f t e r 1 9 5 6. ^ The i d e a l bond to h o ld t o g e t h e r th e su n d ry f a c t i o n s o f R uth T. McVey, " In d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em ocracy," i n Communist S t r a t e g i e s in A s i a, e d. A. Doak B a r n e tt (New Y ork, 1 9 6 4 ), 149; " C o a l i t i o n i n D j a k a r t a," New S ta te s m a n. XXXXVI, 22 2; " I n d o n e s ia Snubs th e W e s t." B u sin e ss Week. O c to b e r 15, 1955, 1 7 2 -1 7 3; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism i n I n d o n e s ia," 32; C la re n c e D e c k e r, " P o in t F our and th e B a t t l e f o r A s i a," New R e p u b lic, CXXVII (D ecem ber 2 2, 1 9 5 2 ), 13. ■ ^ P lu v ie r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 37; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " In d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," P a c i f i c A f f a i r s. XXXIII (S ep tem b er, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 3 2 -2 3 3; M arshak, " U n re p o rte d War i n I n d o n e s i a," 4 6; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism in I n d o n e s ia," 2 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 63] === 58 In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s was th e cam paign t o w r e s t I r i a n from D utch c o n t r o l, in d e e d, t o d r iv e D utch c o l o n ia li s m c o m p le te ly o u t o f S o u th e a s t A s ia. On num erous o c c a s io n s p o l i t i c a l d e a d lo c k s w ere overcom e by r a l l y i n g a l l g ro u p s b e h in d th e a n ti- D u tc h b a n n e r and som etim es sim p ly by d e c r y in g a l l W estern im p e r ia lis m. ia liB t fe rv o r. The PNI e x p e c i a l l y e x p l o i t e d th e a n t i - c o l o n - I n th e e a r l y s t a g e s, i. e., w ere more co n c e rn e d a b o u t th e 1956-1958, th e PNI l e a d e r s r i v a l r y o f th e M asjum i th a n o f th e PKI, a c o n v i c tio n s h a re d by S ukarno who f e a r e d th e M a sju m i's p ro m o tio n o f h o s t i l i t y to w ard h i s Jan an o cen trism.^-® th e PKI. A lso i n th e I r i a n v a n g u ard was The C om m unists' s ta n d a g a i n s t th e D u tch, to g e th e r w ith th e d e t e r i o r a t i n g econom ic c o n d i tio n o f I n d o n e s ia, a id e d th e PKI im m ensely a t th e p o l l s. ^ The M asjum i and th e P S I, whose p la tf o r m s w ere l e s s a n t i - f o r e i g n th a n th o s e o f th e PNI and th e PKI, soon saw t h e i r in f l u e n c e d e c l i n i n g a s th e n a t i o n a l i s t e x c ite m e n t in c r e a s e d. O pponents o f th e M asjum i and th e PSI o f t e n rem inded th e p e o p le o f th e W ilopo m i n i s t r y o f th e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 's, m a in ly a s M asjum i-PSI c o a l i t i o n, w hich had r e p u te d ly b esto w ed g e n e ro u s f a v o r s upon f o r e ig n i n v e s t o r s and p r o p e r ty h o ld e r s i n ln d o n e s ia. 20 ■ ^ P lu v ie r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 3 9 -4 0; W alk er, " I n d o n e s ia: Growing O p p o s itio n to S u k a r n o 's Gotong R o to n g," 3 0 -3 1; Cowan, " I n d o n e s ia and th e Commonwealth i n S o u th e a s t A s ia: A R e - a p p r a i s a l, " 4 6 0; " I n d o n e s ia n O u tlo o k," E c o n o m is t. CLXXIX, 1294. ■^Mohammad H a tt a, " I n d o n e s ia Betw een th e Power B lo c s," F o re ig n A f f a i r s. XXXVI ( A p r i l, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 8 2; " P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le i n I n d o n e s i a," W orld Today, XIV, 2 - 3; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g re s s," 2 3 8 -2 3 9. 90 P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 4 0; Guy J. P a u k e r, "Where i s In d o n e s i a G oing?" F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXV (Ju n e 15, 1 9 5 6 ), 1 4 9 -1 5 0. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 64] === 59 I n e l e c t i o n s from th e l o c a l t o th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l a f t e r 1954 th e M asjum i and th e PSI s u f f e r e d b e c a u se o f t h e i r f a i l u r e t o j o i n th e I r i a n c r u s a d e a s w h o le h e a r te d ly a s t h e i r c h i e f o p p o n e n ts.21I n th e 1 9 5 0 's th e PKI was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o a tte m p t a coup d ' e t a t and t h e r e f o r e s o u g h t a p o w e rfu l p o l i t i c a l a l l y. For t h i s re a so n, th e PKI a g re e d t o w ork w ith th e PNI i n a p a r li a m e n ta r y c o a l i t i o n w i t h o u t dem anding c a b i n e t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n r e t u r n. As p r e v i o u s l y n o te d, th e PNI a t th e tim e welcom ed s u p p o r t i n i t s p o l i t i c a l b a t t l e s a g a i n s t th e M asju m i, th e p r i n c i p a l Moslem p a r t y. Of c o u r s e, th e P K I's an ce w ith a p o w e rfu l non-C om m unist p a r t y was n o t u n iq u e. a lli " U n ite d f r o n t " s t r a t e g y h ad w orked w e ll f o r E u ro p ean Communist g ro u p s t h a t a l l i e d th e m s e lv e s w ith s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s. 22 In d o n e s ia n s g e n e r a l l y d id n o t u n d e r s ta n d o r a p p r e c i a t e th e U n ite d S t a t e s ' p r o f e s s i o n o f n e u t r a l i t y i n th e I r i a n d i s p u t e. Many 21 K a h in, e d., M aio r G overnm ents o f A s i a. 6 1 4 -6 1 5; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 4 2; " I n d o n e s ia n P r o s p e c t. " E c o n o m is t, CLXXX ( A p r il 7, 1 9 5 6 ), 3 3; " I n d o n e s i a 's C h a n c e." New S ta te s m a n. L ( J u l y 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 87; "G uided D em ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a," W orld T oday, X I I I, 141. 22McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 152; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o l i c y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 239^-240; W inburn T. Thomas, " I n d o n e s ia G ets New P a r l i a m e n t," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LX X III ( A p r il 4, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 3 2; P a u k e r, "Where I s I n d o n e s ia G o in g?" 1 4 9 -1 5 0; "G uided D em ocracy in I n d o n e s i a," W orld T oday, X I I I, 1 4 1 -4 1 3; "W eakness o f SEATO S een i n I n d o n e s i a, " C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXIV (D ecem ber 18, 19-57), 1500. 2 ^ B ern ard K. G ordon, The D im en sio n s o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s ia (Englew ood C l i f f s, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 9 1; T a y lo r, I n d o n e s ia n In d e p e n d e n c e and th e U n ite d N a ti o n s, 339;. W inburn T. Thomas, " I n d o n e s ia G ets a New C a b i n e t." C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y. LXXII (S ep tem b er 7, 1 9 5 5 ), 1038. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 65] === 60 w ere c r i t i c a l o f th e in c o n s i s t e n c y o f a n a t i o n t h a t h ad b een i n s t r u m e n ta l i n c r e a t i n g HATO and SEATO b u t r e f u s e d t o s e e t h a t th e c o n te n t i o n o v e r I r i a n c o u ld a f f o r d Communism f r u i t f u l g ro u n d f o r g ro w th i n I n d o n e s ia. I t was h a r d f o r an ti-C o m m u n ists i n I n d o n e s ia to u n d e r s ta n d how th e U n ite d S t a t e s c o u ld o v e rlo o k th e r a p i d l y m o u n tin g s t r e n g t h o f th e PK I, l a r g e l y o b ta in e d by p la c in g i t s e l f i n th e v an g u ard o f th e p o p u la r I r i a n c r u s a d e. 24 Toward th e end o f 1957 th e a n ti- D u tc h f e v e r r o s e to new h e i g h t s. The G e n e ra l A ssem bly r e j e c t e d a r e s o l u t i o n c a l l i n g f o r a g o o d - o f f ic e s com m ission to a s s i s t I n d o n e s ia and th e N e th e r la n d s i n s e t t l i n g th e I r ia n q u e s tio n. ^ The U n ite d S t a t e s a b s ta in e d from v o tin g on t h i s and s i m i l a r r e s o l u t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e D u tc h -In d o n e s ia n c o n t r o v e r s y. ^ S u k arn o and th e PNI th e n em barked upon a w id e s p re a d p ro p a g n a d a cam paign a g a i n s t D utch i n t e r e s t s i n th e i s l a n d s; n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f D utch p ro p e r t i e s so o n fo llo w e d, w ith th e PKI g iv in g i t s p u b l i c e n d o r s e m e n t.^ Some I n d o n e s ia n l e a d e r s v a i n l y u rg e d th e U n ite d S t a t e s t o s p o n s o r a ^ H a t t a, “I n d o n e s ia Between th e Power B l o c s," 2 8 6 -2 8 7; Landman, “ I n d o n e s ia ’ s F i r s t E l e c t i o n, ” 9 -1 1; Van D er K r o e f, "M arxism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, ” 2 9 0 -2 9 1, 2 9 4 -2 9 5. ^ "N e w G u in ea R e s o lu tio n F a i l s, ” U n ite d N a tio n s R eview, I I I ( A p r il 1, 1 9 5 7 ), 2; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s,” 2 3 8 -2 3 9. ^ B e n ja m in H ig g in s, " I n d o n e s ia and U. S. P o l i c y, ” New R e p u b lic, CXXXVII (D ecem ber 3 0, 1 9 5 7 ), 7 - 8. 27 P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 4 6; “ P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le i n In d o:-' n e s i a, ” W orld T oday, I I, 2 - 3; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 1 0 7 -1 0 9; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, “ I n d o n e s ia i n th e C old W ar." C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVIII (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 0 ), 9 2 -9 3. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 66] === 61 U n ite d N a tio n s r e s o l u t i o n w hereby W estern New G uinea ( I r i a n ) w ould be made a t r u s t e e s h i p o f th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l body p e n d in g a p l e b i s c i t e o f th e p e o p le o f t h a t t e r r i t o r y. ° The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h o f th e PKI was g r e a t l y b u t t r e s s e d by th e pro-C om m unist SOBSI, th e n a t i o n 's l a r g e s t la b o r u n io n. SOBSI had a b o u t 2,7 0 0,0 0 0 members by 1957 and c o n t r o l l e d s i x t y p e r c e n t o f th e o rg a n iz e d la b o r f o r c e o f I n d o n e s ia. I t was n o t o n ly th e n u m e ric a lly l a r g e s t u n io n b u t a l s o th e b e s t o rg a n iz e d and m ost e f f e c t i v e. A n o th er s o u rc e o f s t r e n g t h f o r th e PKI was th e p e a s a n tr y o f e a s t and c e n t r a l Java. T h ere th e a g r a r i a n f o lk f o r th e m ost p a r t w ere c o n v in ced by Communist p ro p ag an d a t h a t th e In d o n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n was fu n d a m e n ta lly an a g r a r i a n one and t h a t i t s s u c c e s s depended upon c o o p e r a tio n betw een th e p e a s a n t r y and th e p r o l e t a r i a t. ^ 9 I r o n i c a l l y, th e PKI e n l i s t e d th e b a c k in g o f I n d o n e s i a 's e l i t e a r t i s t s b u t c o u ld n o t a t t r a c t o th e r s o f th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i n s i g n i f i c a n t nu m b ers. I n f a c t, th e e d u c a te d e le m e n ts in I n d o n e s ia w ere gen e r a l l y h o s t i l e tow ard Communism. I t i s m oot, h o w ev er, w h e th e r th e o p p o s iti o n o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s s e rv e d to d e t e r th e P K I's e x p a n s io n 28 H ig g in s, " I n d o n e s ia and U. S. P o l i c y," 8; P a u k e r, " In d o n e s ia n Im ages o f T h e ir N a tio n a l S e l f, " 3 0 9 -3 1 1. 29^cVey, " In d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to Guided D em o cracy," 1 5 4-155; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: The M y stiq u e o f P erm anent R e v o lu tio n," S outh A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y. LXIV (W in te r, 1 9 6 5 ), 5 -6; P a u k e r, "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n i n In d o n e s i a, " 135; Ebon, " In d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 1060; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " A g ra ria n Reform and th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, " F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y. XXIX ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 0 ), 8 - 9, 1 2 -13; B u d ia r d jo, " P r o v i s io n a l P a r lia m e n t o f I n d o n e s ia," 2 0 -2 1; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 54. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 67] === 62 a p p r e c ia b ly. The i n t e l l i g e n t s i a view ed th e commoners i n a somewhat p a t r i c i a n m an n er, c o n s id e r in g th e m s e lv e s a s c a r e t a k e r s o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s o f th e p r i j a j i, th e o ld a r i s t o c r a c y. M o reo v er, s in c e th e D ja k a r ta b u r e a u c ra c y was co m p rised o f many o f th e s u r v iv in g p r i j a j i, who w ere o f u rb a n d i s t r i c t s and PNI a f f i l i a t i o n, i t i s l i t t l e w onder t h a t P K I1s p r o s e l y t i s m o f th e u p p e r c l a s s e s was m o s tly f u t i l e. T h e r e f o re th e PKI tu r n e d to th e a r e a s l i k e l y to p ro d u c e th e m ost d e s i r e d r e s u l t s, th e u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t and th e l o w e r - c l a s s a g r a r i a n s. 31 I n th e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s o f 1955 and 1957 th e Communists s u r p r i s e d many a n a l y s t s by t h e i r s tr o n g sh o w in g s. PKI s t r e n g t h in th e l a b o r f i e l d was f o r e s e e n because^of th e z e a lo u s e f f o r t s o f th e SOBSI, b u t i t s r u r a l s u c c e s s was n o t p r e d i c t e d. A f te r th e M adiun f i a s c o i n 1948 th e P K I's mem b e r s h ip had sh ru n k t o an i n s i g n i f i c a n t num ber, b u t by 1959 i t s 1,500,000 members made th e p a r t y a s e r i o u s c la im a n t t o p o l i t i c a l p o w er. 32 The w e ll s p r i n g s o f th e P K I's s t r e n g t h w ere th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l c r u s a d e, s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n, and econom ic c h a o s. A l l th r e e seem ed l i k e l y to rem a in c o n t r o v e r s i a l is s u e s f o r y e a r s t o come. 33 3®McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 158, 1 6 0 -1 6 1; Jam es Burnham, " D is p a tc h from a F o r g o tte n S o u l," N a tio n a l R eview, X (M arch 2 5, 1 9 6 1 ), 176; P a u k e r, "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n i n I n d o n e s i a," 136. •^ R u s la n K am alu d in, " F i f t h C e n t r a l Com m ittee P le n u m," B in ta n g M erah, X I I I (A u g u st, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 1 2 -3 1 4. 32pr 0 paganda D ep artm en t o f th e C e n t r a l Com m ittee o f th e PKI, S ix th N a tio n a l C o n g ress o f th e PKI ( D ja k a r t a, 1 9 5 9 ), 6 3. 33Ewa T. P a u k e r, "Has th e S u k arn o Regime Weakened th e PKI?" A sia n S u rv e y, IV (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 4 ), 1067; " I n d o n e s i a 's C h a n c e," New S ta te s m a n, L ( J u l y 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 8 7; Van D er K ro e f, "M arxism in S o u th e a s t A s i a," 2 9 3 -2 9 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 68] === 63 A larm ed by th e p r o s p e c t o f s t e a d i l y grow ing Communist in r o a d s i n t o t h e i r fo rm e r s e a t s o f i n f l u e n c e, th e PN I, M a sju m i,. arid NU a tte m p te d t o r e c o n c i l e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s and u n i t e a g a i n s t th e common t h r e a t. The seco n d A l i c a b i n e t, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 5 7, r e p r e s e n t e d a c o a l i t i o n o f th e s e th r e e m a jo r p a r t i e s, b u t i t u t t e r l y f a i l e d i n e f f o r t s t o q u i e t c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i t h i n i t s ra n k s and t o g r a p p le w ith th e n a t i o n 's b a s i c p ro b le m s. S u k arn o te n d e d to blam e th e im p o ten ce o f t h i s m i n i s t r y on th e f a c t t h a t i t d id n o t r e p r e s e n t a l l m ain c u r r e n t s o f I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l th o u g h t, n am ely th e'C o m m u n ists. The P r e s i d e n t w ould h av e p r e f e r r e d to s e e th e p r e - e l e c t i o n a l l i a n c e o f th e PNI and PKI c o n tin u e d a g a i n s t th e M asjum i. C o n tr a ry t o a p o p u la r n o t i o n, i t was n o t S u k a r n o 's d e s i r e a t t h a t tim e t o g iv e th e PKI a c o n t r o l l i n g v o ic e i n th e c a b i n e t. d e e d, th e Com m unists w ere e x c lu d e d from t h a t body u n t i l 1962, f iv e y e a r s a f t e r S u k a r n o 's a ss u m p tio n o f d i c t a t o r i a l p o w e rs. ^ A c tu a l ly his> c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e PKI i n some m a tte r s was d e c e i t f u l, s in c e he was s im u lta n e o u s ly p l o t t i n g w ith PNI l e a d e r s on m ethods t o c h ec k th e PKI s u rg e When m i l i t a r y coups to o k p la c e i n S u m atra in D ecem ber, 1956, and i n M a c a ssa r i n M arch, 1957, i t was c l e a r t o many l e a d e r s t h a t a s t r o n g e r c e n t r a l i z e d reg im e was n e e d e d t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y w ith ■ ^ P lu v ie r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 4 2 -4 3; P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime W eakened th e PK I?" 1062. K a h in, e d., M ajo r G overnm ents o f A s i a, 6 5 0 -6 5 1; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 4 3 -4 4; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 108; "A w akening o f I n d o n e s i a, " A m eric a. C ( F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1 9 5 9 ), 595. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 69] === 64 d o m e s tic c r i s e s. Thus i n A p r i l, 1957, S u k arn o h im s e lf, moving o u ts id e n orm al p a r li a m e n ta r y c h a n n e ls, a p p o in te d th e D juanda c a b i n e t, w hich d id n o t in c lu d e PKI r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, and a new n a t i o n a l c o u n c i l, w h ich had f o u r C om m unists. The PNI, o f S u k arn o was t i t u l a r h e a d, r e l u c t a n t l y w en t a lo n g w ith th e s e m oves, b u t th e M asjum i, S o c i a l i s t, and C a th o lic p a r t i e s w ere lo u d i n t h e i r p r o t e s t s. ^ U n lik e th e f a s c i s t s o f p re -1 9 3 9 E u ro p e, Sukarno d id n o t o p e n ly o ppose th e Comm unists b u t t r i e d t o a b s o rb them q u i e t l y and a n g le f o r t h e i r s u p p o rt. ^ As m en tio n ed p r e v i o u s l y, H a tta and o th e r p ro m in e n t p o l i t i c i a n s d is a g r e e d w ith him s t r o n g l y on t h i s m atter.-^® H a tta d e manded th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f th e n a t i o n a l c o u n c il and th e D juanda c a b i n e t, e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e fo rm er was g iv e n by S ukarno th e f u n c tio n o f a d v i s in g th e c a b i n e t, w h e th e r i t w an ted a d v ic e o r n o t. S u k a r n o 's c r i t i c s rem in d ed him t h a t th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1945 d id n o t p r o v id e f o r a n a t i o n a l c o u n c il and t h a t th e body a c t u a l l y s e rv e d a s a c o n d u it o f 39 d a n g e ro u s r a d i c a l p r e s s u r e s on th e n a t i o n a l g o v ern m en t. * ■ ^ J u s tu s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R eb els and A m erican P o l i c y," U n ite d A s i a, X (J u n e, 1 9 5 8 ), 2 1 4; "G uided Democracy Y i e l d s, " A m eric a, C (M arch 1 4, 1 9 5 9 ), 676; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia i n th e Cold W ar," 9 0 -9 1; Cowan, " I n d o n e s ia and th e Commonwealth in S o u th e a s t A s ia: A R e - a p p r a i s a l, " 4 6 3 -4 6 4. "^C in d y Adams, S ukarno (New Y ork, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 7 8 -2 7 9; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 4 7 -4 8. ^®Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R e b e ls and A m erican P o l i c y, " 214; B. K. T iw a r i, " I n d o n e s ia Going P e k in g W ay," The I n d ia n M a r x is t, I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 3. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R e b e ls and A m erican P o l i c y," 212; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n s t a b i l i t y i n I n d o n e s ia," F a r E a s te r n S u rv e y, XXVI ( A p r i l, 1 9 5 7 ), 52, 5 5; A b d u lg a n i, " I n d o n e s i a 's N a tio n a l C o u n c il: The F i r s t Y e a r," 1 0 1 -1 0 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 70] === 65 S u d d en ly on F e b ru a ry 14, 1958, a c o t e r i e o f o p p o s itio n p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s and d i s s i d e n t army o f f i c e r s a t Padang i n c e n t r a l S um atra p ro* c la im e d th e e s ta b l is h m e n t o f a new governm ent f o r a l l I n d o n e s ia. The reb el.m o v em en t a l s o c o n s is te d o f s e c u l a r n a t i o n a l i s t s, s o c i a l i s t s, a d v o c a te s o f a u n i t a r y s t a t e, c r u s a d e r s f o r r e g i o n a l autonom y, a d h e r e n t s o f an I s la m ic th e o c r a c y, and r e a c t i o n a r i e s o f a l l s o r t s. T h e r e b e l s w anted a reg im e s t r i p p e d o f a l l Communist in f l u e n c e. A f te r la s t - m in u t e n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith D ja k a r ta p ro v ed a b o r t i v e, th e Padang l e a d e r s named D r. S ja f r u d d i n P ra w ira n e g a ra a s p re m ie r o f t h e i r r i v a l re g im e, H a tta h a v in g r e f u s e d t h e i r n o m in a tio n. The r e b e l p re m ie r th e n is s u e d d e c re e s dem anding t h a t th e D ja k a r ta governm ent s u r r e n d e r i t s fu n d s and arm s; he a l s o r e a s s u r e d f o r e ig n e r s t h a t t h e i r r i g h t s and p r o p e r t i e s would be s a f e g u a r d e d. ^ P re m ie r D juanda in D ja k a r ta b e lie v e d t h a t th e S u m atra movement was a b l u f f, b u t M ajo r G e n e ra l Abdul H a r r is N a s u tio n, J a v a 's army commander, m o b iliz e d h i s f o r c e s f o r a c t i o n. ^ A t f i r s t S ukarno r u le d o u t com prom ise w ith th e r e b e l s, b u t th e n he s u d d e n ly announced t h a t H a tta w ould be b ro u g h t b ack i n t o th e governm ent a s a c o n c i l i a t o r y O p iu v ie r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 4 9; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R o le o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s ia," 3 5 1 -3 5 4; P a u k e r, " In d o n e s ia n Im ages o f T h e ir N a tio n a l S e l f, " 31 4. ^ " I n d o n e s i a: F i n a l l y, th e C h a lle n g e," Newsweek, L I (F ebru* a r y 2 4, 1 9 5 8 ), 42; H e r b e r t F e i t h and D a n ie l S. L ev, "End o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e b e l l i o n," P a c i f i c A f f a i r s., XXXVI ( S p r in g, 1 9 6 2 ), 35; M a r tin, "T ro u b le I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," 6 4. 42 " A fro -A s ia: Red G a in s —and L o s s e s," Newsweek, L I ( F e b r u a r y 17, 1 9 5 8 ), 57. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 71] === 66 g e s t u r e to th e Padang l e a d e r s. H a tta w ould be g r a n te d v e to pow er o v e r th e s e l e c t i o n o f c a b i n e t m em bers, i. e., th e r i g h t t o e x c lu d e PKI men, and S u k arn o w ould g r a n t am n esty to th e r e b e l s and ab andon some a s p e c t s o f h i s G uided D em ocracy p ro g ram. A p p a r e n tly S u k arn o w ish e d t o q u e l l th e m a lc o n te n ts b e f o r e a l l o f I n d o n e s ia was sw ept by r e v o l u t i o n. But N a s u tio n and th e army h ig h command, who f e l t t h a t m i l i t a r y a c t i o n was th e o n ly r e c o u r s e, and m ost D ja k a r ta b u r e a u c r a t s, who f e a r e d l o s s o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e i f H a t t a 's f a c t i o n r e tu r n e d to th e g o v e rn m e n t, p e r su ad ed S u k arn o to re v o k e h i s c o n c i l i a t o r y o f f e r and to u s e f o r c e. ^ As f o r th e PK I, one I n d o n e s ia n o f f i c i a l s a i d a t th e tim e t h a t " th e Reds a r e d o in g t h e i r d am n ed est t o p r e v e n t a s e t t l e m e n t w hich w ould th ro w them o u t o f th e g o v e r n m e n t." ^ The o c c a s io n m ig h t have b een an o p p o rtu n e one f o r a Communist coup d * / t a t, b u t A i d i t was w e ll aw are t h a t a C o m m u n is t-c o n tro lle d J a v a i n 1958 w ould n o t h av e s u r v iv e d lo n g i n v iew o f th e n e a r - i n s o l u b l e econom ic p ro b le m s o f th e i s l a n d. So th e PKI th re w i t s s u p p o r t b e h in d th e P r e s i d e n t when he d e c id e d i n fa v o r o f th e a rm y -b u re a u c ra c y p r o p o s a l to go ah ead w ith armed f o r c e a g a i n s t th e S u m atra r e b e l s. ^ 5 The w e ll - o r g a n iz e d p ro p a g a n d a m achine o f th e PKI w en t i n t o a c t i o n to w hip up mass s u p p o r t f o r th e war a g a i n s t th e r e b e l r e g i m e. ^ ^ " I n d o n e s i a: S p a r r i n g, 11 Newsweek, L I (M arch 17, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 0 -4 2; F e i t h, "End o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e b e l l i o n," 36. ^ Q u o te d i n " I n d o n e s ia: S p a r r i n g, " Newsweek, L I, 4 2. ^M cV ey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 163. s i a R e v o lt- - U n c e n s o r e d," Newsweek, L I (M arch 2 4, 1958), R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 72] === 67 The Padang l e a d e r s had a c t e d p r e m a tu r e ly, w ith p o o r p r e p a r a t i o n s m i l i t a r i l y and p o l i t i c a l l y. They w ere o v e r o p t i m i s t i c i n t h e i r h o p es f o r s u p p o r t from th e I n d o n e s ia n m asses and from th e o u t s i d e w o r ld. • P e rh a p s a m a j o r i t y o f th e h ig h army o f f i c e r s o f I n d o n e s ia w ere a c t u a l l y s y m p a th e tic w ith th e r e b e l s ' c a u s e, b u t th e y rem a in ed l o y a l t o D ja k a r ta b e c a u se th e y w i s e ly fo re s a w t h a t P a d a n g 1s s u c c e s s w ould f r a c t u r e n a tio n a l u n ity. ^ O nly t h r e e d ay s b e f o r e th e d ra m a tic Padang r e v o l t b eg an i n Feb r u a r y, 1958, S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e Jo h n F o s te r D u lle s b lu n d e re d i n p u b licly v o ic in g h i s c o n v i c tio n t h a t G uided Democracy i n I n d o n e s ia " a p p a r e n t ly do es n o t e n t i r e l y, s a t i s f y l a r g e seg m en ts o f th e p o p u la tio n " o f In d o n e s ia. H is rem ark was i n t e r p r e t e d i n D ja k a r ta a s a t a c i t en d o sem en t o f th e P adang r e b e l l i o n. L a t e r D u lle s a n ta g o n iz e d D ja k a r ta f u r t h e r by s t a t i n g a t a SEATO m e e tin g i n M a n ila t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n R e p u b lic "came i n t o b e in g i n la r g e p a r t a s a r e s u l t o f th e i n t e r e s t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s t h a t a r e p u b l i c s h o u ld be fo u n d e d." S j a f r u d d i n, p r o b a b ly e n c o u ra g e d by D u l l e s ' w o rd s, r e q u e s te d SEATO a s s i s t a n c e, b u t n o t o n ly d id SEATO r e j e c t h i s p le a b u t a l s o th e U n ite d S t a t e s d e c la r e d on A p r il 1 t h a t i t s p o s i t i o n i n th e I n d o n e s ia n c i v i l w ar w ould be t h a t o f s t r i c t n e u tra lity. H ow ever, a m onth l a t e r D ja k a r t a a c c u se d th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f s u p p ly in g m u n itio n s to th e r e b e l s, a c h a rg e p ro m p tly d e n ie d by Wash in g to n. P o p u la r s e n tim e n t i n and aro u n d D ja k a r t a, n e v e r t h e l e s s, ^ P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 4 9 -5 0; F e i t h, "End o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e b e l l i o n," 3 6 -3 7, 4 4 -4 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 73] === 68 c o n tin u e d t o be h o s t i l e tow ard th e U n ite d S t a t e s T e n s io n e a s e d somewhat when th e U n ite d S t a t e s a g re e d t o s e l l 2 5,0 0 0 to n s o f r i c e t o I n d o n e s ia u n d e r a l o w - i n t e r s t lo n g - te r m lo a n a g ree m en t i n l a t e 1958. A n o th er a g re e m e n t b etw een th e two governm ents p ro v id e d f o r th e sh ip m e n t o f.s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f arms t o D ja k a r t a. The l e s s e n i n g o f t e n s i o n, h o w ev er, came a f t e r th e S um atra r e b e l l i o n had b een l a r g e l y s u p p r e s s e d, so i t d id n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r D j a k a r t a 's d is tru s t of W a s h in g to n.^ R e g ard in g th e a g re e m e n ts, H u r u s t i a t i S u b a n d rio, S u k a r n o 's f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r, e x p la in e d t h a t "fro m th e v e r y s t a r t o f o u r n a t i o n a l l i f e we w anted t o s ta n d on o u r own f e e t —p o l i t i c a l l y, e c o n o m ic a lly, and m i l i t a r i l y a s soon as p o s s i b l e. I f we need A m erican a s s i s t a n c e now, i t i s to a c c e l e r a t e o u r grow th to w ard s m a tu r i t y and s t a b i l i t y; i t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t m eant t h a t we s h o u ld be dep end e n t upon th e U n ite d S t a t e s d u rin g o u r w h o le n a t i o n a l l i f e - " ’’® i n view o f A m e ric a 's i n c o n s i s t e n t f o r e ig n p o l i c y and h e r ig n o ra n c e o f In d o n e s i a n p ro b le m s, t h e r e was l i t t l e a s s u r a n c e t h a t r e l a t i o n s betw een th e two w ould im prove c o n s i d e r a b l y. 51- Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R e b e ls and A m erican P o l i c y," 2 1 5 -2 1 6; F i f i e l d, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n U n ite d S t a t e s P o l i c y, 3 1 1 -3 1 2; Ram T i r a t h, U. S. O ctopus in, A s ia (New D e lh i, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 4 -3 6; M a r tin, " T ro u b le I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a, ” 6 4; Van D er K ro e f, "End o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e b e l l i o n," 4 1. 49 Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R e b e ls and A m erican P o l i c y, " 2 lb - 217. ^ H u r u s t i a t i S u b a n d rio, " I n d o n e s ia and USA," U n ite d A s ia, X (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 3 9. 51 Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n R e b e ls and A m erican P o l i c y," 217; R o b e rt S triau sz-H u p e and o t h e r s, P r o t r a c t e d C o n f l i c t (New Y ork, 1 9 5 9 ), 90. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 74] === 69 By th e tim e o f th e r e b e l l i o n o f 1958 pow er i n th e D ja k a r ta regim e was c l e a r l y d iv id e d among th r e e e l e m e n ts. S ukarno was s tr o n g e r th a n e v e r b e f o r e, s k i l f u l l y p la y in g o f f o t h e r f a c t i o n s a g a i n s t e ac h o t h e r w h ile b u s i l y c o n s o li d a ti n g h i s own p o s i t i o n. He o b v io u s ly d i s l i k e d th e U n ite d S t a t e s and le a n e d to w ard P e k in g 's f o r e ig n p o l i c y, b u t he a l s o was a d a m a n tly a g a i n s t a llo w in g In d o n e s ia t o become a mere s a t e l l i t e o f Communist C hina o r S o v ie t R u s s ia. I f i t s l e a d e r s c o u ld u n i t e, th e I n d o n e s ia n a rm y 's p o t e n t i a l pow er was tre m e n d o u s. But army o f f i c e r s w ere s h a r p ly d iv id e d, w ith th e h ig h command s ta u n c h ly a n t i com m unist and many f a r t h e r down th e l i n e o f command e i t h e r pro-Communi s t o r a t l e a s t n o t h o s t i l e tow ard th e PK I. U n lik e th e o t h e r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s, w hich w ere by 1958 d iv id e d and im p o te n t f o r th e m ost p a r t, th e PKI was c l e a r l y th e m ost p o w e rfu l o r g a n iz a ti o n and m o u ld er o f p u b li c o p in io n i n th e r e p u b l i c. F u l l o f v i t a l i t y and z e a l, th e PKI s t r o n g l y in f lu e n c e d th e lo w er c l a s s e s from th e docks o f S u rab ay a t o th e r u r a l h a m le ts o f c e n t r a l J a v a. J * The y e a r 1958 s i g n a l i z e d a tu r n i n g p o i n t i n th e w hole o f In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s. The arm y, le d by a n ti-C o m m u n ist N a s u tio n, em erged as a f o r c e t o re c k o n w ith i n f u t u r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f g o v ern m e n t. P re s i d e n t S ukarno was s t i l l f ir m ly i n c o n t r o l, b u t th e army com mand's 52 "A n o th er P ro b lem f o r U. S.: Keep Reds from T aking I n d o n e s ia," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXXV ( J u l y 2 5, 1 9 5 8 ), 7 1 -7 2; H e r b e r t F e i t h, " I n d o n e s i a 's P o l i t i c a l Symbols and T h e ir W ie ld e r s," W orld P o l i t i c s, XVI (O c to b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), 79; H arry G o ld b e rg, "What Now i n I n d o n e s ia? " A m erican F e d e r a t i o n i s t, LXVI (F e b ru a ry, 1 9 5 9 ), 1 9 -2 1; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Armu i n I n d o n e s ia," 3 5 1 -3 5 4. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 75] === 70 h o s t i l i t y to Communists now v e rg e d upon a l l - o u t w a r.53 The r i v a l r i e s betw een th e army and th e P r e s i d e n t and b etw een th e arm y and th e -P K I became th e l e i t m o t i v o f p o l i t i c s. As f r i c t i o n b etw een them m ounted, S ukarno d e s p e r a t e l y e n d e a v o re d t o b r in g t o c o m p le tio n th e t r a n s f e r from W e s te rn -ty p e l i b e r a l dem ocracy t o h i s n a t i o n a l i s t i c, s o c i a l i s t i c G uided D em ocracy. I n 1958 and 1959 th e P r e s i d e n t b ro u g h t more and more p r e s s u r e to b e a r upon su n d ry g ro u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s to conform w ith h i s i d e o l o g i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e q u ir e m e n t s.54 The PKI sh re w d ly s u p p o rte d a m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n to th e S u m atran u p r i s i n g, r e a l i z i n g t h a t an y com prom ise w ith th e r e b e l s w ould p r o b a b ly in v o lv e c o n c e s s io n s by S ukarno t h a t w ould be i n j u r i o u s t o Communist in te re s ts. Thus th e PKI was i n a p o s i t i o n w h ich co m p elle d i t s s u p p o rt o f th e arm y, a t l e a s t a g a i n s t th e Padang f o r c e s, w h ile aw are t h a t th e h ig h command was h o s t i l e to w ard th e C om m unists.5 5 s l a v i s h l y backed S u k arn o a t e v e r y move. L ik e w is e, th e PKI PKI w o rk e rs s e iz e d D utch p r o p e r t y w h en ev er S u k arn o in tim a te d t h a t s t r o n g e r a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e h a te d c o l o n i a l i s t s was in o r d e r. The PKI g e n e r o u s ly m a rs h a lle d te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f a p p la u d in g p e r s o n s w h en ev er th e P r e s i d e n t d e l i v e r e d a ^ Don H uth, "Can th e Army S tan d Up t o S u k a rn o? ", W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 18, 1965; G o ld b e rg, "What Now i n I n d o n e s ia? " 1 9 -2 1; F e i t h, "End o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e b e l l i o n," 4 6. ^M cV ey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em ocracy," 165. ^5Guy J. P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I 's Road t o P o w e r," i n The Communist R e v o lu tio n i n A s i a, e d. R o b e rt A. S c a la p in o (Englew ood C l i f f s, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 7 6; McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 164. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission === [PDF page 76] === 71 p u b lic a d d re s s. A i d i t and h i s c o lle a g u e s a l s o w ere c a r e f u l t o r e f r a i n from p r e a c h in g M arxism a t t h a t tim e; m o reo v e r, th e y d i s c r e e t l y d e em p h asized th e P K I 's r e l a t i o n s w ith P ek in g and Moscow. I n s t e a d, th e P K I's p ro g ram o f 1958-1959 spoke o f su ch th in g s a s th e n eed f o r more r i c e f o r th e commoners, th e p a r t y 's p a r lia m e n ta r y c o o p e r a tio n w ith n a t i o n a l i s t and Moslem f a c t i o n s, and i t s e f f o r t s t o p ro m o te th e v i l e /r l a g e - l e v e l dem ocracy w h ich h a s s u r v iv e d f o r c e n t u r i e s i n I n d o n e s ia. ■ ^"A n o th er P ro b lem f o r U. S.: Keep from th e T ak in g I n d o n e s ia," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXXV, 72; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Com m u n is t P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 23 5, 2 4 4 -2 4 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 77] === CHAPTER IV GUIDED DEMOCRACY AND THE PKI A cco rd in g to S u k arn o, G uided Democracy w ould be b ased on com pre h e n s iv e econom ic p la n n in g by a n a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n governm ent w hich i n c lu d e d th e Com m unists. S t r i c t o b e d ie n c e and d i s c i p l i n e w ould be d e - manded o f a l l In d o n e s ia n s i n im p lem en tin g th e p ro g ra m.^ S ukarno b e lie v e d t h a t th e r e b y I n d o n e s ia w ould be b ro u g h t a b r e a s t o f c u r r e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts: " C a p ita lis m i s d e a d; s o c ia l is m, C o m m u n is t-s ty le, w i l l sweep th e w o r l d. I n an in t e r v ie w w ith Newsweek *s B e rn a rd K ris h e in 1964, S u k arn o d is c u s s e d G uided Democracy a t le n g th. d e f in e d th e c o n c e p t f o r K ris h e in th e s e te rm s: I t is dem ocracy w ith le a d e r s h i p. The P r e s id e n t " I am n o t a d i c t a t o r. L ik e a b ig f a m ily, th e f a t h e r p r e - s i d e s - - s o n A i s a g a i n s t so m e th in g, son B i s f o r i t, C i s a g a i n s t. t a l k, t a l k, t a l k, and th e f a t h e r g iv e s l e a d e r s h i p. o f th e f a t h e r, and t h a t ' s my p o s i t i o n. " Then T h a t 's th e p o s i t i o n K ah in, e d., M ajor G overnm ents o f A s ia. 661; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I 's Road t o P o w e r," 2 8 0 -2 8 1; B e n e d ic t R. A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s," C u rre n t H i s t o r y, XXXXVIII ( F e b ru a ry, 19 65), "A n o th er P ro b lem f o r U. S.: Keep Reds from T aking I n d o n e s ia," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXXV, 72. ^ " T a lk w ith S u k arn o: I Am I n d o n e s ia," Newsweek, LXIV (O c to b e r 5, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 78] === 73 S ukarno demanded a r e t u r n t o th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1945, w hich p ro v id e d f o r a p r e s i d e n t i a l c a b i n e t, th o u g h th e n o m in a tio n m ethod r e sem bled t h a t o f F a s c i s t I t a l y. ^ U lti m a t e ly he p la n n e d t o d r a f t a new c o n s t i t u t i o n w h ich w ould e l i m i n a t e v a r io u s o b s t a c l e s t o h i s p e r s o n a l e x p a n s io n o f po w er, e s p e c i a l l y th e o p p o s itio n o f c e r t a i n " c o lo n e l s and e c o n o m is ts." When in 1959 th e p a r lia m e n t r e j e c t e d a b i l l r e v i v i n g th e C o n s titu io n o f 1945, S u k arn o, w ith N a s u tio n 's a s s i s t a n c e, banned a l l p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s and d e c la r e d a s t a t e o f m a r t i a l la w.^ A ll v e s t i g e s o f dem ocracy w ere w iped o u t, w h ile S ukarno r e a s s u r e d h i s c o n s t i t u en cy t h a t h e w ould r e l i n q u i s h d i c t a t o r i a l pow ers when a new p e o p l e 's l e g i s l a t i v e assem b ly was form ed som etim e i n th e f u t u r e. A lth o u g h th e sudden move was a blow t o th e P K I 's h o p es o f com ing i n t o pow er i n th e n e x t p a r lia m e n ta r y e l e c t i o n s, th e Communists c o n tin u e d t o b ack th e ^McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 165 -1 6 6; "S u k arn o Takes th e W h e e l," E c o n o m is t. CLXXXII ( A p r il 13, 1 9 5 7 ), 120; D onald H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia: P r id e and P o l i t i c s. " N a tio n, CC (Ju n e 14, 1 9 6 5 ), 6 3 6 -6 3 7; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia i n th e C old W ar," 9 2 -9 3; P a u k e r, "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n i n I n d o n e s ia," 1 4 1 -1 4 2; B eech, " S tr u g g le f o r Power U nder th e P a lm s,” 104. ^ " S u k a r n o 's Take O ver B id," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXXII ( J u l y 18, 1 9 5 9 ), 148; J. H a a r s e i h o r s t, " I n d o n e s ia a t th e C ro s s ro a d,." A m eric a, CIV (D ecem ber 17, 1 9 6 0 ), 391; I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, Toward Freedom and th e D ig n ity o f Man, 3 9. 6"The T urn o f th e W h e e l," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXX (M arch 14, 1 9 5 9 ), 955; " S u k a r n o 's Take O ver B id," i b i d., CLXXXXII, 148; M a r tin, " T ro u b le I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," 6 4; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R o le o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s ia," 355; M in tx, I n d o n e s ia, 15 7 -1 5 8. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 79] === 74 P re s id e n t. ^ The PNI i n e a r l y 1960 jo i n e d w ith i t s a r c h r i v a l, th e M asjum i, i n p r o t e s t i n g S u k a r n o 's co m p le te d i s r e g a r d f o r p a r li a m e n ta r y m e th o d s. The P r e s i d e n t 's h a u g h ty r e s p o n s e made i t c l e a r t h a t th e p a r t y s y ste m was v i r t u a l l y d e a d. As th e n a t i o n a l p a r li a m e n t sa n k t o a new e b b, S u k arn o r e v i s e d th e s t r u c t u r e o f r e g i o n a l a s s e m b lie s, r e s t o r i n g th e Pamong P r a d j a, w h ich was th e o ld c e n t r a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d c i v i l s e r v i c e s y ste m. L ik e th e o t h e r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s, th e PKI s u f f e r e d from th e e x tin g u is h m e n t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v ern m e n t. B u t, u n li k e th e o t h e r g ro u p s, th e Comm unists by 1960 h ad p o w e rfu l o r g a n iz e d mass s u p p o r t a t th e g r a s s - r o o t s l e v e l.th ro u g h o u t I n d o n e s ia. Aware t h a t th e o t h e r p a r t i e s w ere h u r t i n g w o rse th a n th e PKI was u n d e r th e d i c t a t o r i a l re g im e, th e Communist l e a d e r s m a n if e s te d s tr o n g l o y a l t y t o S u k a rn o. The P r e s i d e n t, i n t u r n, was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e j e c t th e s u p p o r t o f th e n a t i o n 's t h i r d s t r o n g e s t p o l i t i c a l f o r c e ( a f t e r th e e x e c u tiv e and th e m i l i t a r y ). A i d i t was aw are t h a t h i s p a r t y was n o t y e t re a d y t o make i t s b id f o r suprem e p o w er; h e a l s o "M r. S u k a r n o 's S t a t e o f W a r," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXXIII (D ecem ber 26, 1 9 5 9 ), 1 2 3 1 -1 2 3 2; "The T u rn o f th e W h e e l." E c o n o m is t, CLXXXX, 95 5; D onald H in d le y, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o and th e C om m unists: The P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s tic a tio n," A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview. LVI (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 915; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 5 2 -5 4; Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia i n th e C old W ar," 9 0 -9 1; A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s, " 7 8 -7 9; H a ld o re H anson, "A Game on G uided D em o cracy," R e p o r t e r, XXI ( J u l y 2 3, 1 9 5 9 ), 2 4. McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cracy," 166; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R o le o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s i a, " R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 80] === 75 r e a l i z e d t h a t o n ly S u k arn o s to o d i n th e way o f a p o s s i b l e Communist p u rg e by th e arm y. Thus th e bond b etw een th e P r e s i d e n t and th e PKI grew s t r o n g e r. ^ More p o w e rfu l a f t e r th e S um atran r e b e l l i o n th a n e v e r b e f o r e, th e army h ig h command saw i t s f o r c e s a s th e p r i n c i p a l c o u n te r - b a la n c e to a Communist ta k e o v e r o f th e n a t i o n. N a s u tio n and h i s g e n e r a ls w ere con v in c e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a ’ s s a l v a t i o n la y i n a r e o r d e r i n g o f th e governm ent u n d e r army g u id a n c e, p r o v id in g a s in g le n e s s o f p u rp o s e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t i t h ad so f a r la c k e d. As th e f u n c tio n s o f th e m i l i t a r y e l i t e ex p an d e d, th e y o f t e n found th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r l i e u t e n a n t s i n r o l e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y opposed t o Communist i n t e r e s t s. For e x am p le, th e o f f i c e r i n c h a rg e o f a d m in is te r in g a n a t i o n a l i z e d D utch f a c t o r y u s u a l l y a c q u ir e d m an ag em en t's v iew o f la b o r u n r e s t, w hich th e SOBSI so a c t i v e l y p ro m o te d. L ik e w is e, th e army o f f i c e r who a c te d a s b o th c i v i l g o v e rn o r and m i l i t a r y commander o f an o u tl y in g p ro v in c e u s u a l l y became i n t o l e r a n t o f in c e s s a n t Communist e f f o r t s to a ro u s e ^ P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s. 5 3; P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime W eakened th e PK I?" 1059; H in d le y, " P r e s i d e n t S ukarno and th e Communr is ts: The P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s tic a tio n," 9 1 5 -9 1 6; A r n o ld.B eichm an, " In d o n e s ia n B ig B r o t h e r," S p e c t a t o r, CCX1 (A u g u st 3 0, 1 9 6 3 ), 251.; H e r b e r t F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Communistss The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e. " A sia n S u rv e y, IV (A u g u st, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 7 7 -9 7 9; W illa r d A. H anna, " T h re e Men and T h ree R e v o l u tio n s," R e p o r te r, XXIV ( F e b ru a ry 1 9, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 3; K e tu t T a n t r i, " I m p e r i a l i s t F o lly i n In d o n e s i a, " New R e p u b lic, CXX ( J a n u a r y 3, 1 9 4 9 ), 15; Van D er K ro e f, I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y arid th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 4 6 -2 4 7; " P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le i n I n d o n e s i a," W orld T oday, XIV, 2 - 3; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s ia," 3 5 3 -3 5 4; G ra n t, I n d o n e s i a, 6 5 -6 6. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 81] === 76 a g ra ria n d is s a tis f a c tio n. I n J u l y, I9 6 0, N a s u tio n p u b l i c l y denounced th e PKI f o r i t s o b s t r u c t i o n i s t t a c t i c s and b ro u g h t A i d i t and h i s su b o r d i n a t e s in f o r r e p e a te d i n t e r r o g a t i o n and h a r a s s m e n t. In se v e ra l o u t e r - i s l a n d d i s t r i c t s m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s w ent f u r t h e r, c o m p le te ly b an n in g th e PKI and j a i l i n g th e p a r t y ’ s l o c a l o f f i c i a l s. The arm y’ s an ti-C o m m u n ist o f f e n s iv e by m id-1960 r e s u l t e d in a m arked r e d u c tio n o f th e P K I's p u b li c a c t i v i t i e s, d i s r u p t i o n o f i t s n o rm al com m unications c h a n n e ls, and c u r ta ilm e n t o f i t s e a s y a c c e s s t o th e m a ss e s. But i n th e a r e a o f e s t a b l i s h i n g co m p etin g m a ss -a p p e a l o r g a n iz a ti o n s th e army was l e s s s u c c e s s f u l.* ® Sukarno view ed th e army-PKI h o s t i l i t i e s w ith a la rm s in c e th e PKI was th e o n ly p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a ti o n l e f t t h a t commanded la r g e p o p u la r s u p p o r t. T h e re fo re when h e a p p o in te d th e 261-man G otong-R ojong p a r l i a ment i n. 1960, he s e l e c t e d a la r g e number o f Communists and f e llo w tra v e le rs. T hese a p p o in tm e n ts, i n t u r n, prom pted w id e s p re a d c r i t i c i s m o f th e P r e s i d e n t ’ s pro-C om m unist le a n in g s. The G uided Democracy p r o gram was w e ll on i t s way, b u t i t was c o s ti n g S ukarno w h a te v e r u n i t y he had hoped f o r; o p p o s iti o n, open and u n d e rg ro u n d, was d e f i n i t e l y on th e i n c r e a s e by th e end o f 1960. 11 lOMcVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e. T r a n s i t i o n to G uided De m o c ra c y," 1 6 7-169; Van D er K ro e f, ^ In d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g re s s," 2 4 8 -2 4 9; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 74; F a i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, th e Army, and th e C om m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 0 -9 7 1; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s ia," 360. * * " C u ttin g th e R a te. " E c o n o m ist. CLXXXXV (J u n e 2 5, 1 9 6 0 ), 1324; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s. 5 4 -5 5; D en is W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o lu tio n." R e p o r te r. XXXV ( J u l y 14, 1 9 6 6 ), 2 8; A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia " U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s," 7 7 -7 8; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia i n 1964: Toward a P e o p le ’ s D em ocracy," 8 8 -8 9. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 82] === 77 As th e arm y-PKI r i v a l r y s u p p la n te d th e fo rm er p a r t y c o m p e titio n, S ukarn o was co m p elle d more and more t o a c t a s a r b i t e r b etw een th e m i l i t a r y and th e C om m unists, u s u a l l y p la y in g th e one a g a i n s t th e o t h e r i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e h i s own freedom o f a c t i o n. S in c e i n 1960 th e arm y, n o t th e PK I, was i n th e b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o f o r c e f u l l y re d u c e i t s o p p o n e n t, th e P r e s i d e n t u s u a l l y found h im s e lf t r y i n g t o p r o t e c t th e PK I. T hat summer h i s a d r o i t m an eu v erin g w ith N a s u tio n 's c o t e r i e a v e r te d more s e v e r e army r e p r i s a l s a g a i n s t th e PK I. He a l s o en d e a v o re d t o b a la n c e army p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e somewhat by a p p o in tin g PKI men t o go v ern m ent p o s ts a t th e r e g i o n a l l e v e l. 12 I n th e 1 9 3 0 's S uk arn o and h i s n a t i o n a l i s t a s s o c i a t e s d e v e lo p e d th e p o l i t i c a l th e o r y term ed m arh aen ism, w hich can b e s t be d e f in e d p e rh a p s a s an I n d o n e s ia n - o r i e n te d v e r s io n o f " s o c i a l i s m w ith o u t M arx." I n 1954 th e PNI p u b lis h e d th e M a n if e s to o f M arhaenism. th e m ost e x t e n s iv e f o r m u la tio n o f th e th e o r y y e t a tte m p te d. The M a n ife s to was th e w ork o f S u k arn o and S a rm id i M an g u n sark o ro, a le a d in g m a r h a e n is t ^ K a h i n, e d., Mai o r G overnm ents o f A s i a, 6 51; K in d le y, " P r e s i d e n t S ukarno and th e C om m unists: The P o l i t i c s o f D o m e stic a t i o n, " 9 1 5 -9 1 6; L eg g e, I n d o n e s ia, 1 5 0 -1 5 1; McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 16 9 -1 7 0; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I's Road t o P o w e r," 2 7 2 -2 7 3; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o l i c y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 4 8; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 7 4 -7 5; H e r b e r t F e i t h, "Dynamics o f G uided D em o cracy," i n R uth T. McVey, e d., I n d o n e s ia (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 3 7 -3 3 8; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Com m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 7 -9 7 8; H anna, "T h ree Men and T h ree R e v o l u tio n s," 2 4; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s i a," R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 83] === th e o re tic ia n.^ little xn p o s tw a r I n d o n e s ia m arh aen ism and Communism d i f f e r e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y s b u t th e PKI was f a r more e f f e c t i v e i n im p lem en t in g i t s id e o lo g y th a n was th e PN I. L ik e th e m a r h a e n is ts, th e Commune i s t s w ere s o l i c i t o u s o f th e w e lf a r e o f th e s m a ll b u s in e s s e le m e n t a s w e ll a s o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t and p e a s a n t r y. Both th e PKI and th e PNI p u r p o r te d t o cham pion p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f th e s m a ll a g a i n s t th e g r e a t b u s in e s s i n t e r e s t s. The P K I, m o re o v e r, m ain t a in e d t h a t th e a g r a r i a n economy s h o u ld be c e n te r e d upon p r i v a t e la n d o w n e rs h ip. Thus i t was p o s s i b l e f o r th e PKI t o s u p p o r t much o f w hat was s a id by S u k a rn o, t i t u l a r h e a d o f th e PN I. I n A u g u st, 1959, th e P r e s i d e n t d e l i v e r e d an a d d r e s s a t th e S ix th N a tio n a l C o n g re ss o f th e PK I, i n w h ich h e s t a t e d: "We m u st n o t d u r in g a n a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n s h a rp e n th e c l a s s c o n f l i c t s and th e c l a s s s t r u g g l e w i t h i n o u r n a t i o n. On th e c o n t r a r y, we m u st b u i l d a l l r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i t y i n t o one pow er f u l wave t o sweep away o u r m ain enemy, p o l i t i c a l and econom ic i m p e r i a l I t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t th e P r e s i d e n t s to o d h ig h in th e P K I 's f a v o r. ■ ^ J u s tu s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o lu tio n," U n ite d A s ia. X II (D ecem ber, I 9 6 0 ), 4 8 4; B u d ia r d jo, " P r o v i s i o n a l P a r l i a m ent o f I n d o n e s i a, " 2 5; Van D er K r o e f, "M arxism in S o u th e a s t A s i a," 2 92; H a a r s e l h o r s t, " I n d o n e s ia a t th e C r o s s r o a d s," 3 9 1; D onald K ir k, V S u k a rn o 's H old O uts i n C e n tr a l J a v a, " R e p o r t e r. XXXV (S ep tem b er 8, l^V an D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o l u tio n," 8 4 6 -8 4 7; K a h in, e d. M ajo r G overnm ents o f A s i a. 6 55; D en is W arn er, " W ill In d o n e s i a Become a Second Cuba?" R e p o r t e r, XXV (Decem ber 7, 1 9 6 1 ), 4 4; " I n d o n e s ia A f t e r th e E l e c t i o n. " W orld T o d ay, X I I, 3 3 3 -3 3 4; Van D er K ro e f, " A g r a ria n Reform and th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, ” 13. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 84] === 79 S u k a r n o 's f i r s t o b v io u s c o u r ti n g o f th e PKI was n e a r th e end o f 1955; by e a r l y 1957 th e a l l i a n c e w ith th e Communists was cem en te d. The P r e s i d e n t a p p a r e n tly f e l t t h a t th e a f f i n i t y was e s s e n t i a l n o t o n ly f o r th e m a in te n a n c e o f h i s own p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n b u t a l s o f o r th e com ple t i o n o f th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n. •*■-* He a l s o p r o b a b ly b e lie v e d t h a t h i s f r i e n d l i n e s s to w ard th e PKI w ould b e t t e r in s u r e P e k in g 's f i n a n c i a l and d ip lo m a tic s u p p o r t, w h ich c o u ld p ro v e v e r y im p o r ta n t i f th e W este rn n a t i o n s became more annoyed by I n d o n e s i a 's a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m. ^ The PKI found many o f S u k a r n o 's p e t s lo g a n s and p h r a s e s u s e f u l i n a r g u in g f o r g r e a t e r Communist p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n, f o r ex am ple, th e P r e s i d e n t 's NASAKOM s lo g a n, w hich p ro c la im e d th e u n i t y o f n a t i o n a l i s t, s o c i a l i s t, and r e l i g i o u s f a c t i o n s in h i s new re g im e. U n f o r tu n a te l y f o r th e PKI, h o w ev er, i t s c l o s e i d e o l o g i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e P r e s i d e n t made i t h a r d f o r th e p a r t y t o prom ote i t s d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s and i t s c la im s t o in d e p e n d e n t l e a d e r s h i p. W ith th e s te a d y d e c r e a s e o f freed o m o f s p e e c h s in c e 1956 th e P K I's p ro b lem became p a r t i c u l a r l y H in d le y, " P r e s i d e n t S ukarno and th e C om m unists: The P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s tic a tio n," 915; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Com m unists: The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 7 -9 7 8. ■ ^ K a h i n, e d.. M ajor G overnm ents o f A s ia. 6 5 2 -6 5 4; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o lu tio n," 847; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R o le o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s ia," 358; W illa r d A. H anna, "Bung K a rn o 's I n d o n e s i a," S o u th e a s t A s ia S e r i e s, V II (S ep tem b er 12, 1 9 5 9 ), 8 - 9; W arn er, " I n d o n e s ia: The D utch D e p a r t, th e Communists Dig I n, " 3 0 -3 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 85] === 80 a c u te and som etim es e m b a rra s s in g t o i t s l e a d e r s. ^ F u r th e r c o m p lic a tio n s f o r th e PKI a r o s e a s S ukarno a tte m p te d to found a mass o r g a n iz a ti o n and i d e o l o g i c a l movement o f h i s own. I d e o l o g i c a l l y, h i s e f f o r t s re a c h e d t h e i r z e n i t h i n h i s p o l i t i c a l m ani f e s t o o f 1959, m e n tio n ed p r e v io u s l y. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y, th e y p ro d u ced h i s p r o c la m a tio n o f th e N a tio n a l F ro n t i n 1960, w h ich was to s u p p la n t th e a rm y 's la n g u is h in g N a tio n a l F ro n t f o r th e L i b e r a t i o n o f W est I r i a n. I n vague and am biguous te rm s S u k a rn o ’ s N a tio n a l F r o n t p ro g ram p o in te d tow ard th e g lo r i o u s m erg er o f a l l p o l i t i c a l e le m e n ts i n t o one 18 m o n o lith ic n a t i o n a l f o r c e w o rk in g f o r th e b e tte r m e n t o f a l l I n d o n e s ia. A i d i t arg u e d i n fa v o r o f NASAKOM, o f c o u r s e; h e w arned t h a t th e PKI c o u ld n o t be k e p t on th e s i d e l i n e s i f th e governm ent was t o a v o id c h a o s.19 He ad d ed: S uk arn o o r th e PKI. "The Army c a n n o t su c c e e d i n d e s tr o y in g e i t h e r I f we a r e d e s tr o y e d, w hat fo llo w s w i l l be w o r s e. Oft l^McVey, " In d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided De m o c ra c y," 170; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army and th e Com m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 975; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 6 2 -6 3; NASAKOM means th e c o o p e r a tio n o f n a t i o n a l i s t, r e l i g i o u s and Communist f o r c e s. T h is id e a was o r i g i n a l l y e x p lo re d b y S u k arn o a s e a r l y a s 192.6 i n an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d, " N a tio n a lism,, Is la m is m and M arx ism." I t became a s h ib b o le th a f t e r G uided Democracy was in tr o d u c e d in 1959 and was p a r t i c u l a r l y esp o u se d by th e PKI w ith th e P r e s i d e n t 's s u p p o r t. McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 170-171; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Com m unists: The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e," 974; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army in I n d o n e s i a,” 352, 361; D avid W arn er, " S u k arn o, th e W ould-be E m p e ro r," R e p o r t e r. XXXII (May 2 0, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 5. ■ ^ P lu v ie r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 57; P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime Weakened th e PK I?" 1062; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 108. ^ * V illia m L. O ltm an s, " In d o n e s ia n Communism," U n ite d A s i a, XV (May, 1 9 6 3 ), 350. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 86] === 81 S ukarn o h a s te n e d t o r e a s s u r e A id it: t h a t th e army w ould n o t be u se d to s u p p r e s s p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s b u t r a t h e r to s u s t a i n th e s t a b i l i t y o f th e govern m en t and n a t i o n. 21 As th e d e g re e o f freed o m o f sp e e c h became more and more r e s t r i c ed u n d e r G uided D em ocracy, A i d i t w orked d i l i g e n t l y to w ard k e e p in g PKI r e l a t i o n s w ith th e g overnm ent h a rm o n io u s. By M arch, 1962, th e PKI g a in e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n th e in n e r c o u n c il o f th e c a b i n e t and c o u ld no lo n g e r be c o n s id e r e d a com ponent o f th e D ja k a r t a o p p o s i t i o n. W ith g r e a t sh rew d n ess and p a t ie n c e th e PKI le a d e r s c u l t i v a t e d th e f r i e n d s h ip o f a g overnm ent w h ich i t f u l l y in te n d e d to o v e rth ro w a t th e oppoxtu n e moment. 22 A n o th e r o f S u k a r n o 's p e t s lo g a n s w h ich th e PKI e n d o rs e d was MANIPOL, w h ich th e P r e s id e n t, d e s ig n a te d a s th e o f f i c i a l f iv e ~ p o in t b a s i s o f s t a t e p o l i c y u n d e r G uided D em ocracy. I t s fiv e p r in c ip le s w ere th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1945, I n d o n e s ia n S o c ia lis m, G uided Dem ocracy, G uided Economy, and In d o n e s ia n I d e n t i t y. C o l l e c t i v e l y th e y w ere some tim e s c a l l e d USDEK, a te rm form ed by co m b in in g the. f i r s t l e t t e r s o f th e f i v e p r i n c i p l e s ( i n I n d o n e s ia n ). As was u s u a l w ith S u k a r n o 's te rm s and p h r a s e s, h e n e v e r p r e c i s e l y d e f in e d th e f i v e p r i n c i p l e s. Somehow, h o w ev er, th e y conveyed m eaning t o many o f h i s c o n s t i t u e n t s, a t l e a s t i n th e s e n s e o f p r o d u c in g c o n fid e n c e t h a t D ja k a r t a seemed t o be w o rk in g 21 ' H u th, "Gan th e Army S tan d up t o S u k a rn o? " W ash in g to n E vening S t a r, O c to b e r 18, 1965; " I n d o n e s ia: The B u n g 's B o u n ce,” Tim e, LXXXVII (M arch 4, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 0. 22 McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism, and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cray," 174. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 87] === 82 to w ard s e t g o a l s. I n p r a c t i c e, th e f i v e p r i n c i p l e s became th e c r i t e r i a f o r ju d g in g and e n f o r c in g i d e o l o g i c a l c o n fo rm ity and p o l i t i c a l loyalty. 23 M eanw hile, with g r a n d io s e p ro n o u n cem en ts and w id e s p re a d p u b l i c i t y S u k a r n o 's n a t i o n a l p la n n in g c o u n c il f o r G uided D em ocracy s e t a b o u t i t s w ork. E m ploying t a c t i c s known to dem agogues o f o ld and new tim e s, th e g overnm ent c h a n n e le d p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n away from th e d i s t r e s s i n g s o c io econom ic p l i g h t o f th e n a t i o n and to w ard th e d r a m a tic, a p p e a lin g g o a ls e p ito m iz e d i n th e c a tc h p h r a s e s o f G uided D em ocracy. When su ch m ethods f a l t e r e d, th e D ja k a r ta reg im e w ould h a u l o u t i t s o ld s c a p e g o a ts, th e D utch and o t h e r W e ste rn i m p e r i a l i s t s. A t th e same tim e, ho w ev er, S ukarn o f o r c e d th e PK I, now c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e g o v ern m e n t, to r e f r a i n from i t s cu sto m a ry f u n c ti o n o f a g i t a t i n g th e m asses a g a i n s t th e l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t i e s. 24 Some an ti-co m m u n ist, s u p p o r te r s o f S ukarno b e l i e v e d, w ith co n s i d e r a b l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n, t h a t a p r im a r y o b j e c t i v e o f G uided Democracy was t o w eaken th e PKI i n a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e n s e. It. was f o r t h i s 23 K a h in, e d., M ajor G overnm ents o f A s i a, 6 61; F e i t h, " In d o n e s i a 1s P o l i t i c a l Sym bols and T h e ir W i e l d e r s, ” 84-91:; A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s, " 7 8 -8 0; W arn er, " W ill In d o n e s i a Become, a Second Cuba?" 4 4 -4 5; H a a r s e l h o r s t, " I n d o n e s ia a t th e C r o s s r o a d," 391; W i lla r d A. H anna, "Usdekadence. o f Bung K a m o," R e p o r t e r, X X III (A u g u st 4, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 2; F e i t h, "Dynam ics o f G uided D em o cracy," 3 6 7 -3 6 8. ^ R o e s l a n A b d u lg a n i, "The L e sso n o f I n d o n e s i a n 's E x p e rie n c e o f P la n n i n g," U n ite d A s ia, XII. (N ovem ber, I 9 6 0 ), 4 4 0; H anna, "Bung K a rn o 's I n d o n e s i a," S o u th e a s t A s ia S e r i e s, V II, 7; P l u v i e r, Con f r o n t a t i o n s, 5 8 -5 9; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, th e Army, and th e Com m unists: The T r i a n g le C hanges S h a p e," 969; Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism u n d e r A i d i t, " 2 5 -3 2; H anna, "U sdekadence o f Bung K a m o." 2 3. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 88] === 83 re a s o n t h a t th e arm y, e s p e c i a l l y G e n e ra l N a s u tio n, h e a r t i l y s a n c tio n e d G uided Democracy a s w e ll a s th e c a l l f o r a r e t u r n to th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 4 5.25 From 1959 onward a s a l i e n t f e a t u r e o f G uided Dem ocracy was th e c l o s e m eshing o f m i l i t a r y and c i v i l p o w er. The army u s u a l l y h e ld a t l e a s t one t h i r d o f a l l c a b i n e t p o s t s, a s w e ll a s num erous o f f i c e s in d o m e stic b u re a u s and i n th e d ip lo m a tic s e r v i c e. Army o f f i c e r s ' r e p r e - s e n t a t i o n on r e g i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b o d ie s a l s o was on th e i n c r e a s e. 96 As i t s pow er grew i n p o l i t i c s, th e h ig h command c o n tin u e d t o wage s p o r a d ic w a r f a r e a g a i n s t th e PKI, som etim es c l o s i n g a Communist p r i n t in g o f f i c e o r r a i d i n g a l o c a l p a r t y h e a d q u a r te r s to th e em b arrassm en t o f th e P r e s i d e n t. ^ Though S u k a r n o 's N a tio n a l F r o n t was in te n d e d i n l i e u o f th e a rm y -sp o n so re d N a tio n a l F r o n t f o r th e L i b e r a t i o n o f W est I r i a n, th e m i l i t a r y su c c e e d e d i n t r a n s f e r r i n g much o f i t s N a tio n a l F r o n t a p p a r a tu s t o th e new s t r u c t u r e, r e t a i n i n g, o f c o u r s e, th e a rm y 's in f l u e n c e in th o s e b o d ie s. S in c e s e v e r a l p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s r e s i s t e d a f r o n t t h a t w ould be more th a n a lo o s e c o a l i t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p a r t i e s, Sukarno 25 " R a b in, e d., M ajo r G overnm ents o f A s i a. 6 4 2 -6 4 3, 6 5 3 -6 5 4; H anson, "A Gamble on G uided D em o cracy," 2 3 -2 4; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s i a,” 3 5 0 -3 5 1. 26 P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime Weakened th e PK I?" 1061- 1062; K a h in, e d., M ajor G overnm ents o f A s i a, 659. ^ A m ry V andenbosch, "G uided Democracy i n I n d o n e s i a," C u rre n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 1 ), 33 4; L ev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s i a," 358; H anson, "A Gamble on G uided D em o cracy," 25; F e i t h, "D ynam ics o f G uided D em o cracy," 3 3 1 -3 3 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 89] === 84 u l t i m a t e l y acced ed t o a d e l i m i t a t i o n o f h i s N a tio n a l F ro n t p la n s t o a mere fo rm al e x p r e s s io n o f n a t i o n a l u n i t y. Thus w h at e x i s t e d i n th e way o f a N a tio n a l F r o n t was l e f t l a r g e l y i n army h an d s and n e v e r b e cam e, a s S uk arn o had in te n d e d, an e f f e c t i v e e x e c u tiv e in s tr u m e n t to mould p u b li c o p in io n. I n th e la b o r f i e l d th e army found many c o n s e r v a tiv e p o l i t i c i a n s i n ag ree m en t w ith i t s c o n v ic tio n t h a t la b o r d is p u te s and s t r i k e s m ust be s e v e r e ly r e s t r i c t e d. I n 1960 th e army c r e a te d i t s own la b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n to com pete w ith th e P K I-ru n SOBSI; th e a r m y - c o n tr o lle d group was c a l l e d BUMIL (Nadan K e rd ja Sama Buruh Dan M i l i t e r ), o r th e L a b o r - M ilit a r y C o o p e ra tiv e O r g a n iz a tio n. N e a rly a l l e x i s t i n g la b o r o r g a n iz a - t i o n s jo in e d o r c o o p e ra te d w ith BUMIL e x c e p t th e SOBSI, w hose p r o t e s t was r e s t r i c t e d by prom pt army a r r e s t s o f i t s le a d e r s who v o ic e d c r i t i cism. The PKI c o u ld o n ly lo o k on h e l p l e s s l y and c o n tin u e i t s s u p p o rt o f S u k arn o, a w a itin g i t s day o f o p p o r tu n i ty. u S ukarno d id h i s b e s t to r e s t r a i n N a s u tio n, p e r m i tt in g h i s f o r c e s t o in t e r v e n e i n PKI a f f a i r s o n ly when th e Communists u sed o r th r e a te n e d some form o f v io l e n c e. A c tu a lly th e army w a rre d j u s t a s r a b i d l y a g a i n s t anfcl-C om m unists who cham pioned g r e a t e r freed o m o f sp eech a s it. d id a g a i n s t th e P K I.^ l McVey, " In d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em ocracy," 171; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Com m u n is ts: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 4. E v e r e t t D. H aw kins, "L ab o u r R e la tio n s i n I n d o n e s ia," U n ite d A s i a, X II ( J u n e, 1 9 6 0 ), 229. 30 McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em ocracy," 172, 1 7 6 -1 7 7; Lev, " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e A m y i n I n d o n e s i a, " 3 5 2 -3 6 1; V andenbosch, "G uided D em ocracy i n I n d o n e s ia," 3 3; W arn er, ' V i l l I n d o n e s ia Become a Second Cuba?" 4 4 -4 5. 3 1 " S u k a rn o 's A rm y," Tim e, LXXX (O c to b e r 12, 1 9 6 2 ), 36. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 90] === 85 I n th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's th e PKI fa c e d a d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n, a l l e v i a t e d o n ly by o c c a s i o n a l g r a c e s o f th e P r e s i d e n t. I t s m o b iliz a tio n o f p o p u la r s u p p o r t was now s h a r p ly c u r t a i l e d by N a s u t i o n 's r e s t r i c t i o n s on p u b l i c a t i o n s and p u b l i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n s. ^ A t th e P K I's S e v e n th E x t r a o r d in a r y C o n g ress i n A p r i l, 1962, A i d i t r e v e a le d new p la n s f o r i n t e n s i f i e d s e c r e t t r a i n i n g o f c a d r e s, a n t i - i l l i t e r a c y p ro g ram s among th e p e a s a n t s, and e x p a n s io n o f th e a d u l t e d u c a tio n c u r r ic u lu m o f th e P e o p le 's U n i v e r s i t y, fo unded by th e PKI a t D ja k a r ta i n 1959 w ith b ra n c h e s l a t e r i n o t h e r c i t i e s. A t t h a t tim e S u k arn o seemed t o f e a r th e army more th a n th e PKI a s th e g r e a t e s t t h r e a t to h i s d i c t a t o r i a l sw ay. A f te r a l l, th e arm y th e n h e ld se v e n m i n i s t r i e s i n th e c a b i n e t t o th e P K I's two and e n jo y e d trem en d o u s pow er i n th e lo w e r e c h e lo n s o f g o v ern m e n t. The P K I's k ey le a d e r s by th e n w ere A i d i t, th e PKI s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l; N jo to, th e m ost p o w e rfu l f i g u r e i n la b o r c i r c l e s; and Lukman, th e P K I's c h i e f s t r a t e g i s t and t h e o r e t i c i a n. " ^ T hese men, th e b r a i n s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t b u r o, d e s p e r a t e l y c lu n g t o S u k a r n o 's f r i e n d s h i p, e v e r t r y i n g t o 32 B ern ard K a lb, " M a g n if ic e n t, E x a s p e r a tin g I n d o n e s i a," New York Times M ag azin e, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1962, 2 2. 33 Ewa T. P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The Y ear o f T riu m p h," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXIII (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 2 7 3; S e th S. K in g, "S u k arn o S t i r s up A n o th e r A sia n S to rm," New York Times M ag azin e. J a n u a r y 19, 1964, 6 2; " S u k a r n o 's A rm y,” Tim e, LXXX, 3 6; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, "V o c a b u la ry o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism," P ro b lem s o f Communism, XIV (May, 1 9 5 3 ), 1 -2. 34 W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 6, 1965. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 91] === 86 be " a l l t h i n g s " t o th e P r e s i d e n t. 35 had jum ped to 3, 5 0 0, 0 0 0. ^ By l a t e 1964 th e PKI m em bership B e s id e s th e PKI i t s e l f, t h e r e w ere a number o f s m a ll b u t v o c a l p u p p e t p a r t i e s and a le g io n o f f r o n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s co m p rised o f y o u th, s t u d e n t, women, and la b o r g ro u p s. Even th e PNI l e a d e r s had f o r o p p o r t u n i s t i c r e a s o n s begun to c o o p e r a te i n some m a tte r s w ith th e PK I. B e s id e s th e arm y, th e P K I 's m ost adam ant oppon e n t s w ere th e I s la m ic p a r t i e s. Howard P. J o n e s, who s e rv e d a s U n ite d S t a t e s am b assad o r from 1958 to 1965, s a id t h a t " I s la m and Communism a r e o i l and w a te r. They c a n n o t be m i x e d. T h u s th e Communists r a l l i e d b e h in d S u k a rn o, f e a r i n g th e arm y on one s id e and th e num erous b u t l e s s p o t e n t I s la m ic f o r c e s on th e o t h e r. I n th e P K I's f r a n t i c e f f o r t s t o p le a s e S u k arn o i t d ro p p ed i t s own te rm '^N atio n al U nited F r o n t" i n fa v o r o f th e P r e s i d e n t 's " N a tio n a l F r o n t" i n a l l Communist l i t e r a t u r e i n I n d o n e s ia. I t a l s o made "G uided Dem ocracy" a n a la g o u s t o " N a tio n a l D em ocracy," th e c o n c e p t K ru sh ch ev had e n u n c ia te d a s th e g o v e rn m e n ta l form to s t r i v e f o r i n u n d e rd e v e lo p e d n a tio n s. PKI l i t e r a t u r e s t r e s s e d th e f a c t t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y an u p h e a v a l d e s tin e d to a c h ie v e n o t o n ly in d e p e n d en ce b u t a l s o a p e o p l e 's d em o cracy, a c c o m p lish e d u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t and th e p e a s a n t r y. The n a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n g o v e rn ment w ould be a d i c t a t o r s h i p o f th e p e o p le, n o t m e re ly a d i c t a t o r s h i p 35 Howard P. J o n e s, " I n d o n e s ia n Coup Was a Red B o b b le," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 10, 1965. 3^"The L ig h t t h a t F a i l s, " Tim e, LXXXVI (D ecem ber 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 35. 37 W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 10, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 92] === 87 o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t, and i t w ould c r e a t e a p e o p l e 's dem o cracy, n o t m e re ly a s o c i a l i s t s t a t e. Of c o u r s e, th e PKI p ro g ram p re su p p o se d Communist d o m in a tio n - -a f a r c r y from S u k a rn o 's c o n c e p t o f a n a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n g o v ern m en t, w hich w ould sim p ly in c lu d e Communist r e p r e s e n t a tio n. 38 S ukarno i n m id-1960 fa c e d a new t h r e a t when th e s e v e r a l Moslem p a r t i e s, a tte m p tin g to r e v iv e t h e i r s t r e n g t h, p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e P r e s i d e n t 's d e f e r e n c e to th e PKI. S ukarno q u ic k ly a s s u r e d them t h a t he w ould r e s p e c t th e P a n tj a S i l a, th e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e o f w hich s t a t e d t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n s t a t e was t o be founded upon b e l i e f i n God. More co n c r e t e l y, S ukarno re sp o n d ed by a d d in g a number o f a n ti-C o m m u n ists t o h i s a p p o in te d p a r li a m e n t, w hich seemed to p a c i f y th e Moslem le a d e r s f o r th e tim e. The PKI re m a in e d, ho w ev er, th e s t r o n g e s t p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a t i o n, and i t s p o p u la r stre n g th, e s p e c i a l l y on d e n s e ly p o p u la te d J a v a, c o n tin u e d to s u r g e, b e n e f i t t i n g by th e g o v e rn m e n t's i n e r t i a i n o f f e r i n g th e p e o p le b e t t e r l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s. 39 38 P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 53; McVey, " In d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em ocracy," 187; Van D er K ro e f, "V o c ab u lary o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism," 4 - 6; Hanna, "U sdekadence o f Bung K a rn o," 2 4 -2 5; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e Com m unists: The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 5 -9 7 6, 97 9 -9 8 0; W illa r d A. Hanna, "Bung K a r n o 's I n d o n e s ia," S o u th e a s t A s ia S e r i e s, V II (S ep tem b er 2 8, 1 9 5 9 ), 10- 11. 39 P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 5 9 -6 0; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia in 1964: Toward a P e o p le ’ s D em ocracy," 9 4 -9 5; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army, and th e C om m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 9 -9 8 0; "G uid ed Democracy T akes a T u r n," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXVI ( A p r il 8, 1 9 5 9 ), 4 1 2 -4 1 3; J u s t u s M. Van Der K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: P roblem s o f G uided D em ocracy," F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXXIX (A ugust 15, 1 9 6 0 ), 178. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 93] === 88 S u k a rn o 's a p p o in tm e n ts and g e n e r a l b e h a v io r s u g g e s te d t o W este rn o b s e r v e r s t h a t he was c o n v e rte d t o Communism o r was b l i n d t o i t s d an g e rs. A c tu a l ly S uk arn o th u s f a r had m a n ip u la te d th e PKI r a t h e r shrewdly f o r h i s own p o l i t i c a l e n d s. By r e t a i n i n g p a r lia m e n t and th e v a r io u s c o u n c i l s } th o u g h a p p o in te d by him and s h o rn o f r e a l po w er, h e p la c a te d many who f e a r e d th e t y r a n n i c a l a s p e c t s o f G uided D em ocracy. By in c l u d in g th e PKI i n th e s e b o d ie s and i n th e c a b i n e t he c o m p elle d th e p a r t y to i d e n t i f y i t s e l f w ith th e go v ern m en t and gave i t a v e s te d i n t e r e s t in h i s re g im e. T h ereb y he re d u c e d some o f th e Communist a r d o r t o sow d i s c o n t e n t and to o v e rth ro w h i s r u l e. As lo n g a s t h e i r p e r s o n a l p o s i t i o n s w ere s a t i s f a c t o r y, h i s Communist a p p o in te e s w ere n o t l i k e l y to r i s k r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n - - o r so S ukarno h o p e d.^0 He knew t h a t th e PKI fa c e d th e dilem m a o f e a r n in g h i s p r o t e c t i o n by s u p p o r tin g him a g a i n s t th e army and th e Moslems w h ile r i s k i n g d o m e s tic a tio n, o r o f b re a k in g th e P K I-D ja k a rta a l l i a n c e and c o n f r o n tin g a s tr o n g a n t i com m unist r e a c t i o n, s p e a rh e a d e d by th e arm y. S u k a r n o 's way w ould e n a b le A i d i t t o j u s t i f y t o th e PKI th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e a l l i a n c e, b u t d o m e s tic a tio n w ould b lo c k th e P K I 's p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s c e n d in g to power by a c c l a m a t i o n. ^ I n l a t e 1964 t h e r e o c c u rre d a r e v e a l i n g i n c i d e n t i n th e PKIS ukarno i n t e r p l a y. A "Body f o r th e P r o p a g a tio n o f S u k arn o ism " was e s t a b l i s h e d by some n a t i o n a l i s t l e a d e r s h ead e d by B„ M. D ia h, p u b l i s h e r ^ H i n d l e y, " P r e s i d e n t S uk arn o and th e Communism: o f D o m e s tic a tio n," 9 2 4 -9 2 5. ^ I b i d., 926; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P o l i t i c s The P K I's Road t o P o w e r," Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 94] === 89 o f M erdeka, and Adam M a lik, m i n i s t e r o f t r a d e and e x -c h a irm a n o f th e Murba p a r t y. The BPS was d e d ic a te d t o a non-C om m unist i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S u k a r n o 's p o l i t i c a l v ie w s - - a n o b v io u s e f f o r t t o c o u n te r th e P K I's t w i s t i n g o f th e P r e s i d e n t 's s ta te m e n ts t o fit-C o m m u n ist id e o lo g y. The movement g a in e d s t r e n g t h i n th e c i t i e s e x p e c i a l l y, w ith f o r t y l a r g e n ew sp ap ers p le d g in g s u p p o r t to th e BPS cam p aig n. 42 The a la rm e d PKI l e a d e r s p r e s s u r e d S u k arn o to d is b a n d th e BPS, and i n D ecem ber, 1964, h e o u tla w e d th e BPS t o " p r e v e n t n a t i o n a l d i s u n i t y. " I t was r e p o r te d t h a t a s u r p r i s e v i s i t by Chen Y i, P e k in g 's f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r, p la y e d no s m a ll p a r t i n th e P r e s i d e n t 's d e c i s i o n. ^ The S ukarno-P K I c o o p e r a tio n b e f o r e th e p u b l i c was f a s c i n a t i n g t o b e h o ld, th o u g h somewhat n a u s e a tin g t o a d m ir e r s o f h o n e s ty. When th e P r e s i d e n t found i t n e c e s s a r y t o ta k e some a c t i o n w h ich th e PKI o p p o sed, th e p ro n o u n cem en t alw ay s came th ro u g h a s u b o r d in a t e, e n a b lin g th e Comm unists t o a c c u s e in c o m p e te n t, s e l f - s e e k i n g m i n i s t e r s r a t h e r th a n th e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f. When S u k arn o a c te d on m e a su re s t h a t s u i t e d th e PKI, he u s u a l l y made the. announcem ent h i m s e l f. I n d e e d, th e PKI in v e n te d th e t i t l e, "Much B e lo v e d," w h ich was o f t e n u s e d a f t e r S u k a r n o 's name i n p u b l i c a d d r e s s; th e m ost f r e q u e n t u s e r s o f "Bung K arno" w ere a l s o th e C om m unists. The PKI made e v e r y e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y S uk arn o w ith th e p a r t y p ro g ram, i t s l e a d e r s i n t e r s p e r s i n g q u o ta tio n s from "Bung K arno" i n a l l m a jo r a d d r e s s e s. 42 Lukman summed up th e P K I's D ja k a r t a M erd ek a, November 9, 1964. ^^W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 95] === 90 te c h n iq u e i n a sp eech o f J u l y, 1965, when h e s a i d: "Anyone who w an ts t o become a d i s c i p l e o f Bung Karno m ust a l s o become a good f r i e n d o f th e C o m m u n ists." A i d i t c a r r i e d to a b s u rd le n g th s th e c o n t e n tio n t h a t th e r e a l le a d e r o f h i s p a r t y was S u k arn o. "My f i r s t te a c h e r o f M arxism was S u k a rn o," A i d i t m a in ta in e d, r e f e r r i n g t o h i s s tu d e n t d ay s a t a p o l i t i c a l s c h o o l s p o n so re d by th e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a tio n f o r c e s. A id it n e g le c te d to t e l l h i s l i s t e n e r s, ho w ev er, t h a t th e s c h o o l w hich he a tte n d e d and w here S uk arno ta u g h t d id n o t open u n t i l 1944, w h ile A i d i t jo i n e d th e PKI th e p r e v io u s y e a r. 44 The army h ig h command c o u ld n o t be c o n s id e r e d p ro -W e s te rn o r e v en a n ti-C o m m u n ist by id e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c tio n. I t s o p p o s iti o n t o th e PKI was b a s e d on th e same g ro u n d s t h a t i t h ad opposed o t h e r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i n th e p a s t, nam ely a s a t h r e a t to th e a rm y 's p o l i t i c a l i n f l u en ce and e s p e c i a l l y th e p r i v i l e g e d econom ic s t a t u s o f i t s ra n k in g o ffic e rs. N a s u tio n and h i s c o lle a g u e s w ere f r a n k i n a d m ittin g t h a t th e y had no i n t e n t i o n o f r e l i n q u i s h i n g t h e i r e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g bank a c c o u n ts, lu x u r io u s homes and a u to m o b ile s, and h o rd e s o f a t t r a c t i v e fem a le com panions.^-* A w id e ly p r i n t e d poem o f J u l y, 1965, w r i t t e n by th e P K I 's N jo to, was t y p i c a l o f th e Communist p ro p a g a n d a w h ich e n ra g e d N a s u tio n. The poem was o c c a s io n e d by a m e e tin g i n P a r i s o f S u k arn o, who was 44 Times N e il S h eeh an, "A S im ple Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," New York M ag azin e, A u g u st 15, 1965, 74. 45I b id - » & W orld R e p o r t, 1965. 7 3 -7 4; "As I n d o n e s ia T r i e s M i l i t a r y R u le," U. S. News LX (M arch 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 6; W ash in g to n P o s t, November 21, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 96] === 91 v i s i t i n g t h e r e, and N jo to, who was en r o u te to a Moscow m e e tin g: Bung Karno em braced me w arm ly i n th e p r e s e n c e o f a number o f m i n i s t e r s. "G ood-by, Bung N j o to," h e s a i d, "My g r e e t in g s t o o u r f r i e n d s i n M oscow." L a t e r, in f r o n t o f th e l i f t in th e h a l l belo w, I w atch e d Bung Karno s m ile a t me A s m ile a s s o f t a s th e s m ile o f a f a t h e r. Two f i g h t e r s s e p a r a t e b u t t h e i r h e a r t s m e et. Only th e r e a c t i o n a r i e s o f th e w o rld a r e u n h ap p y. ^ A t th e c e l e b r a t i o n s m arking a l in d e p en d en ce S ukarno la u d e d th e n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n. th e tw e n t ie th a n n iv e r s a r y o f n a t i o n PKI a s a v i t a l f a c t o r i n th e In d o I n t u r n, th e PKI l e a d e r s s t r e s s e d th e n eed f o r more e l e c t i o n s a t th e v i l l a g e l e v e l. The Communists by 1965 w ere q u i t e c o n f id e n t o f t h e i r in f l u e n c e among th e r u r a l f o lk o f J a v a, th e is l a n d w hich h e ld s e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a 's 1 0 4,0 0 0,0 0 0 p e o p le. P a r ty b o ss A i d i t u rg ed t h a t NASAKOM c a d re s sh o u ld be s e t up t o s u p e r v is e th e n a t i o n 's 412,000-m an armed f o r c e s. S ukarno a g re e d t o t h i s d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t many army l e a d e r s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e c a d r e s w ould be d o m in ated by th e PKI i n m ost c a s e s I n m id -J a n u a ry, 1965, A i d i t b o ld ly p r o p o sed to th e P r e s i d e n t t h a t th e governm ent sh o u ld p e r m it th e arm ing o f th e 5, 0 0 0,0 0 0 members o f o rg a n iz e d la b o r and 1 0, 0 0 0,0 0 0 o rg a n iz e d p e a s a n ts " i n r e p l y to th e l a r g e - s c a l e m i l i t a r y b u ild - u p o f th e B r i t i s h ^ D j a k a r t a H arian. R a k j a t, J u l y 4, 1965. S h eeh an, "A S im ple Man in P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 73; " I n d o n e s ia: J in g o J a m b o re e," Tim e, LXXXV (Ju n e 4, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 9; "U. S. S u r v iv o r s A w ait S u k a rn o 's Ak, " B u s in e s s Week, Ju n e 2 6, 1965, 52. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 97] === 92 i m p e r i a l i s t s i n M a la y s ia." S uk arn o r e j e c t e d th e P K I's demands t h i s tim e, b u t th e Communist p a t t e r n p o in te d c l e a r l y to w ard a c c e l e r a t i o n o f th e s t e p s to w ard r e v o l u t i o n. 48 U n f o r tu n a te ly f o r th e P K I's e f f o r t s a t s e c r e c y, D eputy Prim e M in is te r C h a e ru l S a le h, a Communist., was ex p o sed a s one o f a group who w ere s p r e a d in g th e s o - c a l l e d PKI D ocum ent. T h is p a m p h le t s u p p o se d ly gave th e ti m e t a b le o f th e Communist ta k e o v e r i n I n d o n e s ia, w hich was t o be acc o m p lish e d by 1970. A i d i t, c a u g h t i n an e m b a rra s s in g p o s i t i o n, was co m p elle d t o denounce th e PKI D ocum ent, w h ich he may o r may n o t h av e h e lp e d to d r a f t. I n an a d d r e s s on J a n u a r y 19, 1965, b e f o r e th e G erw ani Women's o r g a n i z a t i o n A i d i t a t ta c k e d th e p a p e r a s f r a u d u le n t: I n t h i s f a l s e docum ent th e y c la im t h a t th e PKI w i l l s e i z e pow er from th e h an d s o f th e n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is i e. T h is i s s h e e r n o n s e n s e. J u s t exam ine a l l th e docum ents and t h e r e i t w i l l be p ro v ed t h a t th e PKI w is h e s u n i t y o f th e w o r k e r s, p e a s a n t s, low b o u r g e o is ie and n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie i n o r d e r t o ta k e o v e r d o m in a tio n from th e i m p e r i a l i s t s and f e u d a l i s t s. A c co rd in g t o th e PKI a n a l y s i s, th e n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie i n I n d o n e s ia i s to o w eak and th e y c a n n o t p o s s i b l y d o m in ate i n t h i s c o u n tr y. They a r e o n ly a b le t o d o m in ate i n a j o i n t a u t h o r i t y w ith th e w o rk e rs, th e p e a s a n t s, and th e s m a ll b o u r g i o i s i e. I n t h i s f a l s e docum ent if. i s a l s o s t a t e d t h a t i n 1970. I n d o n e s ia w i l l become a s o c i a l i s t s t a t e. T h is i s a l s o s h e e r n o n s e n s e, b e c a u se M arxism i s n o t f o r t u n e - t e l l i n g o r a s t r o l o g y. We can t e l l when we can f i n i s h m aking apem. c a k e, b u t i t i s n o t th e same w ith c r e a t i n g a new s o c i e t y. M arx and L e n in h ad n o t ev en p r e d i c t e d t h a t i n su ch and su ch y e a r r e v o l u t i o n w ould b r e a k o u t i n R u s s ia and i n su ch and su ch y e a r s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y w ould be b o rn in C h in a, i n H ungary, and i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. The I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le w i l l n e v e r f o r g e t t h e M adiun a f f a i r w hich to o k p la c e i n 1948. So many p e o p le h ad become v ic tim s a t t h a t tim e. Such v ic tim s and e v e n more a r e b e in g aim ed f o r by th e T r o t s k y i s t s when th e y s p re a d th e f a l s e PKI Docum ent, w hich f a l s e n e s s I h av e ex p o sed b e f o r e th e m e e tin g b etw een th e te n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and P r e s i d e n t P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I 's Road Jto P o w e r," 268; D j a k a r t a H a ria n R a k j a t, J a n u a r y 2 1, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 98] === 93 S u k arn o i n Bogor on December 15, 1964. They h av e s t a r t e d th e Madiun a f f a i r by d is s e m in a tin g f a l s e d o cu m en ts, and now th e y a r e t r y i n g t o r e p e a t su ch p r a c t i c e. J u s t im ag in e how many p e o p le w i l l a g a in become v i c t i m s i f a n o th e r "Red d r i v e " w i l l ta k e p l a c e. Of c o u r s e, o n ly th e 5 T r o t s k y i s t s w i l l be d e l i g h t e d i n s e e in g th e f r u i t o f t h e i r l a b o r. And how h ap p y w i l l be th e i m p e r i a l i s t s, to o. I n th e Bogor m e e tin g I h a v e ex p o sed much on th e f a l s e n e s s o f t h i s s o - c a l l e d PKI Document, and i n th e next, few d ay s th e PKI w i.ll i s s u e a s p e c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n e x p o s in g th e f a l s e n e s s o f t h i s document. By t h a t tim e A i d i t, N jo to, and Lukman h ad e s t a b l i s h e d su ch i n t i m ate r e l a t i o n s w ith th e P r e s i d e n t t h a t th e y c o u ld w alk i n t o th e p a la c e unan n o u n ced f o r c o n f e r e n c e s w ith h im. S u k arn o a p p e a re d a lm o s t o b l i v io u s t o th e sto rm o f r e s e n tm e n t r i s i n g i n th e arm y camp. The PKI, s t i l l g a in in g s u p p o r te r s a t an a s tr o n o m ic a l r a t e, seemed t o him an i r r e p l a c e a b l e b u t t r e s s in h i s pow er s t r u c t u r e. Thus th e e x c ite m e n t o v e r th e PKI Document was calm ed a s so o n a s p o s s i b l e by n o t o n ly th e PKI l e a d e r s b u t a l s o th e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f. N a s u tio n, h o w ev er, se n se d t h a t th e "moment o f t r u t h " was n e a r i n g. I n th e in n e r c i r c l e s o f PKI. h e a d q u a r te r s th e ex p o se o f th e PKI Document n e c e s s i t a t e d a sp eed u p i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y p l a n s. The Communist p l a n a c t u a l l y seemed to be aim ed f o r a coup d a te o f 1970, b u t now th e PKI m u st s t r i k e q u ic k ly o r f a c e p o s s i b l e d e v a s t a t i n g p u r g e s by N a s u tio n 8s f o r c e s. S e c r e t t r a i n i n g and e q u ip p in g o f y o u th and p e a s a n t g ro u p s w ere a c c e l e r a t e d. B e fo re dawn on O c to b e r 1, 1965, th e Pemuda R a k j a t, a Communist y o u th g ro u p, jo i n e d e le m e n ts o f th e p a l a c e g u ard 49 D ja k a r ta H a ria n R a k j a t. J a n u a r y 2 2, 1965. 5® T iw ari, " I n d o n e s ia G oing P e k in g W ay," 2 3; Don H u th, " R e v o lt i n I n d o n e s ia: S to r y b e h in d th e S t o r y, 1' W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r, O c to b e r 1 7, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 99] === 94 i n a c a r e f u l l y p la n n e d move to w ipe o u t th e h a te d army h ig h command."^ ®ie coup d ' e t a t came c lo s e to s u c c e e d in g; th e c o n s p i r a t o r s w orked s w i f t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y, k i l l i n g s i x im p o r ta n t g e n e r a ls i n th e f i r s t h o u rs. The f a i l u r e o f two a s s a s s i n a t i o n a tte m p ts s p e l l e d th e doom f o r th e Communist r e b e l l i o n, h o w ev er. N a s u tio n, th e defense, m i n i s t e r and k ey t a r g e t, e s c a p e d o v e r th e r e a r w a ll o f h i s y ard as th e a s s a s s i n s n e a re d h i s h o u s e, w h ile M ajor G e n e ra l S u h a r to, h ead o f th e a rm y 's s t r a t e g i c command, was s p a re d b e c a u se o f a b u n g lin g m i s c a r r ia g e o f m urder p l a n s. The two r a n k in g g e n e r a ls h u r r i e d to com mand h e a d q u a r te r s and q u ic k ly o rg a n iz e d s tr o n g c o u n te r m oves. By th e n e x t day th e r e b e l s, who had c a p tu r e d im p o r ta n t b u il d in g s and t e l e com m u n icatio n s f a c i l i t i e s i n D ja k a r t a, w ere f l e e i n g i n t o th e c o u n try; m ost w ere d is p e r s e d w ith l i t t l e w i l l to f i g h t. A few w eeks l a t e r th e army c a p tu r e d A i d i t. B efo re h i s e x e c u t i o n he w ro te a c o n f e s s io n, w hich showed s ig n s o f b e in g f o r c e d b u t was th e b e s t s o u rc e y e t f o r th e P K I's p l a n s: I, A i d i t, h av e th e h i g h e s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e S ep tem b er 30 i n c i d e n t. The i n c i d e n t was s u p p o r te d by o t h e r le a d e r s o f th e p a r t y and l e a d e r s o f mass o r g a n iz a ti o n s a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e p a r t y. D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p r e s e n t s e tu p was th e b a s ic s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r th e coup d 1 e t a t. I th o u g h t t h a t i f a n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n governm ent was e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r th e Communist p a r t y l e a d e r s h i p, th e s t a t e would 51 C a rl T. Rowan, " I n t r i g u e s in I n d o n e s ia Put. Jam es Bond to S ham e," W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r, November 2 1, 1965. 52 W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b er 10, 1965; W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r, O c to b e r 17, 1965; S e th S. K in g, "The T h ree Who R ule i n D j a k a r t a," New York T im es, A p r il 10, 1966; "V engence w ith a S m ile," Tim e, LXXXVI'i, 2 3; Seymour T o p p in g, " '6 5 U p r is in g i n I n d o n e s ia: S tu d y i n Red B lu n d e r in g," New York. T im es, A u g u st 2 3, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 100] === 95 r e c o v e r, th e p e o p l e 's l i v e l i h o o d w ould im p ro v e. I p la n n e d to e f f e c t c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s w ith C hina e c o n o m ic a lly, to o, i f th e coup d ' e t a t p ro v ed s u c c e s s f u l. The In d o n e s ia n Communist p a r t y had s e t th e t a r g e t o f th e coup d ' e t a t a t 1970, b u t t h i s p la n le a k e d o u t and r e l a t i o n s w ith th e army became u n s e t t l e d. The p a r t y, t h e r e f o r e, changed th e p o l i c y and mapped o u t a p la n t o c a r r y o u t th e coup d ' e t a t a s e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e. Con s u l t a t i o n s w ith Lt. C o l. Untund and o th e r s w ere c o n d u cted many tim e s a f t e r J u n e, 1965, and t r a i n i n g w ith l i g h t and h e a v y w eapons was a l s o c o n d u c te d. E a r ly i n A u g u st, on my way from A lg e r ia, I s to p p e d in P ek in g and d is c u s s e d w ith C h in ese Communist p a r t y le a d e r s su ch to p i c s a s P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's h e a l t h, e t c. As soon a s I a r r i v e d i n D ja k a r ta i n m id-A ugust I h e ld a s e c r e t m e etin g and d is c u s s e d th e p ro b le m o f c a r r y i n g o u t th e coup w ith p a r t y l e a d e r s. We o b ta in e d in f o r m a tio n t h a t th e army w ould i n v e s t i g a t e th e Communist p a r t y and i t s a f f i l i a t e d o r g a n iz a ti o n s on s u s p i c io n o f i l l e g a l p o s s e s s io n o f w eapons. The s i t u a t i o n p r e s s e d u s to h a s te n c a r r y i n g o u t th e coup d ' e t a t. On A ugust 2 5, 1965, we d e c id e d to c a r r y o u t th e coup d ' e t a t on S ep tem b er 3 0, 1965. We p r e s s e d P r e s i d e n t S ukarno to s ig n a B i l l f o r e s ta b l is h m e n t o f a R e v o lu tio n a ry C o u n c il, i n an a tte m p t to b r o a d c a s t i t and t o d i s t r i b u t e th e news th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y, b u t h e r e j e c t e d t h i s. P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o 's p o s i t i o n was to be m a in ta in e d ev en a f t e r th e s u c c e s s o f th e coup d ' e t a t, b u t we w ere g o in g t o c r i t i c i z e h i s p o l i c y and amend i t 1 g r a d u a l ly. T h is coup f a i l e d b eca u se many p e o p le, in c lu d in g some Communist p a r t y l e a d e r s, th o u g h t th e tim e was n o t r i p e and b e c a u se Red C h in a d id n o t g iv e th e e x p e c te d h e l p. A ls o, ev en th ough th e army had been so i n f i l t r a t e d t h a t n e a r l y a q u a r t e r o f i t s s o l d i e r s w ere R ed s, th e y d id n o t p e rfo rm a s e x p e c te d.- ” T h ere w ere c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s i n th e f a i l u r e s t h a t c lim ax e d th e P K I's d ev elo p m en t i n i t s f o rm a tiv e y e a r s o f 1920-1927 and i t s gro w th in 1 9 5 0 -1 9 6 5. The PKI was founded i n 1920, grew l i k e a w ild v in e f o r sev en y e a r s, and th e n d e c lin e d t o im p o ten cy a f t e r a d i s a s t r o u s re b e llio n. D u rin g th e e a r l y y e a r s th e p a r t y le a d e r s r e c e iv e d o n ly v o c a l b a c k in g from th e Communist. I n t e r n a t i o n a l, and d u r in g th e r e v o l t o f 1927 th e C o m in tern gave th e r e b e l s no s u p p o r t w h a ts o e v e r. M ore o v e r, th e coup a tte m p t was made b e f o r e th e PKI h ad s o l i d l y u n i t e d and - ^ " I n d o n e s ia: C o n v en ien t C o n f e s s io n," Newsweek, I..XVII (F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 101] === 96 i n s p i r e d th e m asses b e h in d th e c a u se o f r e v o l u t i o n; t h e r e f o r e, no p o p u la r u p r i s i n g accom panied th e r e b e l move. A lso th e PKI had n o t a d e q u a te ly s u b v e r te d th e armed f o r c e s; th e p a r t y i t s e l f was s e r i o u s l y w a n tin g i n p r o p e r o r g a n i z a t i o n, c l e a r f o r m u la tio n o f p o p u la r dem ands, and s tr o n g l i a s o n w ith o t h e r Communist p a r t i e s. The r e v o l t o f 1927 p ro d u ced th e prom pt a r r e s t by D utch o f f i c i a l s o f 1 3,0 0 0 p e r s o n s, d e p o r t a t i o n o f h u n d re d s o f PKI l e a d e r s, and c l o s i n g o f th e p a r t y 's h e a d q u a r te r s.^ W ith few e x c e p tio n s, th e m is ta k e s o f th e PKI i n 1965 w ere th e e x a c t sam e. The c o n s e q u e n c e s, h o w ev er, w ere more d i s a s t r o u s. E a r ly r e p o r t s s t a t e d t h a t 8 7,0 0 0 p e r s o n s, m o s tly C om m unists, w ere b u tc h e re d i n th e wake o f th e a b o r ti v e coup o f S ep tem b er 30 and O ctober 1. By e a r l y 1966, a s a n ti-C o m m u n ist r e a c t i o n c o n tin u e d u n a b a te d, th e e s ti m a t e s r o s e t o 1 5 0,0 0 0. The f ig u r e by J u n e, 1966, had r i s e n t o a b o u t 2, 0 0 0,0 0 0 v ic tim s s la u g h t e r e d i n th e v ic io u s a rm y -le d p u rg e s s in c e O c to b e r 1, 1965. N ot u n t i l th e summer o f 1966 w ere W e ste rn c o r r e s p o n d e n t s a d m itte d t o th e c o u n tr y s id e t o g e t some o f th e d e t a i l s o f one o f th e m ost sav ag e m a ss a c re s i n modern h i s t o r y. ^ R uth T. McVey. The R is e o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism ( I t h a c a, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 5 2 -3 5 3, 4 9 0; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," 232. -’-’" S la u g h te r i n I n d o n e s ia: When P e o p le T urn on R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LX (May 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 6 6; E ndre M arto n, " In d o n e s ia n Coup C u ts P a th Through Communist R a n k s," Memphis C om m ercial A p p e a l, Ju n e 6, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 102] === CHAPTER V THE PKI AND PEKING The PKI was fo u n d ed i n May, 1920, a lth o u g h i t h a d, u n d e r a d i f f e r e n t name, p ro m u lg a te d M arxism i n I n d o n e s ia f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s.^ The PKI l e a d e r s d e c id e d a t th e Sem arang C o n feren c e i n D ecem ber, 1921, to t r y to c r e a t e a u n it e d f r o n t w ith s e v e r a l o t h e r s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s in th e n a t i o n. ^ S t i f f o p p o s iti o n from th e D utch a u t h o r i t i e s a p p e a re d, h o w ev er, c u lm in a tin g i n th e o u tla w in g o f th e Communist p a r t y i n 1926. N ine y e a r s l a t e r th e PKI s e c r e t l y r e o r g a n iz e d and c o n tin u e d i t s a c t i v i t i e s a s an u n d erg ro u n d movement b e f o r e and d u r in g th e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a tio n. T h ree m onths a f t e r th e end o f W orld War I I th e PKI came i n t o th e open a g a in, j o i n i n g i n a c o a l i t i o n in 1948 w ith th e S a ja p K i r i ( L e f t W ing) and th e P e o p l e 's D em o cra tic F r o n t.^ M usso, th e Moscowt r a i n e d l e a d e r o f th e PK I, b eg an a Red-arm y s c h o o l a t M adiun, w hich ^ ■ " P o litic a l P a r t y o f I n d o n e s i a," R e p o rt on I n d o n e s i a, V II ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 5 ), 15; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism U nder A i d i t, " 1 5 -1 6. 2R o b e rt V. N e i l, The Em ergence o f th e M odern I n d o n e s ia n E l i t e (C h ic a g o, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 0 1; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 9 4 -9 5. P o l i t i c a l P a r ty o f I n d o n e s i a," R e p o rt on I n d o n e s i a, V II, 15; Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," 2 3 2; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 103] === 98 s e rv e d a s h e a d q u a r te r s f o r th e p a r t y. I n S ep te m b er, 1948, a s p r e v i o u s l y r e c o u n te d, Musso le d th e a b o r t i v e coup w h ich r e s u l t e d in th e e x e c u tio n o f him and te n o t h e r k ey PKI l e a d e r s.^ I n th e m onths a f t e r th e M adiun r e v o l t th e p a r t y was i n d e s p e r a te s t r a i t s. N e v e r th e le s s, by 1951 th e p a r t y, now u n d e r th e a b le command o f A i d i t, was r e v iv in g r a p i d l y. He and h i s c o lle a g u e s o p e r a te d w ith g r e a t e r c a u tio n and sh rew d n ess th a n t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s. On May 2 3, 1952, A i d i t announced th e b a s ic p r i n c i p l e t h a t w ould g u id e th e PKI p o l i c y m akers i n th e n e x t y e a r s: The p e o p le o f I n d o n e s ia m ust be o r ie n t e d to w ard th e s o c i a l i s t S o v ie t U nion and n o t to w ard i m p e r i a l i s t A m erica. T h is does n o t mean t h a t th e s t a t e s t r u c t u r e o f th e S o v ie t U nion, t h a t i s, th e S o v ie t sy ste m, sh o u ld be fo llo w e d by a l l n a t i o n s, in c lu d in g I n d o n e s ia C e r t a i n l y n o t. On th e c o n t r a r y, e a c h n a t i o n w i l l r a v e l i t s own ro ad to w ard s o c ia l is m, on th e b a s i s o f th e d ev elo p m en t o f i t s n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n, i t s p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n, i t s economy and i t s c u l t u r e. I n i t s e f f o r t s t o a l t e r th e e x i s t i n g b a la n c e o f p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s, th e PKI c o n c e n tr a te d i n i t i a l l y on s e e k in g a l l i e s w i t h i n th e ra n k s o f th e b o u rg e o is ie. C r o z i e r, S o u th e a s t A sia i n T u rm o il,, 7 1 -7 2; R o b e rt Van N ie l, "The C o u rse o f I n d o n e s ia n H i s t o r y, " i n I n d o n e s ia, e d. R uth T. McVey (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 0 6 -3 0 7; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 5 9 -6 0; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism i n I n d o n e s i a, ” 2 8. ^ P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K l's Road to P o w e r," 258. ^McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 151; P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I's Road t o P o w e r," 2 6 0 -2 6 1; Van D er K ro e f, " In d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g re s s," 2 3 2 -2 3 3; Ebon, " In d o n e s ia n Communism: F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 1 0 4 -1 0 5; G r a n t, I n d o n e s ia, 61. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 104] === 99 As c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e o ld e r g e n e r a tio n o f p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s e x e m p lif ie d by S u k arn o, A i d i t in 1951 was o n ly tw e n ty - e ig h t y e a r s o ld, Lukman t h i r t y - o n e, and N jo to tw e n t y - s i x. The PKI p o l i t i c i a n s grew up d u r in g th e ru g g ed tim e s o f th e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a tio n and th e s u b se q u e n t r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t th e D u tch. U n lik e Musso and th e f i r s t g e n e r a tio n o f C om m unists, th e y w ere s c h o o le d i n th e c o m p le x itie s o f In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s r a t h e r th a n i n th e K rem lin t h e o r e t i c s w hich t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s le a r n e d from lo n g y e a r s i n e x i l e. I n d e e d, A i d i t made c e r t a i n t h a t th e revam ped PKI s to o d i n th e m a in stre a m o f I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a li s m and d id n o t ta k e o r d e r s from R u s s ia o r Communist C h in a. t o l d h i s f o llo w e r s: I n e a r l y 1953 A i d i t " I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e a c h member o f th e p a r t y n o t o n ly t o be good Communist b u t a l s o a good n a t i o n a l i s t. He l a t e r commented: "The PKI u sed M arx ism -L en in ism a s a c o n s ta n t g u id e in d e te r m in in g th e c h a r a c t e r o f i t s p o l i c y; i t a l s o b a s e d i t s d e c i s i o n s on th e e x i s t i n g b a la n c e i n s o c i a l f o r c e s. " A i d i t e l a b o r a te d f u r t h e r i n a sp eech in D ecem ber, 1963: Among th e Communist g ro u p s i n o th e r c o u n t r i e s, t h e r e h av e a l s o b een p e o p le who h av e n o t b een e n t h u s i a s t i c c o n c e rn in g th e P K I 's in d e p e n d e n t a t t i t u d e. I n f a c t some b r o t h e r l y c o u n t r i e s h av e c h a rg e d th e PKI w ith b e in g n a t i o n a l i s t i c. They lo o k upon th e s lo g a n "G ive an In d o n e s ia n im age to M arx ism -L en in ism " a s a s lo g a n w hich i s i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n w ith M arx ism -L en in ism. S u p p o sin g M arx, E n g e ls, and L enin w ere s t i l l a l i v e, w ould th e y be a n g e re d L h y J o r p a r t i a l to th e f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n Communist p a r t i e s h av e r e f o r m u la te d t h e i r te a c h in g s in ^S heehan, "A S im ple Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 7 2 -7 3; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism i n I n d o n e s ia," 32; P a u k e r, "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n in I n d o n e s ia," 142; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r ty and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 3 6 -2 4 5; W arn er, "How S ukarno Keeps H is R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," 3 6. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 105] === 100 p o w e rfu l and c r e a t i v e ways? As th e "new" PKI d e v e lo p e d, i t n e v e r m a in ta in e d c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w ith th e K re m lin. I t s a f f i n i t y w ith P e k in g, h o w ev er, grew d e s p i t e A i d i t ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n s o th e r w is e. The P K I's o p p o r t u n i s t i c h a n d lin g o f r e l a t i o n s w ith th e C h in e se Communist was e v i d e n t from th e f a c t t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n p a r t y d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o j o i n w ith s tr o n g a n t i- C h in e s e f a c t i o n s i n a r e a s w h ere th e m a jo r it y o f th e l o c a l p o p u la c e seemed t o n o u r is h g r ie v a n c e s a g a i n s t th e r e s i d e n t C h in e s e. On th e o t h e r h a n d, th e PKI was j u s t a s a l e r t to d is s e m in a te p ro p a g a n d a n o t i c e s a b o u t d ev elo p m en ts in Communist C h ina i f su ch c o u ld b e n e f i t th e PKI p o l i t i c a l l y. I n g e n e r a l th e PKI found i t e x p e d ie n t t o s u p p o r t th e moves and p o l i c i e s o f P ek in g.* ® C lo se c o n t a c t b etw een th e PKI and th e C h in e se Communist em bassy i n D ja k a r ta was e a r l y e v id e n t., and th e In d o n e s ia n Communists s t e a d i l y in c r e a s e d t h e i r c o n t a c t s w ith th e C h in e se o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n I n d o n e s ia.* * W hereas Q uoted i n P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I's Road t o P o w e r," 2 8 5; D onald H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and th e C o n f l i c t i n th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Communist M ovem ent," C h in a Q u a r t e r l y, J u ly - S e p te m b e r, 1964, 2 1; T a n t r i, " I m p e r i a l i s t F o lly in I n d o n e s i a," 15. McVey, D evelopm ent o f th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and I t s R e l a ti o n w ith th e S o v ie t U nion and th e C h in e se P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic, 9 5 -9 6; G r a n t, I n d o n e s i a, 67; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 102.-103. *®Mintx, "M arxism i n I n d o n e s i a," 2 3 6 -2 3 7; D u rd in, " A n a ly s is o f Communism i n I n d o n e s i a, " 2 9; J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia: S tr u g g le Toward U n ity," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, X X III (A u g u st, 1 9 5 2 ), 90; D o u g las H yde, "Land They N ever K new," Commonweal, LXXII ( J u l y, 1 9 6 0 ), 3 7 0 -3 7 1; G r a n t, I n d o n e s ia. 6 7; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y, 116; D usen, " I n d o n e s ia Today: A N a tio n i n T u r m o il," 586. **M alcolm D. K ennedy, Communism i n E a s t A s ia (New Y ork, 1 9 5 7 ), 4 7 3; A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s, " 77; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 104; M in tx, I n d o n e s ia, 171. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 106] === 101 i n 1953 th e PKI rem oved th e C h in e se members o f i t s le a d in g c a d r e s from c o n s p ic u o u s p o s ts and t h e r e a f t e r p la y e d down th e p a r t y 's c o n n e c tio n s w ith l o c a l C h in e se C om m unists, th e P K I’ s s e c r e t t i e s w ith P ek in g and i t s p o w e rfu l u n d erg ro u n d movement in I n d o n e s ia grew s t r o n g e r. A i d i t 's s t r a t e g y fo llo w e d M a o ist l i n e s c l o s e l y. th e P K I's fu n d a m e n ta l t a s k was to m o b iliz e fe u d a l a g ra ria n r e v o lu tio n. 19 He b e lie v e d th e p e a s a n ts in an a n t i - The n e x t s te p was t o b u i l d an a l l i a n c e o f p e a s a n t s and p r o l e t a r i a n s f o r more sw eep in g r e f o r m s. F i n a l l y, th e u n i t e d n a t i o n a l f r o n t w ould encom pass a l s o th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a and th e p e tty b o u r g e o is ie.^ As e a r l y a s 1949 a t th e C o m m u n is t-c o n tro lle d W orld F e d e r a tio n o f T rad e U nions in P e k in g, C h in e se and In d o n e s ia n Comm unists a g re e d on th e n eed f o r an a l l i a n c e o f p e a s a n t and p r o l e t a r ia n i n t e r e s t s to a c c o m p lish th e u l t i m a t e r e v o l u t i o n. ^ By 1951 M ao's p ro g ram c a l l e d f o r a p e o p l e 's dem ocracy a s a t r a n s i t i o n a l s ta g e to w ard s o c ia l is m (Communism), d u r in g w hich th e go v ern m en t w ould o p e r a te on a M in tx, "M arxism i n I n d o n e s i a," 237; G. W illia m S k in n e r, "C h in e s e M in o r it y," i n I n d o n e s i a, e d. R uth T. McVey (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ), 1 1 6 -1 1 7; M in tx, I n d o n e s i a, 1 7 2 -1 7 3; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s," 1 0 4 -1 0 5; Amry V andenbosch, " C h in e se T h r u s t i n S o u th e a s t A fcia," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVIII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 9 ), 336. ■^Kennedy, Communism i n E a s t A s i a, 4 7 1 -4 7 2; Van D er K ro e f, " A g r a ria n Reform and th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, " 6 - 7; 1 2 -1 3; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism u n d e r A i d i t, " 1 8 -1 9; N o rth, "Two R e v o lu tio n a ry M o d els: R u s s ia n and C h in e s e," 50. ■^McVey, S o v ie t View o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n, 82; R. G. Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o re ig n P o lic y (New Y ork, 1 9 6 2 ), 21 - 2 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 107] === 102 f o u r - c l a s s c o a l i t i o n b a s i s, in c lu d in g th e p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e. ^ The PERBEPSI, a l a r g e body o f e x - g u e r i l l a s w ith Communist lean-* i n g s, was o rg a n iz e d in 1953. Many o b s e r v e r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s f o r c e w ould be th e backbone o f a Communist p e o p l e 's l i b e r a t i o n arm y; some p r e d i c t e d t h a t th e PKI w ould soon a tte m p t an arm ed o v e rth ro w. 16 The PKI l e a d e r s, h ow ever, w ere f u l l y aw are o f t h e i r p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n i n th e c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e la r g e and r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - t r a i n e d arm y. F u rth e rm o re, A i d i t knew t h a t h i s Communists c o u ld n o t c o u n t on a id from a n e ig h b o rin g Communist pow er; th e PKI had no " a c t i v e s a n c tu a ry." On s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s A i d i t rem inded PKI g a t h e r in g s t h a t th e p a r t y m ust be a l e r t to th e d i f f e r e n c e s a s w e ll a s th e s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een th e C h in ese and In d o n e s ia n Communist s i t u a t i o n s. The d i s t i n c t i v e c o n d i tio n s o f th e In d o n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n made i t e s s e n t i a l t h a t PKI p o l i c y be f l e x i b l e and a d a p t a b le, w ith o u t coo h e a v y r e l i a n c e dn P e k in g. 18 Such com ments, he f e l t, w ere n e c e s s a r y to tem p er a c e r t a i n 15 Brackm an, In d o n e s ia n Communism, 201; Van D er K ro e f, " In d o n e s i a n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g re s s," 2 3 7 -2 3 8; G. F. H udson, "Mao and M oscow," F o re ig n A f f a i r s. XXXVI (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 7 ), 8 4 -8 5; G. F. H udson, "Mao, M arx, and M oscow," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, XXXVII ( J u l y, 1 9 5 9 ), 562. 16 K ennedy, Communism i n E a s t A sia., 471; Van D er K ro e f, " In d o n e s i a n Communism u n d e r A i d i t, " 18; P a u k e r, "R ole o f P o l i t i c a l O rg a n i z a t i o n i n I n d o n e s ia," 1 3 3 -1 3 4. ■^Brackman, I n d o n e s ia n Communism, 205; D ja k a r ta H a ria n R a k j a t, J a n u a r y 2 2, 1965; Van D er K ro e f, " In d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g re s s," 2 3 5 -2 3 7. • ^ J u s tu s M. Van D er K ro e f, "Communist P o lic y and T a c t i c s in I n d o n e s i a," A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f P o l i t i c s and H i s t o r y, V (November, 1 9 5 9 ), 174; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism u n d e r A i d i t, " 18. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 108] === 103 amount o f v o c if e r o u s Maoism p re a c h e d by some seg m en ts o f th e r e s i d e n t C h in e s e.^ I t i s t r u e t h a t th e PKI, a lo n e among th e m a jo r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s, a c c e p te d th e C h in e se P e ra n a k a n s, th e e s t a b l i s h e d C h in e se im m ig ran t p o p u la tio n o f w e s t J a v a. F a r from b e in g a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f p ro -C h in e s e s e n tim e n ts, th e P K I's s u p p o r t was an i n d i r e c t o f f e n s iv e a g a i n s t i t s o p p o n e n ts. I n p r a c t i c e, th e P K I's s ta n c e te n d e d t o be p r o - C h in e se u s u a l l y when th e lo u d e s t a n t i- C h in e s e c r i e s w ere r a i s e d by i t s a n ti-C o m m u n ist r i v a l s. Few C h in ese a c t u a l l y jo i n e d th e PK I, and th e p a r t y l e a d e r s m ig h t h av e b een e m b a rra s se d i f th e y h ad f lo c k e d i n t o th e PKI ra n k s i n la r g e nu m b ers. orv S o v ie t in f l u e n c e i n I n d o n e s ia, th o u g h n e v e r a s p ro n o u n ced a s th e C h in ese im p a c t, c o u ld n o t be d is c o u n te d c o m p le te ly. A gain and a g a in i n th e U n ite d N a tio n s R u s s ia s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d I n d o n e s ia a g a i n s t th e D u tch. Much o f th e I n d o n e s ia n a rm y 's m ost modern eq u ip m en t was R u ssia n -m a d e. B efo re th e S in o - S o v ie t c o n f l i c t c o m p lic a te d the p i c t u r e B enjam in H ig g in s, I n d o n e s i a 's Economic S t a b i l i z a t i o n and D evelopm ent (New Y ork, 1 9 5 7 ), 9 6; A n d erso n, " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s, " 77; Reba L ew is, I n d o n e s i a: T ro u b le d P a r a d is e (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ), 175. ^®Mary F. Som er, P e ra n a k a n C h in e se P o l i t i c s in I n d o n e s ia ( I t h a c a, 1 9 6 4 ), 5 2 -5 4; Muhammad G. B. S h a f ie, " M a la y s ia and I n d o n e s ia n Communism.'V U n ite d A s i a, XVII (M ay -Ju n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2 1; M in tx, I n d o n e s ia, 1 48 -1 4 9, 166; F e i t h, "Dynamics o f G uided D em o cracy," 3 4 9 -3 5 6. 2 lAmry V andenbosch, "Pow er B ala n c e i n I n d o n e s i a," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y. XXXXVI (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 8 -9 9; U ri R a 'a n a u, "Coup T h a t F a i l e d: A B ackground A n a l y s i s," P ro b lem s o f Communism, XV (M arch, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 7; M in tx, I n d o n e s ia, 1 4 6 -1 4 7; W arn er, " W ill I n d o n e s ia Become a Second C uba?" 4 8; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 9 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 109] === 104 i n A s ia, M oscow 's m a s te r p la n f o r th e gro w th o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism seemed t o be d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e n a t i o n a l economy and t h e r e f o r e th e d o w n fa ll o f th e g o vernm ent th ro u g h th e runaw ay i n f l a t i o n p ro d u c e d by m a ssiv e a i d p ro g ra m s. 99 Seem ing t o r e l i s h th e c o m p e titio n i n g r a n t i n g a s s i s t a n c e t o h i s g o v e rn m e n t, S u k arn o en c o u ra g e d th e c o n t e s t s betw een R u s s ia and C hina and b etw een E a s t and W est. D u rin g th e y e a r s 1950-1965 th e U n ite d S t a t e s gave I n d o n e s ia $ 6 1 5,0 0 0,0 0 0 i n econom ic a s s i s t a n c e an d, a f t e r 1959, $ 2 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 a n n u a lly i n m i l i t a r y a i d. I n d o n e s ia r e c e iv e d $ 1 6 2,0 0 0,0 0 0 i n econom ic a i d from th e Communist b l o c, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 5, and g u a r a n te e s o f a n o th e r $ 1 3 9,0 0 0,0 0 0. i s t C hina i n g i f t s and lo a n s. R u s s ia was w e ll ah ead o f Commun Up t o 1965 a b o u t one b i l l i o n d o l l a r s ' w o rth o f S o v ie t c r e d i t f o r arm s and i n d u s t r i a l eq u ip m en t p u r c h a s e s was e x te n d e d t o th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v ern m e n t. P e k in g 's c h i e f c o n t r i b u t i o n was $ 1 6,4 0 0,0 0 0 i n econom ic a s s i s t a n c e th ro u g h 1 9 6 3. ^ S in c e P e k in g s u p p o rte d S u k arn o v o c i f e r o u s l y i n i t s p u b l i c p ro n o u n cem en ts and r e c r u i t e d h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f c h e e r in g s p e c t a t o r s f o r th e I n d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t 's v i s i t s, th e Communist C h in e se l e a d e r s re a s o n e d t h a t.th e show th e y s ta g e d on I n d o n e s i a 's b e h a l f was w o rth m i l l i o n s i n g o o d w ill 22 P a u k e r, "The S o v ie t C h a lle n g e i n I n d o n e s i a," 6 1 7,6 2 4; H anson, "A Gamble on G uided D em o cracy," 2 5 -2 6. 2 ^ S o l w. S a n d e r s, "A n o th er B ig C o u n try a b o u t t o Go t o th e R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LXXX (May 17, 1 9 6 5 ), 8 2; W arn er, " W ill I n d o n e s ia Become a Second C uba?" 4 3 -4 4; H anson, "A Gamble on G uided D em o cracy," 2 5 -2 6; G r a n t, I n d o n e s i a. 8 4 -8 6; F e i t h, "D ynam ics o f G uided D em o cracy," 3 5 5 -3 5 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 110] === 105 and p ro p ag an d a i n f l u e n c e. 2^ B e s id e s, a s P ek in g was alw ay s r e a d y to p o i n t o u t, th e S o v ie t s a t ta c k e d S u k arn o and h i s n a t i o n a l i s t s a s im p e r i a l i s t la c k e y s d u r in g th e tro u b le s o m e e r a o f 1945-1949 when th e n a t i o n a l i s t s ' s u c c e s s was n o t so c e r t a i n. in g P a r t l y b e c a u se o f i l l f e e l stem m ing from t h a t p e r i o d, S ukarno w ould n o t f o r m a lly ex change d ip lo m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w ith Moscow u n t i l 1954. 25 However, h e was q u ic k t o a c c e p t m i l i t a r y and econom ic a i d from th e S o v ie t U nion p r i o r t o t h a t y e a r.^ ® I f th e I r i a n d i s p u t e h ad e r u p te d i n t o a m a jo r p r o t r a c t e d w a r, th e R u s s ia n s ' a b i l i t y to s u p p ly I n d o n e s ia w ith h e a v y m i l i t a r y a i d w ould h a v e p r o b a b ly r e s u l t e d i n I n d o n e s i a 's e n tr a n c e i n t o th e S o v ie t s a t e l l i t e sp h e re. 27 N a s u tio n and h i s commanders w ere w e ll aw are o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y ev en w ith th e a r t i l l e r y, ta n k s, and tr u c k s t h a t R u s s ia d id s e n d, com pared t o Communist C h in a 's a i d. 2 ® A p p a re n tly c o n s id e r in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y a s a l e s s e r e v i l th a n C h in e se d o m in a tio n, N a s u tio n le d an a rm s -p u rc h a s in g m is s io n to Moscow i n e a r l y 1 9 6 1, and a number o f s im i7Q l a r e x p e d i tio n s w ere made in th e n e x t s e v e r a l y e a r s. 7 2^ J e r r y R. R o se, "We a r e Going to Change T h is Damn W o rld," S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXKVI (Nobember 2, 1 9 6 3 ), 79. 2 ^ P a u k e r, "The S o v ie t C h a lle n g e in I n d o n e s i a," 612. 2 6 " p r e s id e n t S u k a rn o," R e p o rt on I n d o n e s ia, X (N ovem ber, 1957),21. 27 P a u k e r, " S o v ie t C h a lle n g e in I n d o n e s i a," 6 1 4 -6 1 6; H anson, "A Gamble on G uided D em o cracy," 2 6. 2 ® Robert P. M a r tin, "A War R u s s ia I s T ry in g t o S t a r t, " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. L I I ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 6 2 ), 5 9 -6 0; W arn er, "How S ukarno Keeps H is R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," 3 4 -3 5; "Red C h in a 's Wounded P r i d e, " Newsweek, LXI ( F e b ru a ry 11, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 1 -4 2. 2^ S h e eh an, "A S im p le Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 75; W arn er, " W ill I n d o n e s ia become a Second Cuba?" 4 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 111] === 1 06 P e r s i s t e n t b u t f a l s e rum ors c i r c u l a t e d i n th e l a t e 1 9 5 0 's t h a t th e PKI le a d e r s h ip was s p l i t o v e r th e M oscow-Peking a p p e a ls, th e n eed f o r in d ep en d en ce a s o v e r a g a i n s t th e n e c e s s i t y o f c o a l i t i o n, and th e e v e r - p r e s e n t p ro b lem o f how t o cope w ith th e h o s t i l e army h ig h command. P a r t l y b e c a u se th e army was so h e a v i l y s u p p lie d by R u ssia n a i d, th e PKI le a d e r s g r a d u a l ly d i s a s s o c i a t e d th e m s e lv e s from th e n a t io n w hich s u p p lie d th e o p p r e s s o r s o f In d o n e s ia n Com m unists. The grow ing S in o - S o v ie t r i f t a l s o co m p elled some d e c i s i o n betw een th e two m ajo r Communist cam ps, and by 1960 i t was c l e a r t h a t th e m a jo r it y o f th e PKI command le a n e d tow ard P e k in g. 01 K h ru sh c h e v 's new f o r e ig n p o l i c y l i n e was f i r s t e n u n c ia te d in e a r l y 1956 a t th e T w e n tie th C o n g ress o f th e CPSU i n Moscow. The d e - f e n d e ts c £ K h ru s h c h e v 's p e r s o n a l i t y c u l t and d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n cam paign soon fan n ed o u t to th e f a r t h e r e s t realm s o f th e Communist w o rld to b r in g th e new t i d i n g s. 32 On A p r il 6, 1956, M ikoyan a r r i v e d a t P ek in g 30 McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em ocracy," 18. 31 S h eeh an, "A S im p le Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 75; P a u k e r, "R ole o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n i n I n d o n e s ia," 141; W arner, " W ill In d o n e s ia Become A Second Cuba?" 4 7 -4 8. ^ G i t t i n g s, The S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, 3; Leon V olkov, "Maoism— th e New F o r c e," Newsweek, XXXXIX (J a n u a ry 14, 1 9 5 7 ), 4 0; " E ig h th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," A m erica. LXXXXVL (O c to b e r 13, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 3; "Communist C h in a 's R e t r e a t from F a n ta s y," Newsweek, LXII (November 2 5, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 5; Lyman M. T o n d el, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o s i t i o n o f Communist C hina (New Y ork, 1 9 6 5 ), 19; H arry S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M an d arin s, and Com m issars (New Y ork, 1 9 6 0 ), 1 5 6 -1 5 7; A lv in Z. R u b in s te in, The F o re ig n P o lic y o f th e S o v ie t Union (New Y ork, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 9 6; Z bigniew B r z e z in s k i, "Communist D is u n ity and t h e W e s t," New R e p u b lic, CXXXXV (December 18, 1 9 6 1 ), 13. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 112] === 107 t o c o n v in c e Mao and Chou o f th e n eed to p u rg e th e S t a l i n i s t s. a s s i s t i n h i s p e r s u a s io n h e b ro u g h t a S o v ie t g r a n t o f 2,5 0 0,0 0 0 r u b le s i n econom ic a i d and a lo a n o f 5 2 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 r u b l e s. n e s e r e a c te d f a v o r a b ly. A t f i r s t th e C h i A r e s o l u t i o n s u p p o r tin g d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n was a d o p te d a t th e E ig h th N a tio n a l C o n g ress o f th e C h in e se Communist p a rty. Mao T s e -tu n g p u b l i c l y d e c la r e d h i s b a c k in g o f th e CPSU's new l i n e o f p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e, a s d id L iu S h a o -c h i and o t h e r to p Commun i s t s in th e P ek in g r e g im e.33 Then su d d e n ly and i n e x p l i c a b l y Mao r e v e r s e d h i s c o u r s e. In a t a l k w ith M ikoyan b e f o r e th e R u s s ia n 's d e p a r tu r e he s a id t h a t S t a l i n ' s a s s e t s o u tw eig h ed h i s l i a b i l i t i e s and t h a t a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f th e a n t i S t a l i n c ru s a d e sh o u ld be u n d e r ta k e n. I n O c to b e r Mao s a id i n a s p e e c h w elcom ing th e new S o v ie t am b assad o r t h a t S t a l i n was open t o c r i t i c i s m b u t so was K h ru s h c h e v 's p o s i t i o n on is s u e s r a n g in g from d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n and p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e to th e lo n g - r a n g e s t r a t e g y o f w o rld Communism. The b a t t l e l i n e s w ere d r a w n.^ M eanw hile i n D j a k a r t a, - A i d i t who h ad r e c e n t l y r e tu r n e d from t a l k s w ith b o th Mao and K h ru sh ch ev, announced t o th e P K I's T w e n tie th C o n g ress t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n p a r t y s h o u ld a d o p t th e p o s i t i o n o f P ek in g 33 T ie n - c h ie n Hwang, M oscow -Peking R e la tio n s and th e K h ru sh ch ev Mao S tr u g g le ( T a i p e i, 1 9 6 3 ), 13; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s, 1 3 -1 4. J G i t t i n g s, S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te. 5; " A b o u t-F a c e, ' 1 Tim e. LXV (J a n u a r y 7, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 6; V o lk iv, "M a o ism --th e New F o r c e," 4 0; Edward C rankshaw, "B ehind Grim K rem lin R e v e r s a l L ie s th e G rowing Power o f C h in a," L i f e, XXXXV ( J u ly 7, 1 9 5 8 ), 16; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s. 1 1 -1 2; "M ao's Two S p e e c h e s," Tim e, LXIX (May 2 7, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 3; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M a n d a rin s, and C om m issars, 158. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 113] === 108 on m ost o f th e i s s u e s i n d i s p u t e b etw een R ussia, and C h in a. S ta lin h e n c e f o r th c o n tin u e d to be r e v e r e d by th e PKI, and p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e a s a w o rld s t r a t e g y w as: an ath em a t o th e PKI. 35 A t a Moscow m e e tin g o f a l l Communist p a r t i e s i n November, 1957, th e C h in e se d e l e g a t i o n, le d by Mao, s u r p r i s i n g l y s u p p o r te d th e S o v ie t p a r t y a s th e ack n o w led g ed l e a d e r o f th e Communist b l o c. T h is sudden r e v e r s a l o f th e C h in e se c a u g h t th e Y u g o slav, P o l i s h, and H u n g arian d e l e g a t e s o f f b a la n c e s in c e th e y had c o u n te d on C h in e se b a c k in g i n s e c u r in g g r e a t e r in d e p e n d e n c e from th e CPSU.-^ A i d i t t o l d a PKI a sse m b ly: I n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e arg u m en t c o n c e rn in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s h i f t t o s o c ia l is m v i a th e p a r li a m e n ta r y sy ste m a s c o n ta in e d i n th e r e p o r t o f th e C e n tr a l C om m ittee o f th e CPSU to th e T w e n tie th C o n g ress o f th e CPSU, th e q u e s ti o n h a s o f t e n b een p u t to th e Com m unists: Can th e s h i f t t o s o c i a l i s m i n I n d o n e s ia be a c c o m p lish e d p e a c e f u l l y th ro u g h p a r li a m e n ta r y means? The r e p l y o f th e Comm unists t o t h i s l a s t q u e s ti o n i s: I t is a p o s s i b i l i t y, and one w hose r e a l i z a t i o n we m ust do a l l i n o u r pow er to a c h ie v e. T h e r e f o r e, i f i t w ere up t o th e C om m unists, th e b e s t m eans, th e i d e a l means o f ch an g e t o th e sy ste m o f a p e o p l e ’ s d em o cracy, th e p r e p a r a t o r y s ta g e o f th e s o c i a l i s t s y ste m, w ould be p e a c e f u l, p a r l i a m e n ta ry m e an s. The q u e s ti o n now a r i s e s: W ill th e o t h e r g ro u p s and p a r t i e s p e r m it th e s h i f t to a p e o p l e 's dem ocracy by p e a c e f u l, p a r li a m e n ta r y " ^ B e rn a rd H. M. V lek k e, I n d o n e s ia i n 1956 (H ague, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 5 -3 6; V olk o v, "M a o ism --th e New F o r c e," 4 0. G i t t i n g s, S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te; Hwang, M oscow -Peking R e l a t i o n s. 2 3 -2 4; C rankshaw, "B eh in d G rim K re m lin R e v e r s a l L ie s th e Growing Power o f C h in a,” 16; "Now I t ' s Gomulka v s. M ao," Newsweek, L I (D ecem ber 3 0, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 0 -3 1; " S t a l i n i s m on th e M a rc h," Newsweek, L I (F e b r u a r y 24, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 8; " D iz z in e s s i n M oscow," New R e p u b lic, CXXXVIII (J u n e 30, 1 9 5 8 ), 3 - 4; " K h ru s h c h e v 's Z ig and C h o u 's Z a g," Newsweek, XXXXIX ( J a n u a r y 14, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 3; H usdon, "Mao and M oscow," 8 0 -8 1; T o n d e l, I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o s i t i o n o f Communist C h in a, 19; C h a r le s B. McLane, "M oscow -Peking A l l i a n c e: th e F i r s t D e c a d e," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 9 ), 33 0. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 114] === 10 9 means A i d i t 's p o s i t i o n was somewhat c o n t r a d i c t o r y s in c e h e e sp o u se d th e s id e o f P e k in g i n th e S in o - S o v ie t s t r u g g l e, b u t h e a c t u a l l y e n d o rse d a form o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e a s th e P K I's b e s t means o f a c h ie v in g i t s e n d s, nam ely th ro u g h a p a r li a m e n ta r y sy ste m. To P e k in g, K h ru s h c h e v 's d e c l a r a t i o n on p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n seemed h e r e t i c a l s in c e i t c o n f l i c t e d w ith th e o rth o d o x M a rx is t- L e n in is tS t a l i n i s t th e o r y o f th e s t a t e and r e v o l u t i o n. When th e d r a f t d e c l a r a t i o n was s u b m itte d a t th e Moscow C o n fe re n c e o f 1957, th e C h in e se e n t e r e d on th e r e c o r d a s ta te m e n t o p p o sin g th e "wrong v ie w s" o f th e CPSU: We e x p r e s s e d o u r v iew s on th e two s u c c e s s iv e d r a f t s p u t fo rw ard by th e C e n t r a l Com m ittee o f th e CPSU and made a c o n s id e r a b le number o f m a jo r ch an g e s o f p r i n c i p l e w hich we p r e s e n te d a s o u r own r e v i s e d d r a f t. I t was d e c id e d t o su b m it i t to th e o t h e r f r a t e r n a l p a r t i e s f o r o p in io n s. T h ere w ere two m a jo r c h a n g e s: (1 ) I n d i c a t i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n, th e d e c l a r a t i o n a l s o p o i n t s to th e ro a d o f n o n - p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n and s t r e s s e s t h a t L e n in ism t e a c h e s, and e x p e r ie n c e c o n firm s, t h a t th e r u l i n g c l a s s e s n e v e r r e l i n q u i s h power v o l u n t a r i l y. in g f o r a m a j o r i t y i n p a r li a m e n t, th e d e c l a r a t i o n em p h a siz e s th e need t o la u n c h an e x t r a - p a r l i a m e n t a r y mass s t r u g g l e, smash th e r e s i s t a n c e o f th e r e a c t i o n a r y f o r c e s and c r e a t e th e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i tio n s f o r p e a c e f u l r e a l i z a t i o n o f the s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n. The Moscow D e c la r a tio n o f 1957 was an im p o r ta n t and f a r - r e a c h in g docum ent in th e S in o - S o v ie t c o n f l i c t, r e p e a te d ly q u o te d l a t e r by Moscow and P e k in g. I t a c t u a l l y c o n ta in e d many view s o f b o th o f th e m a jo r 37 Q uoted i n P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P K I’ s Road t o P o w e r," 261; H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU T w en ty -seco n d C o n g r e s s," 2 3 -2 4; P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime Weakened th e PK I?" 1062; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," 106. ■ ^ G it tin g s, S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, 1 0. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 115] === 110 Communist p a r t i e s. B ut i t s s ta te m e n t on th e t r a n s i t i o n from c a p i t a l i s m to s o c ia l is m was ro u n d ly a s s a i l e d by th e C h in e se Communists and by t h e i r A sia n p a r t n e r s, th e In d o n e s ia n Com m unists. 39 On m a tte r s r e l a t i n g to A lb a n ia n and Y u g o slav d i f f e r e n c e s w ith th e CPSU a t Moscow, th e P e k in g d e l e g a te s showed l i t t l e i n t e r e s t and t r i e d t o d i r e c t th e c o n fe re n c e to Communist p ro b lem s i n u n d e rd e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s. The P K I's s u p p o r t o f th e C h in e se on su ch is s u e s was n o t u n e x p e c te d. U lti m a t e ly, how ever, th e PKI d e l e g a te s a t Moscow became e m b ro ile d in th e d e b a te s o v e r Y u g o sla v ia and A lb a n ia. T i t o 's r e v i s io n ism was condemned by th e PKI b e c a u se i t l e f t Y u g o sla v ia u n a lig n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y, n o t b e c a u se o f i t s d o m e stic m o d e ra tio n. As f o r A lb a n ia, A i d i t and h i s p a r t y c o lle a g u e s h ad f o r n e a r l y two y e a r s e x h i b ite d g r e a t sym pathy f o r Hoxha and h i s A lb a n ia n Com m unists— a p o s i t i o n s i m i l a r to t h a t o f P e k in g. I n d e e d, a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e CPSU C ongress in 1.9.59 th e PKI d e l e g a t i o n v i s i t e d A lb a n ia and r e p o r te d "co m p lete a g ree m en t" on a l l is s u e s d is c u s s e d w ith Communist l e a d e r s th e r e 39 Hwang, M oscow-Peking R e l a t i o n s. 2 4; " A f t e r D ark D eed, th e H ard L i n e," L i f e, XXXXV ( J u l y 7, 1 9 5 8 ), 13, 17; Edward C rankshaw, "Shake th e Communist W orld; M ao's C h a lle n g e to th e Suprem acy o f M oscow." New York Times M ag azin e. J u l y 2 1, 1963, 5, 5 8 -5 9; Z b igniew B r z e z in s k i, " C h a lle n g e o f Change i n th e S o v ie t B lo c," F o re ig n A f f a i r s, XXXXIX ( A p r il, 1 9 6 1 ), 4 3 2 -4 3 3; H a ro ld H. F i s h e r, "Communist S o l i d a r i t y and S in o - S o v ie t R i v a l r y," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 1 ), 133. 4C>McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided D em o cracy," 18 3 -1 8 4; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g re s s," 2 3 3 -2 3 5. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 116] === I ll I n an a d d r e s s a t th e T w e n t y - f i r s t GPSU C o n g ress i n e a r l y 1959 K hrushchev p u sh ed h i s c o e x is te n c e r e a s o n in g f u r t h e r: "When th e S o v ie t U nion h a s become th e w o r l d 's le a d in g i n d u s t r i a l pow er and w ith C hina and th e o t h e r Communist c o u n t r i e s h a s o v e r h a l f th e w o r l d 's i n d u s t r i a l o u tp u t, th e r e w i l l be an a c t u a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x c lu d in g w o rld w ar from th e l i f e o f s o c i e t y. E l a b o r a t i n g on th e n eed f o r p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e betw een s t a t e s w ith d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l s y s te m s, he w ent on t o recommend t h a t th e c o n g re s s i n v i t e P r e s i d e n t E isen h o w er to v i s i t M o sc o w.^ T h at autum n K hru sh ch ev v i s t e d P e k in g on th e o c c a s io n o f th e t e n t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f th e Communist C h in e se re g im e. He came d i r e c t l y from h i s h i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d to u r o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s. A t th e m a jo r b a n q u e t o f th e c e l e b r a t i o n K h ru sh ch ev announced t h a t he b e lie v e d t h a t E ise n h o w er was s i n c e r e i n d e s i r i n g a le s s e n i n g o f Cold War t e n s i o n s, t h a t L en in had s a n c tio n e d p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e, and t h a t, th o u g h th e Communist b lo c was p o w e r f u l, i t c o u ld n o t a f f o r d to t e s t th e W este rn b lo c i n a c l i m a c t i c armed showdown. The C h in e se r e c e iv e d h i s rem ark s Q uoted i n H udson, S in o -S o v ie t. D is p u te, 4 1. See a l s o R o b e rt C. N o rth, "Two R e v o lu tio n a ry M odels: R u s s ia n and C h in e s e," i n Communist S t r a t e g i e s i n A s i a, e d. A. Doak B a rn e tt. (New Y ork, 1 9 6 4 ), 4 5; "M eeting i n Moscow f o r th e Red G r e a ts: W orld C o n g ress o f th e Communist P a r t y, " L i f e, XXXXVI ( F e b ru a ry 9, 1 9 5 9 ), 2 7 -2 8; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s, 36; H a rry A lle n and B onaro O v e r s t r e e t, The War C a lle d P eace (New Y ork, 1 9 6 1 ), 3 3, 104, 130; " V i c t o r s ' C o n g r e s s," Tim e, LX XIII ( F e b ru a ry 9, 1 9 5 9 ), 19; H udson, "Mao and M oscow," 561; B r z e z in s k i, "Communist D is u n ity and th e W e s t," 16. ^ H w an g, M oscow -Peking R e l a t i o n s, 3 4; O v e r s t r e e t, The War C a lle d P e a c e, 4 2, 5 8 -5 9; S te p h e n D. K ertes;?,, "U. S. S. R. and th e Communist B lo c," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (Novem ber, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 8 1. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 117] === 112 w ith o b v io u s f r i g i d i t y; th e R u s s ia n le a d e r was a c c o rd e d no f a r e w e ll a d d r e s s upon h i s d e p a r t u r e. L a t e r K h ru sh ch ev la s h e d b ack a t M ao's c o ld n e s s by a c c u s in g th e C h in e se o f b e in g a T r o t s k y i s t who was p la y in g i n t o th e c a p i t a l i s t s ' h an d s by t r y i n g to d iv i d e th e Communist w o r ld. K hrushchev w arned p u b l i c l y t h a t o p p o s iti o n to b a s i c S o v ie t p o l i c i e s w ould n o t be t o l e r a t e d The ch am p io n in g o f A l b a n i a 's " h e r e t i c a l " o p p o s iti o n t o th e CPSU was a d e fe n s e o f p a r t y autonom y a s f a r a s P ek in g and D ja k a r ta w ere c o n c e rn e d. B oth Communist C h in a and th e PKI fa c e d s i t u a t i o n s and s t a g e s o f n a t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t f a r d i f f e r e n t from t h a t c o n f r o n tin g th e CPSU. A i d i t was aw are t h a t h i s p a r t y 's a d v a n c e s, i n f a c t, i t s s u r v i v a l i n I n d o n e s ia, w ere l a r g e l y b e c a u se o f i t s f l e x i b i l i t y and a d a p t a b i l i t y. I f n a t i o n a l p a r t y autonom y w ere s u r r e n d e r e d c o m p le te ly t o CPSU dom ina t i o n, n o t o n ly th e A lb a n ia n Communist reg im e b u t a l s o th e PKI m ig ht be q u ic k ly overw helm ed by t h e i r en em ies As th e chasm w id en ed betw een Moscow and P e k in g i n th e e n s u in g H udson, S in o -S o v ie t. D is p u te, 58; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y, 79-80; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M a n d a rin s, and C om m issars, 174; "K h ru sh ch ev a t Communist C h in a 's A n n iv e r s a r y C e l e b r a ti o n; E x c e r p ts from A d d re s s, S ep tem b er 30, 1959," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y. XXXVII (D ecem ber, 1958), 365-366; "Mao on K: A B e tr a y e r and T im id a s a M o u se," Newsweek, LXI ( J a n u a r y 14, 1963), 37. ^ D o n a ld S. Z a g o r ia, The S in o - S o v ie t C o n f l i c t; 1956-1961 ( P r in c e t o n, 1962), 286-287; N o rth, "Two R e v o lu tio n a ry M odels: R u s s ia n and C h in e s e," 55-56; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s, 14-15. ^M cV ey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cracy," 184; Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 235-237, 244-246; H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia n Com m u n is t and th e CPSU T w en ty -seco n d C o n g r e s s," 22-23. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 118] === 1 13 y e a r s a f t e r th e Moscow C o n fe re n c e, th e C h in ese became more and more c o n v in c e d o f th e e r r o r s o f CPSU id e o lo g y. When K hrushchev and E is e n how er met a t Camp D avid in S ep te m b er, 1959, P e k in g is s u e d a c o n tin u o u s b a r r a g e o f v i t u p e r a t i v e b a rb s a g a i n s t th e S o v ie t l e a d e r. ^ When th e fo u r-p o w e r summit c o n fe re n c e i n P a r i s was a b o r te d i n May, 1960, in th e wake o f th e U-2 i n c i d e n t, th e M a o is ts p o in te d up th e f o l l y o f c o e x is te n c e and th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f w ar betw een c a p i t a l i s t s and Communists P e k in g 's. P e o p le 's D a ily rem inded th e R u s s ia n s t h a t i t had b een w a rn in g a g a i n s t s o f t n e s s to w ard th e W est f o r some tim e On m ost is s u e s o f 1957-1960 th e PKI to o k i t s s ta n d w ith C h in a, th o u gh o f t e n c la im in g t o r e p r e s e n t th e m id d le ground betw een th e two g i a n t s o f Communism. A i d i t r e i t e r a t e d, h o w ev er, t h a t no com prom ise w ith i m p e r i a l i s t s i s f i n a l l y p o s s i b l e, t h a t b r u te f o r c e i s n e c e s s a r y a t a c e r t a i n s ta g e i n th e r e v o l u t i o n, and t h a t I n d o n e s i a 's r e v o l u t i o n a r y g o a ls h av e p r i o r i t y o v e r c o n c e rn f o r p e a c e. ^ P ro b a b ly th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t assem b ly i n Communist h i s t o r y was ^ P e k i n g P e o p l e 's D a i l y, F e b ru a ry 2 7, 1963; H udson, "Mao, M arx, and M oscow," 5 6 8 -5 6 9; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o re ig n P o l i c y, P e k in g R eview,, Ju n e 14, 1960, 3; R onchey, Two Red G ia n t s, 1 6 -1 7; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M an d arin s and C om m issars, 17 8 -1 7 9; A lv in Z. R u b in s te in, "P ro b lem s o f C o e x is te n c e," C u rre n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 7 6 -2 7 7. ^ P e k i n g P e o p l e 's D a i l y. F e b ru a ry 2 7, 1963. ^M cV ey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cracy," 185; S c a la p in o, "Moscow, P ek in g and th e Communist P a r t i e s o f A s i a," 3 2 6 -3 2 7; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army and th e Com m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes Shape., " 9 7 6 -9 7 7. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 119] === 114 th e Moscow C o n feren c e o f Communist p a r t i e s h e ld i n November, 1960.-^0 The m a jo r ity o f th e e ig h ty - o n e d e l e g a ti o n s s u p p o rte d th e CPSU1s co n t e n t i o n t h a t th e M a o is ts o f th e CPC w ere " m is ta k e n " and s h o u ld r e p e n t of th e ir e rro rs. O nly A lb a n ia s to o d s ta u n c h ly w ith Communist C h in a; I n d o n e s i a 's Communist d e l e g a ti o n t r i e d t o a c t a s a r b i t e r b etw een Moscow and P e k in g, w ith o b v io u s le a n in g, ho w ev er, to w ard i t s A sia n n e ig h b o r. The C h in e se d e l e g a te s d e m o n stra te d an i n a b i l i t y t o re a s o n c a lm ly, p r e f e r r i n g th e m ethods o f s h o u tin g, b e l l i g e r e n t g e s t u r e s, and s tro n g - a r m t a c t i c s tow ard d e l e g a te s o f m inor p a r t i e s. As one p r o - S o v ie t d e l e g a te a f t e r a n o th e r c r i t i c i z e d th e CPC's b e h a v io r, th e PKI, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s found th e m s e lv e s i n an awkward p o s i t i o n. 51 A i d i t em p h asized t h a t p a r t y autonom y m ust be p r e s e r v e d, i. e., each Communist p a r t y m ust r e t a i n th e r i g h t to d e c id e i t s own i n t e r n a l a ffa irs: "The PKI, as I. h av e s t a t e d many tim e s b e f o r e, and t h i s i s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e s p i r i t o f th e Communist s ta te m e n t o f 1960, i s a M a r x is t- L e n in is t p a r t y w hich s ta n d s on i t s own f e e t, w hich h a s e q u a l r i g h t s w ith th e o t h e r Communist p a r t i e s and c e r t a i n l y d o es n o t ru n o th e r p a r t i e s. I n a c c o rd a n c e w ith M arxism -L eninism., th e PKI d e te rm in e s Z a g o r ia, S in o - S o v ie t C o n f lic t., 343; I s a a c Deut.sc.hex, "New Communist M a n if e s to," R e p o r te r, XXI? ( J a n u a r y 5, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 8 -2 9; Wayne S. V u c in ic h, " A lb a n ia - S o v ie t R i f t, " C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI.V (May, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 0 2 -3 0 3; F i s h e r, "Communist S o l i d a r i t y and S in o - S o v ie t R i v a l r y," 130, 135. " * ^ G ittin g, S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, 6 0; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s, 1 6 -1 7; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o re ig n P o l i c y, 9 6 -9 7; D e u ts c h e r, "New Communist M a n if e s to," 2 8 -3 0; B rz e z,in s k i, "Communist D is u n ity and th e W e s t," 13; B r z e z in s k i, " C h a lle n g e o f Change i n th e S o v ie t B lo c," 4 3 8 -4 3 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 120] === 115 i t s p o l i c i e s by i t s e l f. " A i d i t was b ack ed by h i s p a r t y 's c e n t r a l co m m itte e, w hich fo rw a rd e d a r e s o l u t i o n condem ning p o ly c e n tr is m and r e a s s e r t i n g th e e q u a l i t y o f a l l Communist p a r t i e s. The PKI r e s o l u t i o n a l s o em p h asized th e n e e d f o r m a in ta in in g th e h e r o im age o f S t a l i n, w h ile i t condemned th e d i v i s i v e Y u g o sla v s, who "aim ed a t sow ing th e p o is o n o f d i s s e n s i o n i n th e ra n k s o f th e s o c i a l i s t b lo c and th e w o rld w o r k in g - c la s s m ovem ent." The P K I's s o l u t i o n to th e S in o - S o v ie t id e o l o g i c a l d is p u te was t o u t i l i z e c o n s u l t a t i o n and c o n s e n s u s — th e m usiaw arah and m u fa k a t o f I n d o n e s ia n n a t i o n a l i s t t r a d i t i o n. 52 The PKI m a in ta in e d f u r t h e r t h a t any a l t e r a t i o n o f Communist g u i d e l i n e s a s s e t f o r t h i n th e Moscow D e c la r a tio n o f i9 5 7 m ust be r a t i f i e d by a l l Communist p a r t i e s, n o t j u s t th e CPSU. 53 The A lb a n ia n s w ere n o t i n v i t e d t o th e T w en ty -seco n d CPSU C o n g re s s, w h ich co n vened in O c to b e r, 1961. K h ru sh ch ev a p c u se d th e A lb a n ia n s o f d i s r u p t i n g th e Communist movement and a d d ed: "The p r i n c i p l e hammered o u t a t th e T w en ty -seco n d CPSU C o n g ress i s a L e n i n i s t p rin c ip le. A lb a n ia n On th e q u e s ti o n o f p r i n c i p l e s, we c a n n o t y i e l d t o th e l e a d e r s, n o r can we com prom ise w ith any o t h e r p e o p le. The CPSU w i l l i n th e d ay s t o come, t r y i t s u tm o s t t o b r in g A lb a n ia b ack Q uoted i n McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cracy," 1 8 4 -1 8 5. See a l s o Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o l i t y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 3 3, 2 4 5 -2 4 6; H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU T w en ty -seco n d C o n g r e s s," ^ J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, "The S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " O r b is, V I I I (Summer, 1 9 6 4 ), 345. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 121] === 116 i n t o th e ra n k s o f th e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s." - ’^ A lb a n ia was s t r o n g l y d e fe n d e d by th e P e k in g and PKI r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, and d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw een th e CPSU and i t s d i s s i d e n t s s to o d o u t more a c u t e l y th a n e v e r.- ’-’ A f t e r a sav ag e ex ch an g e i n w hich K h ru sh ch ev c a l l e d S t a l i n an e v i l t y r a n t and Chou E n - l a i la u d ed S t a l i n a s th e g r e a t e s t Communist s in c e L e n in, th e C h in e se d e l e g a t e s p ack e d t h e i r b ag s and l e f t b e f o r e th e asse m b ly c o n c lu d e d i t s d e l i b e r a t i o n s. A f t e r th e T w en ty -seco n d C o n g ress th e A lb a n ia n W o rk e rs1 p a r t y th a n k e d th e PKI f o r i t s b a c k in g i n Moscow, and th e P e k in g le a d e r s p u b l i c l y e x p r e s s e d g r a t i t u d e t h a t th e PKI s to o d w ith them i n th e w iden' in g r i f t w i t h i n th e Communist camp. By t h a t tim e th e PKI, w hich b o a s te d a m em bership s u r p a s s e d o n ly by t h a t o f th e CPSU and CPC, was an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n th e S in o - S o v ie t a lig n m e n t. Though th e I n d o n e s ia n Communists o p e n ly s id e d w ith P e k in g on c e r t a i n m a tte r, e. g., th e A lb a n ia n h e r e s y, th e PKI. e n d e a v o re d t o r e t a i n good r e l a t i o n s w ith Moscow. A i d i t and o t h e r PKI l e a d e r s f r e q u e n t l y u n d e rto o k g o o d w ill m is s io n s t o th e USSR and E a s t e r n E u ro p e. The P K I 's o f f i c i a l o rg a n, H a ria n R a k j a t, t r i e d t o rem a in o b j e c t i v e i n th e i d e o l o g i c a l d is p u te Q uoted i n Hwang, M oscow -Peking R e l a t i o n s. 4 7; Ronchey., Two Red G ia n t s, 1 7 -1 8; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y, 8 3; T o n d e l, I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o s i t i o n o f Communist C h in a. 2 2; V u c in ic h, " A lb a n ia n S o v ie t R i f t, " 3 0 3 -3 0 4. ^ K l a u s, M e h n e rt, P ek in g and Moscow (New Y ork, 1 9 6 4 ), 454; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s. M an d arin s and C o m m issars. 186. P e k in g R ev iew, O c to b e r 2 7, 1961, 4; Boyd, Communist C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y, 8 3; V u c in ic h, " A lb a n ia n - S o v ie t R i f t, " 303. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 122] === 117 by p r i n t i n g th e communiques o f a l l f r a t e r n a l p a r t i e s, b u t i t s s e n t i ment was w ith P e k in g. ^ The A lb a n ia n W o rk ers' p a r t y was s p e c i f i c a l l y c i t e d and v i c i o u s l y a t ta c k e d by th e CPSU d u r in g i t s T w enty-second C o n g re ss, th e r e b y s e t t i n g th e d a n g ero u s p r e c e d e n t o f one p a r t y u s in g th e o c c a s io n o f i t s a n n u a l a ssem b ly to u n derm ine a f r a t e r n a l p a r t y. 58 A i d i t made i t e m p h a tic a lly c l e a r a t Moscow t h a t h e d is a p p ro v e d su ch a c t i o n. A f te r t h a t m e etin g a n o t i c e a b l e w arm th e x i s t e d betw een th e l e a d e r s o f th e A lb a n ia n and In d o n e s ia n p a r t i e s in open d e f ia n c e o f th e CPSU's e d i c t s. The PKI n ew sp ap er w en t o u t o f i t s way to p u b l i c i z e ex ch a n g es o f g r e e t i n g s on such o c c a s io n s a s New Y e a r 's c e l e b r a t i o n s and a n n i v e r s a r i e s o f th e two p a rtie s ' b ir th s.^ I n Decem ber, 1963, A id it spoke b e f o r e th e S ev en th C o n g ress o f th e PKI, h i s theme b e in g th e autonom y o f th e PKI and i t s a l l e g i a n c e to M arx ism -L en in ism. T h is, o f c o u r s e, im p lie d t h a t, w h ile th e PKI was n o t a p u p p e t o f th e CPSU, i t a l s o was n o t u n d er th e d o m in a tio n o f th e CPC. A i d i t s t r e s s e d th e p o i n t t h a t th e PKI had e q u a l s t a t u s w ith a l l o t h e r Communist p a r t i e s, a p o in t o f te n r e i t e r a t e d by P e k in g b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y im p ly in g t h a t th e PKI u n e q u iv o c a lly e n d o rs e d a l l CPC ■^Donald H in d le y, "The In d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU T w en ty -seco n d C o n g r e s s," A sia n S u rv e y, I I (M arch, 1 9 6 2 ), 20-2.1. P ek in g P e o p l e 's D a il y, F e b ru a ry 2 7, 1963; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M a n d a rin e s, and C om m issars, 187. - ^ H i n d l e y, " I n d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU Tw entyseco n d C o n g re s s," 2 1 -2 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 123] === p o lic ie s. 60 R eg ard in g A lb a n ia, A i d i t gave t h r e e r e a s o n s why h i s p a r t y f a i l e d t o s u p p o r t th e c r i t i c i s m o f t h a t n a t i o n 's W o rk e rs' p a r t y a t th e T w en ty -seco n d CPSU C o n g re s s. F i r s t, th e PKI d e l e g a t i o n was bound by s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n s from i t s c e n t r a l c o m m itte e, w h ich d id n o t a n t i c i p a t e th e a t t a c k s on A lb a n ia. S eco n d, th e PKI was c o n v in c e d t h a t open-m inded d i s c u s s io n and c o n s e n s u s, n o t b i t t e r c r i t i c i s m, was th e ro a d to s o lv in g i n t e r n a l Communist p ro b le m s. T h ir d, th e o n s la u g h t a g a i n s t A lb a n ia v i o l a t e d th e Moscow D e c a l a r a ti o n o f 1957, w h ich c a l l e d f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n and c o o p e r a tio n b etw ee n f r a t e r n a l p a r t i e s. ^ When a l l was d o n e, h ow ever, A i d i t b e l ie v e d t h a t " t h e r e i s o n ly one v an g u ard o f th e w o rld Communist movement, a n d, l e t t h e r e be no d o u b t a b o u t i t, th e v an g u ard i s th e CPSU." He ev en a g re e d w ith th e r i g h t o f th e CPSU t o dow ngrade S t a l i n, b u t h e em p h asized t h a t th e PKI and o t h e r p a r t i e s hav e th e e q u a l r i g h t t o c o n tin u e t h e i r r e v e r e n c e o f S t a l i n ' s l e a d e r s h ip.* ^ I n th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's th e PKI f r a n t i c a l l y t r i e d to h o ld to a m id d le p o s i t i o n in th e i n c r e a s i n g l y b i - p o l a r a lig n m e n t o f Communist 60 J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, "Dilemmas o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism," P a c i f i c A f f a i r s, XXXX (Summer, 1 9 6 2 ), 157; S c a la p in o, "Moscow, P e k in g and th e Communist P a r t i e s o f A s i a," 3 2 3 -3 2 4; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army and th e Com m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 6; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," 2 4 6; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M a n d a rin s, and C o m m issars, 188. 61 H in d le y, " In d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU T w en ty -seco n d C o n g r e s s," 2 3 -2 4. 62 Van D er K ro e f, "Dilemmas o f In d o n e s ia n Communism," 1 57-158; S c a la p in o, "Moscow, P e k in g and th e Communist P a r t i e s o f A s i a," 326. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 124] === 1 19 p a rtie s. On some issu e® th e PKI s to o d c lo s e to Moscow, w h ile on o t h e r s i t s id e d w ith P e k in g. W ith th e CPC, i t w ith d re w a l l s u p p o r t from th e CPSU's W orld M a r x is t Review i n 1960. I t a l s o jo i n e d th e C h in e se Comm u n is ts in condem ning th e Y u g o slav r e v i s i o n i s t s and s u p p o r tin g th e A lb a n ia n d i s s i d e n t s.^3 The PKI a l s o seemed t o f a v o r th e " h a rd l i n e " o f th e CPC on th e s u r f a c e, b u t i n p r a c t i c e i t was p u r s u in g th e CPSU's recommended p r a c t i c e o f s u b v e r s io n th ro u g h p e a c e f u l m eans. The PKI e x p la in e d i t s t a c t i c s by a s s e r t i n g t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n c irc u m s ta n c e s w ere u n iq u e and t h a t " i t m ust a lw ay s be rem em bered t h a t a c c o r d in g to M arx ism -L en in ism p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n m ust be c o n d id e re d an e x c e p tio n." The PKI s t r e s s e d th e f a c t t h a t i t s c a u s e had i n common w ith a l l p e o p le s o p p re s s e d by i m p e r i a l i s t s th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n b etw ee n th e "new em erg in g f o r c e s, " c o m p ris in g 90% o f th e w o r l d 's p o p u l a t i o n, and th e " o ld e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s, " c o n s t i t u t i n g o n ly 10%. A c tu a l ly th e PKI b o rro w ed th e c o n c e p t o f th e new em erg in g and c l d e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s from S u k a r n o 's p o l i t i c a l th e o r y. The I n d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t h ad lo n g m a in ta in e d t h a t th e s o c i a l i s t b lo c and th e new ly H in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia n Com m unists and th e CPSU Tw entyseco n d C o n g r e s s," 2 5; F eifch, "D ynam ics o f G uided D em o cra cy," 64 M. H. Lukman, R e p o rt on C hanges i n th e Communist P a r t y C o n s t i t u t i o n (W ash in g to n, 1 9 6 1 ), 1 4 -1 6; F e i t h, " P r e s id e n t. S u k arn o, The Army and th e C om m unists: The T r i a n g le C hanges S h a p e," 976; Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o l i c y and th e S i x t h P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 4 6. 65 R o b e rt A. S c a la p in o, "Moscow, P e k in g and th e Communist P a r t i e s i n A s i a," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, XXXXI ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 2 6 -3 2 7; T o n d e l, I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o s i t i o n o f Communist C h in a, 2 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 125] === 120 in d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s o f th e w o rld r e p r e s e n t e d th e em e rg e n t f o r c e s; th e y w ere p i t t e d a g a i n s t th e W e ste rn i m p e r i a l i s t p o w ers, who d e s ir e d t h e i r c o n tin u e d s u b j e c t i o n. The PKI l o g i c a l l y e x te n d e d h i s i m p l i c a t i o n to mean t h a t I n d o n e s ia was o b v io u s ly i n th e one camp, and t h e r e f o r e S u k a r n o 's th e o r y f i t t e d PKI th in k in g on t h a t p o i n t. 66 W hile th e p a r t y condemned r e v is i o n is m, i t a l s o a rg u e d t h a t co m p lete in d e p e n d e n c e o f p a r t i e s w ith i n th e Communist f o ld was e s s e n t i a l, e l s e i t fa c e d p o s s i b l e s u p p r e s s io n in I n d o n e s ia. 67 I n s p i t e o f th e f a c t, h o w ev er, t h a t T ito and S ukarno w ere good f r i e n d s, th e PKI f e l t t h a t i t s d u ty demanded th e e x p o s u re o f T i to a s a s to o g e o f th e o ld e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s. 68 K h ru s h c h e v 's backdown d u r in g th e Cuban m i s s i l e c r i s i s o f O c to b e r, 1962, b ro u g h t f u r t h e r d e n u n c ia tio n s by P e k in g, a g g r a v a tin g th e i n t e r n a l Communist r i f t more th a n e v e r. ^ The PKI s id e d w ith th e CPC on th e K hrushchev-K ennedy c l a s h s in c e th e I n d o n e s ia n Communists w ere alw ay s 66 McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em o cracy," 186; H in d le v, " I n d o n e s ia n Comm unists and CPSU Tw entyseco n d C o n g r e s s," 2 3 -2 5; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s," 2 4 5 -2 4 6. 67 S c a la p in o, "Moscow, P e k in g and th e Communist P a r t i e s in. A s i a," 3 2 7. 68 Drew P e a r s o n, "B reak Betw een R u s s ia and C h in a P o i n t s t o New A venues f o r P e a c e," J a c k s o n C la r io n - L e d g e r, M arch 2 9, 1966; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M an d arin s and C om m issars, 174. ^ H a r r y S c h w a rtz, "M oscow -Peking D is p u te: A D ecade o f B i t t e r n e s s, " New Y ork T im es, M arch 4, 1966; Van D er K ro e f, " I n d o n e s ia n Communist P o l i c y and th e S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," 2 4 3 -2 4 4; N o rth, "Two R e v o lu tio n a r y M odels: R u s s ia n and C h in e s e," 5 6 -5 7; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M an d arin s and C o m m issars, 1 8 8 -1 9 0; "Communist C h in a 's R e t r e a t from F a n ta s y," Newsweek, L X II, 4 5; "Mao on K: A B e tr a y e r and T im id a s M o u se," Newsweek, LXI, 3 7. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 126] === 121 a n x io u s t o e x p l o i t th e g r e a t e m o tio n a l v a lu e o f a n ti- W e s te rn is m among th e m a sse s. Some anti-C om m unist. n a t i o n a l i s t s i n I n d o n e s ia even jo in e d i n c r i t i c i z i n g K h ru sh c h ev ’ s " c o w a rd ic e, When th e S o v ie t- A m e r ic a n - B r itis h t r e a t y f o r a li m it e d n u c l e a r b an was s ig n e d i n m id -1963, th e C h in e se c o u n te re d t h a t th e n e g o t i a t i o n s w ere a c o n s p ir a c y to th w a r t P e k in g 's n u c l e a r t e s t i n g p l a n s. A i d i t and h i s p a r t y s id e d w ith th e C h in e s e. 71 A gain From J u l y th ro u g h S ep te m b e r, 1963, A i d i t to u r e d a number o f Communist c a p i t a l s, in c lu d in g Moscow and P e k in g. The e x p e r ie n c e made him more c o n s c io u s th a n e v e r o f w here h i s t r u e f r i e n d s la y. I n Moscow h i s r e c e p t i o n was p o l i t e b u t c o o l, w h ereas i n th e C h in ese c a p i t a l h e was welcom ed a s a c o n q u e rin g h e r o and a model Communist l e a d e r. A i d i t q u ic k ly r e c i p r o c a t e d in P ek in g by d en o u n cin g "m odern r e v is io n is m " and e x t o l l i n g th e v i r t u e s o f " t r a d i t i o n a l " M arx ism -L en in ism a s e p ito m iz e d i n S t a l i n. 72 A i d i t a g a in s u p p o rte d P ek in g i n c r i t i c i z i n g S o v ie t R u s s i a 's m i l i t a r y a id p ro g ram to I n d i a. D e s p ite i t s commitment, to SEATO, P a k i s t a n 's to p l e a d e r s w ere i n c l o s e a c c o rd w ith P ek in g and D ja k a r t a, w h ile I n d i a 's r e l a t i o n s w ith C hina and I n d o n e s ia had d e t e r i o r a t e d b a d ly. N ear th e end o f 1963 A i d i t u rg e d th e " t r u e Com m unists" o f 70 McVey, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism, and th e T r a n s i t i o n to G uided D em ocracy," 186; W arn e r, " W ill I n d o n e s ia Become A Second Cuba?^ 4 4. ^ S c h w a r t z, "M oscow -Peking D is p u te: A D ecade o f B i t t e r n e s s, " New York T im es. M arch 4, 1966; R onchev, Two Red G ia n t s, 1 8 -1 9. ^ P e k i n g R eview, S ep tem b er 13, 1963, 2 6, 3 9; R a 'a n a n, "Coup T h a t F a il e d: A B ackground A n a l y s i s," 3 8. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 127] === 122 I n d i a to c r e a t e a new p a r t y f r e e from th e fo rm er l e a d e r s, who w ere " s p i e s " f o r N ehru. The I n d ia n Communist p a r t y 's c e n t r a l co m m ittee re sp o n d e d h e a t e d ly by c a l l i n g upon i t s members t o ig n o r e th e In d o n e s ia n s and C h in e se, who w ere t r y i n g to d iv i d e th e w o rld Communist movement and th e I n d ia n p a r t y. ^ I n 1963 th e P e o p l e 's D a ily i n P e k in g r e p r i n t e d la r g e e x t r a c t s from I n d o n e s ia n s p e e c h e s t h a t w ere lo a d ed w ith a n t i - S o v i e t venom. F or ex am p le, i t q u o te d a t le n g th a s p e e c h by N jo to, PKI v ic e - c h a ir m a n, i n w hich h e em p h asized t h a t " i t was f u t i l e t o e x p e c t th e m odern r e v i s i o n i s t s to c h a n g e." A i d i t 's r e p o r t e n t i t l e d "C o u rag e, More C o u rag e" and a d d re s s e d to th e P K I 's c e n t r a l co m m ittee was a n o th e r I n d o n e s ia n do cu m ent t h a t r e c e iv e d d e t a i l e d c o v e ra g e i n th e P e k in g o r g a n. The P e o p l e 's D a ily p r i n t e d i n f u l l th e seco n d p a r t, w h ich c o n c e rn e d th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n and th e p ro b lem s o f w o rld Communism. T h e re in A i d i t s a id t h a t th e m odern r e v i s i o n i s t s r e p r e s e n t e d th e g r e a t e s t d a n g e r t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communism: "O ur p a r t y m ust u n c e a s in g ly unmask them w h e re v e r and w h a te v e r form th e y a p p e a r. F o r th e o n ly way to m a in ta in th e u n i t y o f th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communist movement i s t o d e f e a t th e a n t i - M a r x i s t L e n in is t r e v is i o n is ts." T h is th e CPSU f a i l e d t o d o, h e s t a t e d, and th e co n seq u en c es o f i t s f a i l u r e w ere th e v i s i b l e c r a c k s i n th e w o rld Communist f r o n t. ^ 73 Van D er K ro e f, "The S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 346; R a 'a n a n, "Coup T h a t F a i l e d: A B ackground A n a l y s i s, " 3 7 -3 8; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army and th e C om m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 6.. ^ I.in k, F e b ru a ry 2 4, 1963, 3 0; P a u k e r, "Has th e S ukarno Regime Weakened th e P K I?" 1064. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 128] === 123 T h ro u g h o u t 1962-1963 K h ru sh ch ev and Mao ex ch an g ed b r o a d s id e s i.n th e m o unting i d e o l o g i c a l d i s p u t e, w ith th e PKI d raw in g e v e r c l o s e r to P e k in g and away from th e m id d le g r o u n d. x n A p r i l, 1964, K hrush^ ch ev m e n tio n ed Mao by name f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n h i s t i r a d e s; h e a l s o acknow ledged f o r th e f i r s t tim e t h a t a s p l i t e x i s t e d i n th e Communist camp. He a g a in e s c o r i a t e d th e M a o is ts as T r o t s k y i t e s; h i n t i n g a t M ao's f a t e, K h ru sh ch ev c o n c lu d e d: "Where i s T r o ts k y now? R o t t i n g! " ^ A i d i t 's r e s p o n s e t o th e S o v i e t 's s c o r c h in g s p e e c h was t h a t, no m a tte r how e r r o n e o u s a Communist p a r t y m ig h t b e, i t was f a r b e t t e r th a n a b o u r g e o is p a r t y. 77 A i d i t ' s th i n k in g by t h a t tim e c e n te r e d upon t h r e e m ain assum p tio n s: F i r s t, th e b a s i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e i n th e p o s t - 1945 e r a was th e p e a s a n t r y, n o t th e w o rk in g c l a s s. S econd, th e armed g u e r i l l a w a r f a r e o f th e p e a s a n t r y was th e m ain in s tr u m e n t o f t h a t r e v o l u t i o n. T h ir d, th e A s ia n, A f r ic a n, and L a t i n A m erican p e a s a n t r i e s o c c u p ie d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n i n th e w o rld economy, and th e Communist r e v o lu t i o n depended upon th e s e p e o p l e s. 7® A re m a rk a b le a s p e c t o f r e c e n t I n d o n e s ia n Communism was th e ^M oscow P ra v a d a, D ecem ber 13, 1962, J a n u a r y 17, 1963. ^ " C o m m u n is ts: The B a t t l e o v e r th e Tom b," Tim e, LXXXXIII ( A p r il 2 4, 1 9 6 4 ), 2 6; R onchey, Two Red G i a n t s, 2 5 -2 7; S c h w a rtz, T s a r s, M an d arin e s and C o m m issars, 1 9 0 -1 9 1; "B rin k m a n sh ip P h ase o f R u s s ia n and C h in e se D ip lo m a c y,” Newsweek, L X III ( A p r il 1 3,1 9 6 4 ), 4 1; B r z e z in s k i, " C h a lle n g e o f Change i n th e S o v ie t B lo c," 4 3 2 -4 3 3. 77L in k, F e b ru a ry 2 4, 1963, 3 0. 78I b i d., D ecem ber 1 5, 1963, 10. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 129] === 124 a b i l i t y o f th e PKI l e a d e r s to w ork t o g e t h e r w ith o u t s e r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s o v e r i n t e r n a l s t r a t e g i e s o r th e S in o - S o v ie t s p l i t. I t was rum o red, ho w ev er, t h a t A i d i t, once a s tr o n g s u p p o r te r o f th e CPSU, was p r e s s u r e d by N jo to and Lukman to s id e w ith P e k in g by 1963, b u t no i l l f e e l i n g s a p p a r e n tly r e s u l t e d b etw een th e men. ' 7 E x a c tly how f a r th e PKI w en t i n co m m ittin g i t s e l f t o th e CPC's s id e i n th e S in o - S o v ie t c o n tr o v e r s y i s a m a tte r o f s p e c u l a t i o n. 80 M ost o f th e P K l's o p e r a t in g fu n d s w ere p r o b a b ly e x t o r t e d from th e w e a lth y C h in ese b u s in e s s com munity o f th e i s l a n d s, b u t, s u r p r i s i n g l y, th e m a jo r it y o f I n d o n e s i a 's r e s i d e n t C h in e se w ere n o t co n firm ed C om m unists. The money was a p p a r e n tly o b ta in e d by p r o t e c t i o n r a c k e t e e r in g, i n w hich th e PKI g u a r a n te e d th e b u sin essm en p r o t e c t i o n from SOBSI s trik e s. However th e fu n d s w ere g a r n e r e d, th e f a c t rem a in ed t h a t th e PKI was c l e a r l y th e r i c h e s t p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n I n d o n e s ia. No o th e r o r g a n i z a t i o n o p e r a te d on su ch a m a ssiv e and e x p e n s iv e s c a l e; none co u ld m atch th e P K l's th o u s a n d s o f c a d r e s, i t s p a id d e m o n s tr a to r s, i t s o r n a te c e l e b r a t i o n s, o r i t s e x p e n s iv e h e a d q u a r te r s i n downtown D ja k a r t a. The f o r t y - f i f t h a n n iv e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e PKI, s ta g e d on May 2 3, 1964, was th e m ost l a v i s h e v e r se e n i n I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y. S in c e th e r a n k and f i l e o f th e p a r t y c o n s is te d o f p e a s a n t s and p r o l e t a r i a n s, 79 S h eeh an, "A S im ple Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 75; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o, th e Army and th e Com m unists: The T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 977; G ra n t, I n d o n e s ia, 6 4; F e i t h, "Dynam ics o f G uided Democ r a c y, " 3 4 1 -3 4 2. S t u a r t R. S chram, " C h in e se and L e n i n i s t Components i n th e P e r s o n a l i t y o f Mao T s e - tu n g," A sia n S u rv e y, I I I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 3 ), R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 130] === 125 th e PKI o b v io u s ly had w e a lth y b a c k in g e ls e w h e r e. W hether i t was li m it e d t o th e fu n d s e x t o r t e d from r e s i d e n t C h in e se m e rc h a n ts o r was su p p lem en ted by th e c o f f e r s o f P ek in g i s n o t y e t known. 81 As l a t e a s 1964 S o v ie t R u s s ia s t i l l v ie d f o r I n d o n e s i a 's s u p p o r t. A n a s ta s M ikoyan, S o v ie t d e p u ty p rim e m i n i s t e r, v i s i t e d D ja k a r ta w ith th e a s s u r a n c e o f more R u s s ia n m i l i t a r y a i d d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t I n d o n e s ia was n o t ev en p a y in g th e i n t e r e s t on an o u ts ta n d in g S o v ie t lo a n o f $ 1,2 0 0,0 0 0. The PKI w en t o u t o f i t s way d u r in g th e R u s s ia n 's v i s i t to e x h i b i t i t s i n d i f f e r e n c e and t o d e m o n s tr a te.anew i t s l o y a l t y to P e k in g. C h in e se and In d o n e s ia n Communist c a d re s w ere e x tre m e ly a c t i v e in s t i r r i n g up d i s c o n t e n t and t r o u b l e a l l th ro u g h S o u th e a s t and S outh A s ia i n th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's. PKI a g e n t s, s u p p lie d somehow w ith v e ry ample fu n d s, w ere a c t i v e in th e P h i l i p p i n e s, e s p e c i a l l y among th e alw ays tro u b le so m e H uks. On th e M a la y s ia n -T h a i b o r d e r b o th C h in e se and PKI a g e n ts w ere known t o be w o rk in g w ith th e Communist g u e r i l l a f o r c e s le d by Cheng P in g. When th e I n d ia n governm ent d is c o v e r e d i n 1965 t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n c o n s u la te in C a l c u tt a was a h av en f o r th e P ek in g f a c t i o n o f th e I n d ia n Communist p a r t y, th e c o n s u la te was c lo se d. I n S in g a p o re, Saraw ak, S ab ah, and M a la y s ia P K I-o rg a n ia e d su b v e r s io n was a c o n s ta n t t h r e a t to th e l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t i e s. The S h eeh an, "A Sim ple Man i n P u r s u i t o f P o w e r," 7 4 -7 5. ^ " S u k a r n o th e S tr o n g." New R e p u b lic, CXXXXVIII ( J u l y 11, 1 9 6 4 ), 3; R a 'a n a n, "Coup T h a t F a il e d: A B ackground A n a l y s i s," 3 9 -4 0. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 131] === 126 f in a n c in g o f su ch a c t i v i t i e s i s m oot, b u t i n d i c a t i o n s p o i n t to w ard P ek in g a s th e P K l's b a c k e r. 83 Thug by 1965 th e I n d o n e s ia n Communists w ere w h o le h e a r te d ly com m itted t o P e k in g 's s i d e. The PKI r e j o i c e d o v e r K h ru sh c h e v 's f a l l b u t w arned t h a t m odern r e v is i o n is m was s t i l l a menace i n th e CPSU. 84 The P K l's p ro n o u n cem en ts sounded l i k e e c h o e s o f th e P e o p le 's D a i l y, w hich ap p la u d e d K h ru s h c h e v 's rem o v al a s " a s i g n a l v i c t o r y f o r M arxism Q C L e n in is m." F or once W ash in g to n and Moscow a g r e e d, th o u g h f o r d i f fe re n t reaso n s: b o th w ere a larm ed by th e m o u n tin g P e k in g in f l u e n c e i n I n d o n e s ia. I n J a n u a r y, 1965, S ukarno p u l l e d I n d o n e s ia o u t o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t M a la y s i a 's i n c l u s i o n. New m i l i t a r y a g r e e m ents w ith P e k in g w ere fo rg e d i n D ja k a r ta a s S u k a r n o 's t i r a d e s a g a i n s t M a la y s ia in c r e a s e d i n tem po. " c r u s h M a la y s ia " c r u s a d e. P e k in g, o f c o u r s e, welcom ed S u k a r n o 's The c o n f r o n t a t i o n was bound t o w eaken W e ste rn in f l u e n c e i n t h a t a r e a and m ig h t d i v e r t th e an ti-G o m m u n ist army le a d e r s o f I n d o n e s ia from t h e i r h o s t i l i t i e s a g a i n s t th e P K I. N a t u r a l l y I n d o n e s i a 's b e l l i g e r e n t moves a g a i n s t M a la y s ia a ro u s e d Ray C rom ley, " In d o n e s ia n Reds Have Been A c tiv e i n A s i a," W ash in g to n D a ily News, O c to b e r 1 2, 1965. ^ P e k i n g P e o p l e 's D a il y, November 2 0, 1964; "The I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r ty W ill N ot P a r t i c i p a t e i n S c h is m a tic M eetin g i n M oscow," P ek in g R eview, D ecem ber 2 5, 1964. 85»New P ek in g A tta c k on S o v ie t R e v is io n is m," B ackground on C h in a. Ju n e 18, 1965, 4. ^ J o s e p h C. H a rs c h, "The I n d o n e s ia n S t o r y, " C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, M arch 1 6, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 132] === 12 7 f e a r s among non-C om m unist n e ig h b o rs -* -T h a ila n d, Burma, I n d i a, A u s t r a l i a, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s. L e a d e rs i n th e s e n a t i o n s a g re e d w ith S u k arn o on th e d a n g e rs o f im p e r ia lis m, b u t m ost f e a r e d ev e n w o rse th e d i s r u p t i o n o f th e b a la n c e o f pow er i n S o u th e a s t A s ia. The t h r e a t t o them i n th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s was th e known Communist C h in e se t r a i t o f somehow e x p l o i t i n g t o f u l l a d v a n ta g e an y t r o u b l e s p o t i n S o u th e a s t A s ia. In d o n e s ia n -d o m in a te d M a la y s ia c o u ld e a s i l y become a s a t e l l i t e o f Communist C h in a. 87 C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, " F o r e ig n A f f a i r s: The N u tc ra c k e r S u i t e, " New York T im es. A p r i l 10, 1966; " R e s o lu te ly S u p p o rt th e I n d o n e s ia n P e o p l e 's J u s t S tr u g g le A g a in s t M a la y s i a," P ek in g R eview, S ep tem b er 11, 1964; S a k r i k a r, "Bandung to A l g i e r s, " 2 3 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 133] === CHAPTER VI THE MALAYSIAN-INDONESIAN CONFRONTATION AND PEKING A f t e r la n d in g I n d o n e s ia n tr o o p s in I r i a n and t h r e a te n i n g e s c a l a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s a g a i n s t th e D u tch, S ukarno su ccee d ed i n w rin g in g a p ro m ise from th e N e th e r la n d s on J u l y 31, 1962, t h a t I r i a n w ould be han d ed o v e r t o I n d o n e s ia by May 1, 1963. The s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n o f th e lo n g - s ta n d in g I r i a n d is p u te b ro u g h t S ukarno th e f a n f a r e o f s u c c e s s t h a t a l l d i c t a t o r s r e l i s h, b u t i t a l s o rem oved from th e In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l sc e n e one o f th e few c a u s e s b e h in d w h ich a l l o f th e p e o p le w ere u n i t e d. T hrough th e l a t e summer and e a r l y autumn o f 1962 Sukarno e n jo y e d h i s new ly won v i c t o r y, a p p a r e n tly w ith o u t r e a l i z i n g i t s deep im p lic a tio n s f o r n a t i o n a l u n i t y. On more th a n one o c c a s io n t h a t f a l l th e P r e s i d e n t a s s u r e d a u d ie n c e s t h a t h e h ad no f u r t h e r t e r r i t o r i a l a m b itio n s: 'V e a r e n o t i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n i s t s, t h i r s t y f o r t e r r i t o r y. 11 T hen, w ith th e su d d e n e ss o f one who awakes from a p l e a s a n t dream t o f a c e a h a r s h r e a l i t y, S uk arn o d e c id e d t h a t h i s regim e n eed ed a new c ru s a d e b e h in d w hich t o r a l l y th e p e o p le. I n D ecem ber, 1962, h e demanded t h a t th e B r i t i s h y i e l d t h e i r p o r t i o n o f B orneo s in c e i t was t w o - th i r d s I n d o n e s ia n i n p o p u la tio n and " b e lo n g e d 11 to th e D u s e n," I n d o n e s ia Today: A N a tio n i n T u rm o il," 587; "A New Sea o f T ro u b le i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," C. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LIV (F e b ru a ry 11, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 134] === 129 R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia. Two m onths p r i o r to h i s u ltim a tu m to G re a t B r i t a i n th e I n d ia n C h in ese b o r d e r e r u p te d i n w ar a s C h in e se u n i t s o u s te d I n d ia n g a r r is o n s from a number o f p o s ts i n d is p u te d a r e a s. O nly th e PKI and a h a n d f u l o f m inor Communist p a r t i e s l e n t s u p p o r t to th e C h in e se a c t i o n; th e r e s t o f th e Communist w o rld was s i l e n t on th e b o r d e r d i s p u t e. J a n u a r y, 1963, F o re ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio v i s i t e d P e k in g, w here he p u b l i c l y e n d o rs e d th e C h in e se p o s i t i o n on th e I n d ia n c o n tr o v e r s y, and in A p r il L iu S h o a - c h i, one p f P e k in g 's k ey s ta te s m e n, a r r i v e d in D j a r k a r t a, w here he em p h asized S in o - I n d o n e s ia n u n i t y on a l l m a jo r A sian i s s u e s - ’-from K orea t o I n d i a. ^ The P e o p l e 's D a ily a l s o b eg an dem anding anew t h a t R u s s ia r e t u r n t o Communist C hina h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f s q u a re m ile s a lo n g t h e i r common b o r d e r i n r e g io n s t h a t h ad b een d i s p u te d s in c e th e d ay s o f th e Manchus and C z a r s.^ Thus a lo n g th e n o r th e r n f la n k o f S o u th and S o u th e a s t A s ia, a s w e ll as in N o rth A s ia, Mao was c a l l i n g th e m oves, w h ile a lo n g th e s o u th e r n f la n k o f S o u th e a s t A s ia S ukarno was s im u lta n e o u s ly la u n c h in g P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 6 2; "A New Sea o f T ro u b le in S o u th e a s t A s ia, 11 JJ_!__S_;_N ew s_& JJorld_R e2 o r t, LIV, 4 6. I n d ia n M in is tr y o f I n f o r m a tio n and B r o a d c a s tin g. C h in a 's B e tr a y a l o f I n d i a (New D e lh i, 1 9 6 2 ), 4 0; L in k, O c to b e r 2 1, 1962, 7. P e k in g Ta Kung P a o. A u g u st 18, 1961; P e k in g P e o p l e 's D a ily. J a n u a ry 2, 1963; "W h ith er S u k arn o?" New R e p u b lic. CXXXXVIII (May 18, fcff ..Where T ro o p s o f Red C h in a and S o v ie t S ta n d Toe t o T o e*11 U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LVI ( J a n u a r y 6, 1 9 6 4 ), 5 3 -5 4; G eorge P a t t e r s o n, "C h in a and T i b e t, B ackground t o a R e v o l t," C hina Q u a r t e r l y. J a n u a r y, 1960, 9 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 135] === 130 h i s e x p a n s i o n i s t schem e. I n d o n e s ia a p p e a re d i n t e n t upon d r i v i n g th e B r i t i s h o u t o f th e M a la y s ia n a r e a, p r e f a t o r y to a c t u a l ta k e o v e r o f t h a t a r e a by S u k a r n o 's re g im e. S u k a r n o 's l u s t f o r t e r r i t o r y ra n g e d from th e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f Borneo t o th e p e n i n s u l a o f M a la y a. He was a u d a c io u s enough t o b e l i e v e, to o, t h a t h i s s u b v e r s iv e f o r c e s and i n te n s e p r e s s u r e s w ould u l t i m a t e l y o u s t th e B r i t i s h from S in g a p o r e. O fte n h e p i c t u r e d h im s e lf a s th e r e s u r r e c t i o n i s t o f th e g r a n d e u r and la n d s o f th e a n c i e n t M a d ja p a h it E m p ire. I n f a c t, on a w a l l i n h i s o f f i c e S u k arn o hung a map o f th e M a d ja p a p h it re a lm, w h ic h, a c c o r d in g to some I n d o n e s ia n s c h o l a r s, had once encom passed a l l o f New G uinea and B o rn eo, th e s o u th e r n h a l f o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s, M alay a, S in g a p o re, and th e I n d o n e s ia n a r c h i p e la g o.^ Mohammed Yamin, a p ro m in e n t h i s t o r i a n who o b v io u s ly found fa v o r w ith S u k a rn o, c la im e d t h a t th e M a d ja p a h its h ad owned Tim or (now P o r tu g u e s e ); Yamin a l s o s a i d t h a t th e P ap u an s w ere r a c i a l l y k i n to th e In d o n e s ia n s and b e lo n g e d u n d e r th e same p o l i t i c a l re g im e. A n o th e r In d d r n e s ia n h i s t o r i a n, S a n u s i P an e, com pared th e M ad jap ab.it e r a i n In d o n e s i a n h i s t o r y w ith th e " R e n a is s a n c e i n E u ro p e. S u k arn o h e a r d fro m th e s c h o l a r s e x a c t l y w h a t.h e w ish e d t o h e a r; h e was th e man o f d e s t i n y to r e s t o r e su c h g r a n d e u r.^ " S q u eeze P la y on U. S. i n A s ia and M ao-Sukarno A x i s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LVI (May 1 8, 1 9 6 4 ), 72; W ash in g to n P o s t, November 8, 1965. ^ C r o z ie r, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n T u rm o il, 1 4 6 -1 4 7. G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 8 1 -8 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 136] === 131 Some i n f l u e n t i a l I n d o n e s ia n s, I n c lu d in g H a tta, d is p u te d th e author ity of Yamin, hut S u k arn o ig n o re d them and w en t ah ead w ith h i s g ra n d io s e and som etim e r i d i c u l o u s p l a n s. Among th e more lu d ic r o u s a s p e c t s was th e P r e s i d e n t 's ren am in g o f th e I n d ia n O cean and th e S t r a i t o f M alacca a s th e I n d o n e s ia n Ocean and th e S t r a i t o f S u m a t r a r e s p e c t i v e l y. d e c la r e d t h a t a l l o f th e w a te r s b etw ee n th e I n d o n e s ia n i s l a n d s w ere u n d e r I n d o n e s ia n s o v e r e ig n t y —no tw e lv e - m ile l i m i t f o r h im. He a l s o b o a s te d t h a t i n a s h o r t tim e I n d o n e s ia, w hich was a l r e a d y th e f i f t h l a r g e s t n a t i o n i n p o p u la tio n, w ould be th e seco n d m ost p o w e rfu l c o u n try i n th e w o rld, s u r p a s s e d o n ly by Communist China.® H a tt a, a d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a s w e ll a s a p ro m in e n t p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e, c o n tin u e d h i s arg u m en t t h a t th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia s h o u ld be c o n f in e d t o th e fo rm er l i n e s s e t by th e D utch f o r th e N e th e r la n d s E a s t I n d i e s. H a tta a s s a i l e d Y arnin's t h i n k in g a s co m p arab le to t h a t o f th e N a z i r a t i o n a l i s t s. tio n e d: He f u r t h e r q u e s "Have we g o t th e c a p a c i t y to a d m in is te r th e w hole t e r r i t o r y o f o u r m o th e rla n d i n c lu d in g th e s e new o n e s? " As f o r Y arnin's c o n te n t i o n a b o u t th e Papuan r a c i a l s i m i l a r i t i e s, H a tta a rg u e d: I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h a t i s s o, b u t I. c a n n o t a c c e p t th e th e o r y b e c a u se i n s c i e n c e - - I alw ay s te n d to lo o k a t th i n g s from a s c i e n t i f i c p o i n t o f v ie w — s c ie n c e alw ay s b e g in s w ith d o u b ts. -When we h av e a c q u ir e d e v id e n c e, and p l e n t y o f e v id e n c e, to s a y t h a t P apuans a r e o f th e same r a c e a s u s, th e n I am p r e p a r e d to a c c e p t i t, b u t f o r th e tim e b e in g I am o n ly p r e p a r e d t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t th e P apuans a r e M e la n e s ia n s.... I f we t r a c e b a c k th e common o r i g i n s, we may n o t C r o z i e r, S o u th e a s t A sia i n T u rm o il, 1 4 7 -1 4 8, 150; G eorge A. M o d e ls k i, I n d o n e s ia and H er N e ig h b o r s: P o lic y A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r the W est ( P r i n c e t o n, 1 9 6 4 ), 1 8 -2 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 137] === 1 32 f in d M e la n e sia n s b u t P o ly n e s ia n s i n s te a d who a r e to be found f a r o u t i n th e P a c i f i c O cean.. ■.. I am i n c l i n e d to s a y. t h a t I do n o t n eed Papua and t h a t i t sh o u ld be l e f t to th e Papuan p e o p le th e m s e lv e s. I re c o g n iz e t h a t th e P apuans h av e th e r i g h t t o be an in d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n and t h a t th e In d o n e s ia n s f o r th e tim e b e i n g - - i. e., f o r d eca d es to co m e -'-w ill n o t be p r e p a r e d n o r h av e th e y th e c a p a c it y to e d u c a te and b r in g up th e P apuans u n t i l th e y can become an in d e p e n d e n t p e o p le.... As r e g a r d s M alay a, l e t u s le a v e i t to th e p e o p le o f M a la y a.... b u t l e t u s n o t c la im i t f o r o u r s e l v e s. I f we w ere to do s o, i t w ould a p p e a r a s i f ev en b e f o r e g e t t i n g in d e p en d en ce we w ere a l r e a d y p u r s u in g an i m p e r i a l i s t i c p o l i c y. H a t t a 1s w o rd s, f o r th e m ost p a r t, f e l l on d e a f e a r s i n D ja k a r t a. Tunku Abdul Rahman became prim e m i n i s t e r when th e in d e p e n d e n t R e p u b lic o f M alaya was form ed i n 1 9 5 7.^ Communists a t th e tim e w ere a l r e a d y d e e p ly e n tre n c h e d i n S in g a p o r e 's P e o p le 's A c tio n p a r t y (PAP). Tunku, an an ti-C o m m u n ist, was f e a r f u l l e s t S in g a p o re, a s e lf - g o v e r n i n g s t a t e s in c e 1950, sh o u ld come u n d e r Communist c o n t r o l, so he was a f e r v e n t s u p p o r te r o f m erg in g M alaya and S in g a p o re. From t h i s p la n he moved on to c o n c e iv e a m e rg e r o f th e th r e e t e r r i t o r i e s o f B r i t i s h Borneo (N o rth B orneo, B ru n e i, and Saraw ak) w ith M alaya and S in g a p o re. I n an a d d r e s s a t S in g a p o re i n May, 1961, Tunku lau n ch ed h i s cam paign f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f th e f e d e r a t i o n o f M a la y s ia. 12 I n f a c t, S u b a n d rio s u p p o rte d th e p ro p o se d f e d e r a t i o n in an a d d r e s s b e f o r e th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e ra l A ssem bly in November, 1961. B ut s u d d e n ly, a s n o te d e a r l i e r, S ukarno d r a s t i c a l l y changed h i s p o l i c y to one o f " c r u s h M a la y s ia." I n 1962 S ukarno o p e n ly backed th e r e v o l t i n B r i t i s h Borneo ■^Quoted in G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t in S o u th e a s t A s i a., 83. ■^Buss, S o u th e a s t A sia and W orld T oday, 5 1. 12 C r o z ie r, S o u th e a s t A s ia in T u rm o il, 1 5 1 -1 5 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 138] === 133 le d by S h eik A. M. A z a h a r i. The r e b e l s w ere d e f e a te d by th e B r i t i s h and f l e d i n t o K a lim a n ta n, th e I n d o n e s ia n p o r t i o n o f B o rn eo. T here A z $ h a ri r e c r u i t e d and t r a i n e d an army c o n s i s t i n g o f C h in e se and In d o n e s ia n young men. A z a h a ri o f t e n a p p e a re d i n D ja k a r t a, sp o k e f r e q u e n t l y w ith S u k arn o, and r e c e iv e d s tr o n g s u p p o r t from th e P K I. ^ P r e s id e n t DioSdado M acapagal o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s p e r m itte d A z a h a ri to u s e o p e r a t i o n a l b a s e s i n h i s a r c h i p e la g o s in c e th e P h i l i p p i n e go v ern m en t had lo n g b een a n x io u s to o u s t th e B r i t i s h from N o rth e rn B orneo, a r e g io n to w hich i t a l s o l a i d c l a i m. ^ The B r i t i s h s u c c e s s f u l l y th w a r te d th e B orneo r e b e l s, h o w ev er, d e s p i t e th e e n t h u s i a s t i c I n d o n e s ia n s u p p o r t o f A z a h a ri and S u k a r n o 's c la im i n 1963 t h a t o v e r 4 0,0 0 0 r e b e l s w ere s t i l l b a t t l i n g th e B r i t i s h on th e i s l a n d. ^ D ja k a r ta a l s o announced t h a t 3 0,0 0 0 I n d o n e s ia n v o l u n t e e r s w ere t r a i n i n g in K a lim a n ta n and w ere J u s t u s M. Van D er K r o e f, " I n d o n e s ia, M alaya and th e N o rth B orneo C r i s i s. " A s ia n S u rv e y. I l l ( A p r i l, 1 9 6 3 ), 1 7 4 -1 7 6, 179; J a c q u e t F r a n c i l l o n J a c q u e s, "S u k affn o 's War A g a in s t M a la y s ia," New R e p u b lic. CXXXIII ( A p r il 10, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 7; D onald E. W e a th e rb e e, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," O r b is, V II (Summer, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 3 7 -3 3 8. S u b a n d r io 's sp e e c h a t th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e ra l A ssem bly was c r i t i c i z e d by Yamin and A l i S a s tr o a m id jo jo; S a s tr o a m id jo jo, a f o r mer p re m ie r o f I n d o n e s ia, v e h e m e n tly d is a g r e e d w ith S u b a n d r io 's p r o f e s s e d d i s i n t e r e s t i n M a la y s ia. I n h i s v ie w, I n d o n e s ia h ad a v a l i d c la im t o a l l o f th e Borneo t e r r i t o r i e s and a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n M alay s i a. I n A u g u st, 1962, Yamin, who h ad b een c o u n s e ll in g p a t i e n c e, c a l l e d S u b a n d r io 's comments " a s t u p i d m i s t a k e." ^"N ow S u k arn o W ants A l l o f B orneo, T o o," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L I I I (D ecem ber 2 4, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 2. I n a d d i t i o n, th e S abah c la im was th e n d i s t u r b i n g M a la y a n - P h ilip p in e s r e l a t i o n s, so t h a t th e t o p - l e v e l m e e tin g o f th e A s s o c ia te s o f S o u th e a s t A s ia (ASA) h ad t o b e p o stp o n e d t w ic e. T h is d e c i s i o n t o h a r b o r a m a jo r a n t i- M a la y s ia d i s s i d e n t was o b v io u s ly n o t welcom ed i n K u a la Lumpur0 '''^W eatherbee, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 3 4 7 -3 4 9; U n ite d S t a t e s Econom ic S u rv ey M is s io n to I n d o n e s ia, I n d o n e s ia: P e r s p e c ti v e and P r o p o s a ls f o r U n ite d S t a t e s Econom ic A id (lifew H aven, 1 9 6 3 ), 1 2 -1 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 139] === 134 e a g e r t o j o i n th e a n t i - B r i t i s h s t r u g g l e to th e n o r t h. S ukarno h a i l e d th e B orneo r e v o l t a s th e i n i t i a l s t e p i n th e w ar a g a i n s t th e p r o j e c t e d M a la y s ia F e d e r a t i o n. He saw i t a s p a r t o f th e s t r u g g l e 'o f th e new e m e r g in g 'f o r c e s a g a i n s t th e c o l o n i a l i s t s -. ^ Both I n d o n e s ia and Communist C h in a s to o d t o p r o f i t from th e t u r m o i l - i n B orn eo. M a la y a 's to u g h Tunku h ad made c o n s id e r a b le headw ay a g a i n s t Communist a d v an c es on th e p e n i n s u l a, and h e w ould u n d o u b te d ly a tte m p t t o make th e p ro p o se d M a la y s ia a b u lw ark a g a i n s t th e f u r t h e r i n c u r s i o n s o f Communist C h in a o r I n d o n e s ia. S u k a r n o 's m ain c o n c e rn was to i n s u r e b e t t e r th e l o y a l t y o f th e PKI and th e arm y, th e tw in p i l l a r s o f h i s re g im e. W hereas p r e v i o u s l y th e I r i a n c ru s a d e h ad k e p t them r e a s o n a b ly i n h i s s u p p o r t, now th e a n t i- M a la y s ia c a u s e was t o p e rfo rm a s im i19 l a r f u n c ti o n b e g in n in g w ith th e B orneo a c t i o n. 7 I n S araw ak, w h ere th e p o p u la tio n was a b o u t o n e - t h i r d C h in e se, B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s s e iz e d Communist docum ents w h ich i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e CCO, th e a r e a 's l a r g e Communist p a r t y, was t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d b y P e k in g and PKI a g e n t s. I t s p la n o f t e r r o r i s m a p p e a re d t o b e mapped i n P e k in g. A N^w S ea o f T ro u b le i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 11 U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L I I I, 4 7; " C o n f r o n tin g S u k a rn o," E c o n o m is t, OCX ( J a n u a r y 25, ■^"Now S ukarno W ants A l l o f B o rn eo, T o o," U. S. & W orld R e p o r t, L I I I, 4 7; W e a th e rb e e, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 3 45; G ordon, D im en sio n s o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 18 "Now S ukarno W ants A ll o f B o rn e ro, T o o," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L I I I, 4 7. ■ ^"W hither S u k arn o?" New R e p u b lic, CXXXXVIII, 3 0; J o h n H a tc h, " S u k a r n o 's Weak H a n d," New S ta te s m a n, LXIV (S ep tem b er 2 7, 1 9 6 3 ), 383. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 140] === 13 5 Some o f time M alayan p o p u la tio n o f Saraw ak succumbed t o Communist; p ro p a g a n d a, b u t th e D a v a k a b o r ig e n e s s t e a d f a s t l y s u p p o rte d th e B r i t i s h. The p ro b lem o f c o m b a ttin g Communism i n Saraw ak was c o m p lic a te d by th e h o s t i l i t y o f th e M alayans and Davaks to w ard e a c h o t h e r. The B r i t i s h m a in ta in e d t h e i r h o ld, b u t i t was a te n u o u s one a t b e s t. 20 I n th e fo rm e r B r i t i s h n a v a l s tr o n g h o ld o f S in g a p o re th e i n d i g e nous o p p o s iti o n to M alaya a l s o m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t th e e f f o r t s o f th o s e who a tte m p te d t o c r e a t e a u n it e d f r o n t a g a i n s t th e C om m dnists. S in g a p o r e 's C h in e se p o p u la tio n was la r g e and s t r o n g l y tin g e d w ith Communist id e o lo g y. sp re a d. I l l f e e l i n g tow ard Tunku and h i s M alay sih n p la n was w id e I t seemed t h a t o n ly a s l i g h t s h i f t o f w ind c o u ld sweep th e Communists i n t o c o m p le te c o n t r o l o f th e S in g a p o re g o v ern m en t. 21 S uk arn o became more t r u c u l e n t to w ard Tunku a f t e r th e B r i t i s h e f f e c t i v e l y s c a t t e r e d th e Borneo r e b e l s i n l a t e 1962. M acapagal o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s t r i e d to a c t a s a r b i t e r betw een th e two a t a c o n f e r en ce i n M a n ila i n J u l y, 1963. I n a s u r p r i s i n g a tm o sp h ere o f c o r d i a l i t y Tunku p ro p o s e d to p o s tp o n e th e p r o c la m a tio n o f M a la y s ia u n t i l U n ite d N a tio n s p l e b i s c i t e s i n Sabah and Saraw ak w ere c o n d u c te d. T e m p o ra rily m o l l i f i e d, S uk arn o th e n a g re e d to th e c r e a t i o n o f a lo o s e c o n f e d e r a tio n 20 J a c q u e s, " S u k a r n o 's War A g a in s t M a la y s ia," 18; "W h ith e r S u k arn o?" New R e p u b lic. CXXXXVII, 9; C h e s te r A. B a in, "S araw ak: C o n tr o lle d E x p e rim e n t i n D em o cracy," S o u th A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y, L V III (W in te r, 1 9 5 9 ), 5 3 0 -5 3 2. 21 J u s t u s M. Van D er K ro e f, " P e k in g, D ja k a r t a, and M a la y s ia P ro b le m." C o n tem p o rary R eview. CCV ( J u l y, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 4 8 -3 4 9; D en is W arn e r, "A Game o f F o o ts y in S o u th e a s t A s i a." New R e p u b lic, CXXXXVIII (M arch 16, 1 9 6 3 ), 1 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 141] === o f th e t h r e e s t a t e s r e p r e s e n te d a t M a n ila, t o be c a l l e d M ap h ilin d o (form ed from th e w ords M alaya, P h i l i p p i n e s, and I n d o n e s ia ) ^ " T h is b e a u t i f u l u n d e r s ta n d in g, t h i s s p i r i t o f M a p h ilin d o,” a s S uk arn o d e s c r ib e d th e s p i r i t o f M an ila upon h i s r e t u r n t o D ja k a r ta, s u rv iv e d f o r o n ly a m onth. I n S eptem ber a U n ite d N a tio n s f a c t - f i n d i n g commis s io n r e p o r te d t h a t th e p l e b i s c i t e s i n S abah and Saraw ak showed t h a t th o s e p e o p le s u n d e rs to o d and s u p p o rte d M a la y s ia. T hereupon th e In d o n e s ia n governm ent p ro m p tly denounced M a p h ilin d o and resum ed i t s condem n a tio n M a la y s ia.^ S ukarno t o l d a W este rn c o r r e s p o n d e n t: " T h is v a s t t e r r i t o r y was i n v e s t i g a t e d by L au re n ce V. M ichelm ore, U n ite d N a tio n s c a r e e r d ip lo m a t, i n o n ly n in e d a y s. W ith g u a rd s a l l aro u n d and i n f r o n t o f a m icrophone th e p o o r men w ere a s k e d, ’A re you p ro o r a g a i n s t M a la y s ia? 1 Of c o u r s e, th e m a jo r it y o f p e o p le c a l l e d s d id, 'We a r e p r o - M a la y s ia. 1 I r e a l l y ad m ire th e men who d a re d t o s a y, On S ep tem b er 16 th e new s t a t e o f M a la y s ia was d u ly p r o c la im e d; th e f i r s t a c t o f i t s g o vernm ent was to s e v e r r e l a t i o n s w ith I n d o n e s ia and th e P h i l i p p i n e s, i t s fo rm er M ap h ilin d o p a r t n e r s who 22 C r o z ie r, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n T u rm o il, 12.; " C o n fro n tin g S u k a rn o," E c o n o m ist. CCX, 2 8 1 -2 8 2; G ordon. D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t in S o u th e a s t A s i a. 7 0 -7 1; R ic h a rd B u tw e ll, " M a la y s ia and I t s Im p act on th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a ti o n s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," A s ia n S u rv e y, IV ( J u l y, 1 9 6 4 ), ^ J a c q u e t - F r a n c i l l o J a c q u e s, "S u k arn o L eads from W eak n ess," New R e p u b lic, CXXXXIX (November 2 3, 1 9 6 3 ), I I; " I n d o n e s ia: Two I n t e r v i e w s, " E c o n o m ist, CCXI ( A p r il 11, 1 9 6 4 ), 131; C r o z ie r, S o u th e a s t A s ia i n T u rm o il, 156. 24»»a T a lk w ith S u k arn o: I am I n d o n e s i a," Newsweek, LXIV, 84; G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t S o u th e a s t A s i a, 106. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 142] === 137 r e f u s e d to r e c o g n iz e M a la y s ia. 25 M ean w h ile;S u k arn o c o n tin u e d h i s c r i t ic is m o f M ic h e lm o re 's m is s io n; M ich elm o re, by th e w ay, was an A m erican. L i t t l e n o ti c e d a m id s t th e f u r o r o f th e D ja k a r ta b a r r a g e was th e s t a t e ment o f B r ig a d ie r O tto Abdul Rachman, le a d e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n o b s e r v e r s d u r in g th e B orneo p l e b i s c i t e s; he r e p o r te d s im p ly t h a t th e U n ite d N a tio n s team h ad p erfo rm e d i t s t a s k " i m p a r t i a l l y. " 26 M a la y s ia ’ s b i r t h was h e r a ld e d by many W e s te rn e rs a s a h o p e f u l s ig n o f m a tu r it y and s t a b i l i t y i n S o u th e a s t A s ia, b u t th e new s t a t e fa c e d stu p e n d o u s p ro b le m s, n o t th e l e a s t o f w hich was th e i n t e n s e o p p o s iti o n o f i t s n e ig h b o r s. 27 M acapagal a g g r e s s i v e l y p u sh ed th e P h i l i p p i n e s ’ c la im t o n o r th e r n B o rn eo, a t th e same tim e w a rn in g t h a t th e w eak M a la y s ia n governm ent w ould soon be o v e r tu r n e d by Com m unists. 28 S u k a rn o ' s a g e n ts c i r c u l a t e d th ro u g h th e P h i l i p p i n e s d en o u n cin g M alay s i a i n one b r e a t h and i n th e n e x t dem anding th e o u s t e r o f A m erican b a s e s i n th e P h i l i p p i n e s. They p r o t e s t e d t h a t th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n s t a l l a t i o n s would be u sed to s u p p ly M a la y s ia a g a i n s t I n d o n e s ia. The l o n g - s ta n d in g P h i l i p p i n e i n t e r e s t i n and c la im t o Sabah made many r e s p o n s ib le F i l i p i n o s more c o n d u civ e t o th e I n d o n e s ia n p ro p a g a n d a. The a c t u a l num ber o f p r o - I n d o n e s ia n, a n ti- A m e r ic a n c i t i z e n s i n th e 25 J a c q u e s, "S u k arn o L eads from W e a k n e ss," 11; W e a th erb ee, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 3 4 5 -3 4 6. 26 G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 106. ^ J a c q u e s, "S u k arn o L eads from W ea k n ess," 12. 2® "Clouds i n th e S o u th S e a s," Newsweek, LXI (M arch 4, 1 9 6 3 ), 42. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 143] === 138 P h i l i p p i n e s seemed t o be s m a l l, b u t th e y w ere w e ll o r g a n iz e d and h ig h l y v o c a l. ^ I n th e m eantim e A u s t r a l i a began t o g e t r e p o r t s t h a t S u k a r n o 's a g i t a t o r s w ere moving i n t o th e e a s t e r n h a l f o f New G u in e a, p o s s i b l y a s h a r b in g e r s o f an im p en d in g a t t a c k. Prim e M i n i s t e r R o b e rt M enzies t o l d h i s p a r lia m e n t i n November, 1964: "The ra n g e o f l i k e l y m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n s we m ust be p r e p a r e d to f a c e h a s in c r e a s e d a s a r e s u l t o f In d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s, a c t i o n s, and th e g row th o f Communist i n f l u e n c e. T h ere i s a r e a l r i s k o f w ar fro m I n d o n e s ia n P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o 's a t t a c k on M a la y s ia." * ^ V i s i t i n g i n P a r i s i n 1964, S u b a n d rio t o l d th e F ren ch t h a t In d o n e s i a d id n o t oppose M a la y s ia p e r s e b u t r a t h e r th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f B r i t i s h d o m in a tio n t h e r e. The M a n ila a g re e m e n ts c o l l a p s e d, h e c la im e d, m a in ly b e c a u se o f L o n d o n 's o b s tr u c t io n is m. s i a a s a b u lw ark o f n e o - c o l o n ia l is m. The B r i t i s h c r e a t e d M alay I n d o n e s ia, th e f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r c o n tin u e d, c o u ld n o t v iew w ith o u t a la rm th e p r e s e n c e o f a h o s t i l e B r i t i s h p u p p e t s t a t e to th e n o r th and an e q u a l l y m enacing A u s t r a l i a to th e s o u th, b o th c la im in g p o r t i o n s o f I n d o n e s ia. 31 29 "Why F i l i p i n o s T urn a g a i n s t U. S., " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LXXX ( J a n u a r y 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 5 9; D onald H o rn e, " S tr o n g F o r M a la y s i a," S p e c t a t o r, CCX (M arch 8, 1 9 6 3 ), 2 8 8. "Now A u s t r a l i a F in d s S h e 's in th e L in e o f F i r e, " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LXXX ( J a n u a r y 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 5; "How A u s t r a l i a I s Rearm in g A g a in s t T h r e a ts o f W a r," i b i d., LXX (November 2 3, 1 9 6 4 ), 10. ■ ^ "S u b an d rio i n E u r o p e," L in k, A p r il 19, 1964, 2 5; " I n d o n e s ia: Two I n t e r v i e w s, " E c o n o m is t, CCXI, 131. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 144] === I n Septem ber-, 1964, S ukarno p ro c la im e d t h a t th e f u l l m ig h t o f h i s n a t i o n ’ s 100, 0 0 0,0 0 0 o r more p e r s o n s w ould be m o b iliz e d to c ru s h M a la y s ia (w hich had 1 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 c i t i z e n s ). B loody r i o t s soon f l a r e d betw een M alay and C h in e se i n th e s t r e e t s o f S in g a p o re, i n s t i g a t e d by In d o n e s ia n a g e n t s, a c c o r d in g to Tunku. A number o f I n d o n e s ia n p a r a - tro o p d ro p s w ere made on th e M alayan p e n in s u la t h a t f a l l, m ost o f w h ich w ere w iped o u t by B r i t i s h and M a la y s ia n r e g u l a r s. S u k arn o, h o w ev er, c la im e d t h a t I n d o n e s ia n a g e n ts had s u c c e s s f u l l y r e v iv e d th e p e n i n s u l a 's Communist g u e r i l l a movement, w hich h ad b een somewhat dorm an t s in c e th e a n t i - B r i t i s h f i g h t i n g o f 1 9 48-1960. 32 Tunku and S u k a rn o, th e o p p o sin g l e a d e r s, p r e s e n te d a s tu d y in c o n tra s ts. Tunku was b u s in e s s -m in d e d and r e a l i s t i c, S u k arn o fu n - lo v in g and ro m a n tic i n o u tlo o k. Tunku was f ir m ly e n tre n c h e d i n th e B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n, ev en t o th e c l o t h e s h e w ore so im m a c u la te ly, w h ile S ukarno re a c h e d h i s z e n i t h by f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t a l l th i n g s W este rn and e x p l o i t i n g th e n a t i v e h e r i t a g e and m ores o f h i s c o n s t i t u e n t s. Tunku was g e n u in e ly d e d ic a te d t o th e w e lf a r e o f h i s M a la y sia n p e o p le s and o f t e n so u g h t a d v ic e from more e x p e r ie n c e d l e a d e r s, ev en o f o th e r A s ia n n a t i o n s; S u k arn o was th e ep ito m e o f a man c h a in e d t o a s tu p e n d ous ego and r a r e l y c o n c e rn e d a b o u t h i s p e o p l e 's n e e d s, e x c e p t when b e f o r e a ro s tr u m. 33 “^ "W h a t th e F u s s? " Newsweek, LIV (S ep tem b er 2 1, 1 9 6 4 ), 50; " M a la y s ia: G obble, G o b b le?" i b i d., LIV (S ep tem b er 14, 1 9 6 4 ), 33. ^ ^ W ea th erb ee, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n in S o u th e a s t A s i a," 3 40; G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s ia, 121. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 145] === 140 Tunku had lo n g a rg u ed t h a t th e Communist t r o u b l e s i n M alaya w ere o f Communist C h in e se o r i g i n s, n o t o f in d ig e n o u s i n s p i r a t i o n. F a c ts i n d i c a t e t h a t a s many a s 95% o f th e M alayan g u e r i l l a s w ere C h in e se, many o f whom w ere r e c e n t im m ig ra n ts. T h is was commonly known by M alay an s, and th e y te n d e d to i d e n t i f y a l l r e s i d e n t C h in e se w ith Communism, a s d id a l s o T u n k u 's governm ent a t tim e s. TunkU1s reg im e n e g o t ia te d a d e f e n s iv e a l l i a n c e w ith B r i t a i n i n 1957, b u t i t b a lk e d a t j o i n i n g SEATQ. The M alayan governm ent was p ro u d o f i t s s u c c e s s f u l w ar a g a i n s t th e Communist g u e r i l l a s, 1948-1960, and d id n o t w ish to s e e t h a t s t r u g g l e resum ed, w h e th e r by C h in e se o r I n d o n e s ia n i n s t i g a t i o n. A c tu a lly Tunku and h i s c o lle a g u e s w ere p ro b a b ly more an ti-C o m m u n ist th a n w ere th e gov ern m en ts o f th e A sia n members o f SEATO i n th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's. 35 Communist C h in a, a s p r e v io u s l y s t a t e d, s u p p o rte d I n d o n e s i a 's " c r u s h M a la y s ia " cam p aig n. I n e a r l y 1965 Chou s t a t e d: " M a la y s ia i s an a r t i f i c i a l c r e a t i o n o f B r i t a i n i n c o l l u s i o n w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s. I t i s w e ll known t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a M alaya on t h i s g lo b e, but. n o t su ch a th i n g a s M a la y s ia. The s o - c a l l e d M a la y s ia i s so m eth in g w hich U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e, M a la y a: A New In d e p e n d e n t S t a t e (W ash in g to n, 1 9 5 8 ), 1 -2; K. J. Ratnam, Communism and th e P o l i t i c a l P rocessinM a l a v a.(Kuala Lumpur, 1 9 6 5 ), 146; F ran k H. H. K in g, The New M alayan N a tio n: A S tu d y o f Communist and N a tio n a lis m (New Y ork, 1 9 5 7 ), 72. 35 Buss, S o u th e a s t A s ia and the. W orld T oday, 53; B r i t i s h In fo rm a t i o n S e r v ic e, The F e d e r a tio n o f M a la y s ia (London, 1 9 6 3 ), 5 8; J o s e p h K ennedy, A H is to r y.of M alaya (London, 1 9 6 2 ), 2 8 1 -2 8 2; U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e, F a c t S h e e t: M alaya (W ash in g to n, 1963) 8; K. G. T re g o n n in g, M alaya (M elb o u rn e, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 4; Tokyo A sa h i Shim bun, A u g u st 1.2, 1963. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 146] === 141 B r i t a i n im poses on th e p e o p le o f M alay a, S in g a p o r e, S araw ak, and Sabah in o r d e r to p e r p e t u a t e i t s c o l o n i a l r u l e. ” He ad d ed: ” I n m aking M a la y s ia in c lu d e Saraw ak and S ab ah, B r i t a i n i s i n e f f e c t p l a n t i n g a b a y o n e t i n th e c h e s t o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia. I t i s o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le c a n n o t t o l e r a t e th e B r i t i s h menace to t h e i r s e c u r i t y th ro u g h i t s t o o l o f M a la y s ia. M a la y s ia i s e n t i r e l y j u s t. ” I n d o n e s i a 's s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t 36 The P e o p l e 's D a ily w en t f u r t h e r, l i n k i n g th e M a la y s ia n and V ietn am ese c r i s e s a s a common f i g h t a g a i n s t W e ste rn im p e r ia lis m: U n ite d S t a t e s im p e r ia lis m, d a re d to la u n c h a g g r e s s io n a g a i n s t I n d o n e s ia, th e C h in e se w i l l b a c k th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le w ith a l l t h e i r m ig h t u n t i l A m erican im p e r ia lis m i s th o ro u g h ly d e f e a t e d. " 37 P e k in g d i s c r e e t l y ig n o re d th e c la im s o f some I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c i a n s t h a t th e " c r u s h M a la y s ia ” d r i v e w ould a l s o b lo c k Communist C h in ese e x p a n s io n i n t h a t a re a. 38 W id esp read en d o rsem e n t o f th e a n t i- M a la y s ia cam paign i n In d o n e s i a, e v e n among many a n ti-C o m m u n is ts, was b a se d on th e know ledge t h a t many o f th e S u m atran r e b e l s o f 1958 r e c e iv e d asy lu m i n M alaya and th e a c c u s a tio n t h a t M alaya c o v e r t l y s u p p lie d th e Padang reg im e w ith arm s. 36 " P e k in g S u p p o rts I n d o n e s ia; A s s a i l s U. S. and B r i t a i n, 1 B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 5, 1965, 1; P e k in g H sin h u a News A gency, J a n u a r y 2 4, 1965. 37 Q uoted in D en is W arn er, "What We G ot f o r P am pering S u k a rn o," R e p o r t e r, XXXI (O c to b e r 8, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 2. ^®Warner, "A Game o f F o o ts y i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 1 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 147] === 142 I t was p o p u la r l y f e l t, to o, t h a t Tunku h a r b o r e d d e s ig n s on S u m atra and e n c o u ra g e d i t t o b re a k away from th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia. T unku1s gov ern m en t i n K u ala Lumpur acknow ledged t h a t some r e b e l s had f l e d to th e p e n i n s u l a, b u t i t d e n ie d r e n d e r in g a i d to th e Padang g ro u p o r c o m s p irin g t o l u r e S u m atra from I n d o n e s ia. 39 As f o r S u k a r n o 's m o tiv a tio n in th e " c r u s h M a la y s ia " cam p aig n, h e r e a l i z e d t h a t i f th e f e d e r a t i o n s u c c e e d e d, e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e open a i d of-. B r i t a i n, M a la y s ia w ould be a h u m i l i a t i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f h i s c o n t e n tio n t h a t th e W e ste rn i m p e r i a l i s t s bode o n ly i l l f o r S o u th e a s t A s ia. M a la y s i a 's s u c c e s s w ould s u g g e s t t h a t th e b e s t f u t u r e f o r u n d e r d e v e lo p e d A sia n n a t i o n s la y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g h arm o n io u s d ip lo m a tic and econom ic r e l a t i o n s w ith th e W este rn p o w e rs. Such p r o s p e c ts c o u ld o b v io u s ly h av e m en acin g r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r S u k a r n o 's g r ip on h i s own backw ard m asses.^® As s t r e s s e d e a r l i e r, Sukarno a l s o e x p l o i t e d th e M a la y s ia n i s s u e i n t y p i c a l d em ag o g ica l fe sb io n, i. e., to d iv e r t h is c o n s t i t u e n t s ' m inds from th e sh am b les h e h ad made o f I n d o n e s i a 's go v ern m en t and e c o n o m y.^ Tunku commented i n an in t e r v ie w i n M arch, 39 G ordon, D im en sio n s o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 8 3 -8 8; D onald H in d le y, " I n d o n e s i a 's C o n f r o n ta tio n w ith M a la y s ia: A S e a rc h f o r M o tiv e s." A sia n S u rv e y, V ( J u n e, 1 9 6 4 ), 90 7. ^O jacques, "S u k arn o L eads from W e a k n e ss," 12,; H in d le y, " I n d o n e s i a ' s C o n f r o n ta tio n w ith M a la y s ia: A S e a rc h f o r M o tiv e s," 909.^ " F a i l u r e i n I n d o n e s i a." New R e p u b lic, C L II (May 1, 1 9 6 5 ), 7; ''S u k a r n o 's.W ar--W ill I t I n v o lv e U. S I? " U.’ S. News.& W orld R e p o r t, LV II (S ep tem b er 21., 1 9 6 4 ).. 6 4: 1'The N ex t S ta g e? ". E c o n o m is t, CCXIV (J a n u a r y 16, 1 9 6 5 ), 20 5; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 6 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission === [PDF page 148] === 143 1963: "S u k arn o i s a f r a i d t h a t th e M a la y s ia n s 1 p r o g r e s s may h av e th e e f f e c t o f w in n in g o v e r to u s th e l o y a l t y o f th e S u m atran s and th e p e o p le i n th e C e le b e s who do n o t l i k e th e J a v a n e s e." le a d e r ad d ed: The M a la y sia n "The In d o n e s ia n Communists a r e a n g ry w ith me f o r b e in g so o u tsp o k e n i n s u p p o r t o f I n d ia a g a i n s t C h in a. h e r e w hich w ere g iv e n to I n d ia n d e f e n s e. We c o l l e c t e d fu n d s We w ere th e f i r s t n a t i o n to come o u t a g a i n s t C h in ese a g g r e s s io n a g a i n s t I n d i a. The PKI was v e ry a n g ry. I n a te n s e c o n f r o n t a t i o n i n Tokyo i n J u n e, 1964, Tunku rem in ded S ukarno t h a t th e y a g re e d a t th e M an ila m e e tin g t o s e t t l e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s by t a l k i n g r a t h e r th a n f i g h t i n g. A b r i s t l i n g S ukarno r e p l i e d, " I s a y one th o u sa n d tim e s t h a t I c a n n o t a c c e p t t h i s M a la y s ia." Upon f l y i n g b ack t o D ja k a r t a, th e I n d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t d e l iv e r e d a " c r u s h M a la y s ia " sp e e c h t h a t seemed to s u r p a s s p r e v io u s ones in i t s b i t t e r n e s s.^ By t h a t tim e th e o n ly im p o rts o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a r r i v i n g in I n d o n e s ia came from Communist C hina and th e P h i l i p p i n e s; a l l t r a d e w ith M a la y s ia was c u r t a i l e d when th e new s t a t e was p ro c la im e d in 1963. 44 42 "M alaya S ees S u k arn o a s D anger f o r S o u th e a s t A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LIV (M arch 18, 1 9 6 3 ), 8 1. ^ Q u o te d i n " M a la y s ia: LXIV ( J u l y 6, 1 9 6 4 ), 38. C o n f r o n ta tio n C o n tin u e d,” Newsweek, ^ S e t h S. K in g, "S u k arn o S t i r s up A n o th er A sia n S to rm." New York Times M ag azin e. J a n u a r y 1 9, 1964, 5 8; D en is W arn er, "How S uk arn o Keeps h i s R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," R e p o r t e r, XXX ( A p r il 23, 1 9 6 4 ), 35. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 149] === 144 I n f l a t i o n in I n d o n e s ia s in c e 1959 was p e rh a p s w o rse th a n i n any o t h e r A sia n n a t i o n, le a d in g some o b s e r v e r s to p r e d i c t S u k a r n o 's immi n e n t d o w n fa ll and th e c o u n t r y 's b a n k ru p tc y; by, 1964 i t was ev en more c ritic a l, i f t h a t was p o s s i b l e. W este rn e c o n o m is ts w ondered i n amaze m ent how th e D ja k a r ta reg im e c o n tin u e d to s t r u g g l e a lo n g. In fla tio n u nderm in ed e v e r y a s p e c t o f th e e c o n o m y --in d u s try, com merce, farm i n come, e t c. The lo w er c l a s s e s c o u ld n o t a f f o r d th e p r i c e o f a bus t i c k e t to c a r r y p ro d u ce to m a rk e t; th e y c o u ld n o t buy p l a i n c l o t h o r co o k in g o i l, so h ig h w e re th e p r i c e s. F u rth e rm o re, th e p u b li c h e a l t h s i t u a t i o n was a la r m in g; d ro u g h ts and p la g u e s o f a b e w ild e r in g v a r i e t y v i s i t e d I n d o n e s ia y e a r a f t e r y e a r. I n th e s p r in g o f 1964 r a t s t h r e a t ened c ro p s and homes i n u n p re c e d e n te d h o r d e s, c o m p e llin g some e n t i r e v i l l a g e s to move e ls e w h e r e. One r e g io n a l o f f i c i a l o b s e rv e d: "W e've k i l l e d f o u r m i l l i o n r a t s a ro u n d W o n is a ri, b u t we c a n 't cope w ith them i n th e h i l l s. " 45 S u k a r n o 's p ro b lem s w ere in c r e a s e d i n 1964 by a r e b e l l i o n on C e le b e s, th e f o u r th l a r g e s t i s l a n d o f I n d o n e s ia. Some o f N a s u tio n 's f i n e s t b a t t a l i o n s w ere p i t t e d a g a i n s t a r e b e l f o r c e o f 3,0 0 0 i n th e s tu b b o r n f i g h t, f i n a l l y won by th e governm ent t r o o p s. Tunku commented: " I n d o n e s ia i s v e r y d iv i d e d. 46 A t th e tim e S o l d i e r s may h av e arm s, 45 "S u k arn o: On th e Road to D i s a s t e r? ” U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LVI (May 18, 1 9 6 4 ), 74; W arn er, "How S ukarno K eeps h i s R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," 35. 46 "S u k arn o: On th e Road t o D i s a s t e r? " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LVI, 74; W arn er, "How S ukarno K eeps H is R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 150] === 145 b u t th e y h av e t o inarch on t h e i r f e e t. As good o ld N ap o leo n s a i d, an army c a n n o t m arch on an em pty sto m a ch. F o r a c o u n try w h ich i s econom i c a l l y b a n k r u p t- - a s I n d o n e s ia i s — I c a n n o t im ag in e how i t c o u ld a f f o r d to go to w a r. " ^ I n a d d i t i o n t o a l l h i s o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s, S u k a r n o 's w ar a g a i n s t M a la y s ia f a r e d p o o r ly from th e s t a r t. M a la y s ia n c i v i l i a n s, a s w e ll a s r e g u l a r s, d e v a s ta te d th e tr o o p s I n d o n e s ia s e n t i n t o a c t i o n, o f t e n i n a ir b o r n e; o p e r a t io n s t h a t w ere c o s t l y f i a s c o e s. S ukarno begged R u s s ia f o r more a i d; some S o v ie t arm s w ere f o rth c o m in g, b u t Moscow was r e t i c e n t to s u p p o r t th e s t r u g g l e. On th e o t h e r h a n d, th e M a la y s ia n s r e c e iv e d g e n e ro u s am ounts o f a i d from B r i t a i n, New Z e a la n d, and A u strarlia. A $ 3 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 lo a n f o r econom ic a i d w h ich S u k arn o hoped t o g e t from th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n etary Fund was p ro m p tly c a n c e ll e d by th e d i r e c t o r s whan I n d o n e s ia a t ta c k e d M a la y s ia. S u k a r n o 's p l i g h t was s e r i o u s, b u t h i s enorm ous ego k e p t him from a d m ittin g t h a t th e " c r u s h M a la y s ia " c a u s e was h o p e l e s s. 48 I n d o n e s i a 's r e l a t i o n s w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s sa n k to a new e b b. A m erican a i d, b o th econom ic and m i l i t a r y, was im p o r ta n t t o I n d o n e s ia i n h e r lo n g s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e D u tc h. A m erican r i f l e s and t r u c k s w ere u se d by N a s u t i o n 's tr o o p s, and th o u s a n d s o f o f f i c e r s a t te n d e d "M alaya S ees S u k arn o a s D anger f o r S o u th e a s t A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LIV, 8 0. 48 " I n d o n e s i a, " Newsweek, LIV (O c to b e r 1 2, 1 9 6 4 ), 74; A nthony V e r r i e r, " S u k a r n o 's H idden W ar," New S ta te s m a n. LXVI (November 2 9, 1 9 6 3 ), 769; " S o u th C h in a S ea: P u n c h -D ru n k," New R e p u b lic. CL ( J a n u a r y 1 8, 1 9 6 4 ), 13. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 151] === 146 A m erican m i l i t a r y s c h o o ls. A m erican fu n d s w ere u se d t o u n d e r w r ite a s i g n i f i c a n t e x p a n s io n o f th e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f e le m e n ta ry e d u c a t i o n a l p ro g ram s in I n d o n e s ia a f t e r W orld War I I. b e s t highw ays w ere b u i l t w ith A m erican f u n d s. Many o f th e n a t i o n 's M o reo v er, i t was e s t i m ated t h a t a s many a s 10 0,0 0 0 I n d o n e s ia n s w ere sav ed from s t a r v a t i o n by A m erican food d o n a tio n s d u r in g a c u te d r o u g h ts. D e s p ite t h i s a s s i s ta n c e, a p o p u la r them e o f th e t e n t h - a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n s o f th e Bandung C o n feren c e was a n ti-A m e ric a n is m. Huge p o s t e r s p i c t u r e d U ncle Sam b e in g k ic k e d by g lo r i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e new em erg in g fo rc e s. A m erican em bassy o f f i c i a l s saw t h e i r a u to m o b ile s d e s tr o y e d, a s w e ll a s c o n t i n u a l h a ra s s m e n t w hich in c lu d e d su ch t r i c k s a s s h u t t i n g o f f p u b li c u t i l i t y c o n n e c tio n s t o t h e i r hom es. The U n ite d S t a t e s I n f o r m a tio n S e r v i c e 's p ro g ram, a s w e ll a s a l l A m erican a i d e f f o r t s, w ere f i n a l l y b a n is h e d by S u k a r n o.^ In l a t e 1964 S ukarno p u b l i c l y t o l d A m bassador Howard P. J o n e s, lo n g a s y m p a th e tic f r i e n d o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p re s id e n t: "You can go t o h e l l w ith y o u r a i d. " I n A p r i l, 1965, S ukarn o o r d e r e d th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a l l W estern-ow ned b u s in e s s e s in e s i a. E x h i b iti n g a re m a rk a b le d e g re e o f p a t i e n c e, J o n e s s a i d: "We m ust r e c o g n iz e t h a t I n d o n e s ia n s o c i a l i s m stem s from I n d o n e s i a 's own h e r i t a g e, j u s t a s s u r e l y a s o u r sy ste m o f f r e e e n t e r p r i s e stem s from o u r own h e r i t a g e, and t h a t i n th e I n d o n e s ia n e n v iro n m e n t-- 49 "S q u eeze P la y on U. S. i n A s ia: M ao-Sukarno A x is," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LVI, 721; S a n d e r s, "A n o th e r B ig C o u n try A bout t o Go t o th e R e d s," 8 1 -8 2. 50 " b 1 qw Up i n I n d o n e s ia: What I t Means t o U. S. and R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LIX (O c to b e r 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 4. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 152] === 14 7 p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e a g e - o ld v i l l a g e i n s t i t u t i o n o f G otong-R ojong— a form o f s o c ia l is m may w e ll th e p e o p le be more c o m p a tib le w ith th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th a n f r e e e n t e r p r i s e. " ^ A tto r n e y G e n e ra l R o b e rt K ennedy, who v i s i t e d D ja k a r ta t h a t y e a r, p ro b a b ly e x p r e s s e d th e o f f i c i a l U n ite d S t a t e s view when he w arned t h a t A m erica m ust t r y to re o p e n th e d o o r t o f r ie n d s h ip w ith I n d o n e s ia and m ust r e s i s t p r e s s u r e s on D ja k a r ta t h a t m ig h t The le a d to a n o th e r Cuba. PKI, o f c o u r s e, 52 was d e l i g h t e d w ith th e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts i n 1 9 6 3 -6 5, e s p e c i a l l y th e M a la y sia n w a r. A i d i t s u p p o rte d N a s u tio n 's M a la y s ia n o p e r a t io n s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y b u t f o r e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t re a s o n s th a n th o s e o f th e army c h i e f. N a s u tio n, a s s ta u n c h ly a n t i com m unist a s e v e r, w anted t o a t t a c k M a la y s ia t o p r e v e n t t h a t n a t i o n 's s i g n i f i c a n t C h in e se m i n o r ity, w ith P ek in g a s s i s t a n c e, from ta k in g o v e r th e r e i n s o f g o v ern m en t. A i d i t saw th e m i l i t a r y o p e r a tio n s a s an i d e a l way o f d i v e r t i n g th e h b s t i l e army command from f u r t h e r p e r s e c u t i o n o f th e PK I. The PKI a l s o p o r tr a y e d th e s t r u g g l e i n te rm s o f th e w o rld -w id e f i g h t a g a i n s t im p e r ia lis m. 53 51 Howard P. J o n e s, " In d o n e s ia n -A m e ric a n R e l a ti o n T o d ay," U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n. XXXVII (O c to b e r 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 3. W arn er, "How Sukarno Keeps h i s R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g? ” 3 4. 53" b 1ow up i n I n d o n e s ia: What I t Means t o U. S. and R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o rt. LIX, 4 3; W arn er, "How S ukarno Keeps H is R e v o lu tio n, S p in n in g? " 3 4; " I n d o n e s ia: O ld e fo, A v a u n t," E co n o m ist. CCXIII (Decem b e r 19, 1 9 6 4 ), 1332; S a n d e rs, "A n o th er B ig C o u n try A bout To Go to th e R e d s," 8 2; W arn er, "A Game o f F o o ts y i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," 11; G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 10 9 -1 1 0. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 153] === N a s u tio n a l s o a g re e d w ith S ukarno when th e l a t t e r sp o k e o f th e i l l e g i t i m a c y o f M a la y s ia, a s on th e o c c a s io n o f a p r e s i d e n t i a l i n t e r view w ith c o rr e s p o n d e n t K r is h e: "The B r i t i s h s a y t h a t t h i s h a s become now th e s o v e r e ig n s t a t e o f M a la y s ia. in to th a t t e r r i t o r y. You h av e n o t th e r i g h t t o come S o, M r. K r is h e, n o t o n ly am I a g a i n s t M a la y s ia a s i t i s now, b u t t h i s M a la y s ia a s i t i s d o es n o t e x i s t f o r A c tu a l ly th e In d o n e s ia n le a d e r s had some j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i r con t e n t i o n t h a t M a la y s ia was n o t an a u t h e n t i c n a t i o n a l e n t i t y. M ost M a la y s ia n s and I n d o n e s ia n s spoke th e same la n g u a g e; th e S t r a i t o f M alacca s e p a r a te d many f a m ily k in sm e n. I n f a c t, th e a v e ra g e I n d o n e s ia n p r o b a b ly had more i n common w ith th e t y p i c a l M a la y s ia n th a n d id th e 1,5 0 0,0 0 0 C h in e se i n S in g a p o re o r th e a js o rig e n e s o f B orneo who d e s p is e d M alay an s. S in c e S u k a r n o 's c h a lle n g e t o M a la y s ia c o in c id e d w ith th e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f th e w ar i n V ietn am, A m erican o f f i c i a l s w ere a n x io u s a b o u t I n d o n e s i a 's p la n s a g a i n s t n e ig h b o rin g M a la y s ia. Though t h e r e was an a n t i- C h in e s e a s p e c t t o th e M a la y s ia n c o n f r o n t a t i o n, th e s te p p e d -u p A m erican m i l i t a r y e f f o r t s i n V ietnam f o r c e d th e U n ite d S t a t e s t o f o r f e i t any hope o f f a v o r a b ly i n f l u e n c i n g S ukarno.'* M ost W ash in g to n o v e r t u r e s, in o r d e r to be h e a rd in D ja k a r t a, h ad to be p r e s e n te d v i a M a n ila. I r o n i c a l l y, th e an ti-C o m m u n ist P h i l i p p i n e g o v ern m en t k e p t 54„ a T a lk wi t h S u k arn o: I Am I n d o n e s i a, " Newsweek, LXIV, 84. J a c q u e s, " S u k a r n o 's War A g a in s t M a la y s i a," 16. ^ S a n d e r s, " A n o th e r B ig C o u n try A bout to Go t o th e R e d s," 80. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 154] === 149 its f r i e n d s h i p w ith th e D ja k a r ta re g im e, b u t th e P h i l i p p i n e s ' fo re m o s t a l l y c o u ld n o t be h e a r d in D j a k a r t a. ^ Tunku p r e s e n te d a n o th e r odd a s p e c t o f th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a lig n m e n t: " I f th e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e a f r a i d o f th r e e o r f o u r m i l l i o n C h in e se l i v i n g i n M a la y s ia, some o f whom may be C om m unists, why a r e th e y n o t a f r a i d o f 100 m i l l i o n I n d o n e s ia n s, many o f whom a r e Com m unists? I d o n 't u n d e r s ta n d t h i s. p r e te n d t o e n t e r t a i n t h e i r f e a r s. an e x c u s e f o r a g g r e s s io n make i t p l a u s i b l e. I d o n 't ev en The C h in e se a r e h e r e a l r e a d y. a g a i n s t M a la y s ia m ust be made, a t l e a s t T h is e x c u s e c a n n o t c o n v in c e an y o n e. S u k arn o seemed to be a w a re, a t l e a s t more so th a n th e P h i l i p p in e l e a d e r s, t h a t th e r e a l t h r e a t o f Communism came from i n t e r n a l r a t h e r th a n e x t e r n a l f o r c e s. T h e re i s s tr o n g e v id e n c e t h a t S u k a r n o 's move a g a i n s t M a la y s ia was n e v e r aim ed a t c o n q u e s t p r i m a r i l y. M i n i s t e r N a s u tio n s a i d p u b l i c l y: c o n f r o n t a t i o n i n t o open w a r. D efen se " I n d o n e s ia d id n o t in te n d to p u sh P la n s t o p r o c la im a s t a t e o f em ergency i n v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e c o u n tr y and t o ban a l l u n a u th o r iz e d d e m o n stra t i o n s and b o y c o tts h a v e d e p r iv e d th e Comm unists o f one o f t h e i r p r i n c i p a l w e a p o n s. "59 Of c o u r s e, j u s t a s S u k arn o and N a s u tio n h o ped " c r u s h ^ " F a i l u r e o f I n d o n e s i a," New R e p u b lic, C LI, 7; "The N ext W a r," N a tio n, CLXXXXIX (S ep tem b er 2 8, 1 9 6 4 ), 151; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 7 2 -7 3; B a in, "S araw ak: C o n tr o lle d E x p e rim e n t i n D em o cracy," 531; G ordon, D im ensions o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 7 2 -7 3. -^ Q u o te d i n "M alaya S ees S uk arn o a s D anger f o r S o u th e a s t A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, I,IV, 8 1. • ^ P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n t a t i o n s, 74; " S u k a r n o 's W a r--W ill I t I n v o lv e U. S.? " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LXIX, 6 3; W arn er, "What We Got f o r P am pering S u k a r n o," 3 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 155] === 150 M a la y s ia " w ould a v e r t r e v o l u t i o n i n I n d o n e s ia and a PKI c o u p, so th e PKI view ed th e M a la y s ia n a f f a i r a s a Communist o p p o r tu n ity ) e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e d i v e r s i o n o f th e arm y. A i d i t a l s o f e l t t h a t th e em ergency j u s t i f i e d th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Communist armed e le m e n ts, w h ich w ould l a t e r be u se d a g a i n s t D ja k a rta.^ ® On J a n u a r y 1, 1965, R ad io M a la y s ia s a r d o n i c a l l y a d o p te d th e r o o s t e r 's crow a s i t s new c a l l s i g n. S uk arn o h ad e a r l i e r b o a s te d t h a t M a la y s ia w ould be c ru s h e d b e f o r e th e co ck crow ed on New Y e a r 's Day, 1965. To add t o S u k a r n o 's h u m i l i a t i o n, M a la y s ia was e l e c t e d to a s e a t on th e S e c u r i t y C o u n c il, w hereupon I n d o n e s ia w ith d re w from th e U n ite d N a tio n s. S u k arn o ev en c a n c e ll e d h i s n a t i o n 's m em bership i n su ch human i t a r i a n a g e n c ie s a s UNESCO and UNICEF, d e s p i t e th e f a c t s t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n was endem ic i n h i s c o u n tr y and I n d o n e s ia was one o f th e c h i e f b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e w ork o f su ch o r g a n i z a t i o n s. "What h a s UNICEF done? S u k arn o s c o f f e d: P ro v id e d c h i l d r e n w ith pow dered m ilk? d o n 't n eed i t. " ^ When S u b a n d rio in fo rm ed S e c r e t a r y G e n e ra l U. T h an t on J a n u a ry 2 0, 1965, t h a t I n d o n e s ia was r e s i g n i n g i t s U n ite d N a tio n s m em bership, U. T h an t sim p ly r e p l i e d: "Y our s ta te m e n t t h a t 'I n d o n e s i a h a s d e c id e d a t t h i s s ta g e and u n d e r th e p r e s e n t c irc u m s ta n c e s t o w ith d ra w from th e E a r n e r, "How S uk arn o K eeps H is R e v o lu tio n S p in n in g," 3 6; "Blow Up i n I n d o n e s ia: What I t Means t o U. S. and R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. LIX, 4 4; " M u sic a l C h a irs i n D j a k a r t a," E co n o m ist, CCXIV (F e b ru a r y 2 0, 1 9 6 5 ), 768. 61 P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 76; " I n d o n e s ia W a itin g f o r a L e t t e r, " Newsweek. LXV ( J a n u a r y 2 5, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 8. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 156] === 151 U n ite d N a tio n s ' and y o u r a s s u r a n c e t h a t 'I n d o n e s ia s t i l l u p h o ld s th e l o f t y p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a tio n a s o u t l i n e d i n th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r t e r 1 hav e b een n o t e d." S e c r e t a r y G e n e ra l c o u ld d o. T here was l i t t l e e l s e th e I n th e n e g o t i a t i o n s a t San F r a n c is c o i n 1945 s u p p le m e n ta ry s ta te m e n ts t o th e C h a r te r made i t c l e a r t h a t no s t a t e c o u ld be k e p t in th e U n ite d N a tio n s a g a i n s t i t s w is h e s. The In d o n e s ia n f l a g was sim p ly ta k e n down, and i t s p la c a r d s rem oved from v a r io u s l o c a l e s i n th e New Y ork s t r u c t u r e. I n d o n e s ia made no e f f o r t to p a y i t s U n ite d N a tio n s a s s e s s m e n ts t h a t w ere o v erd u e a t th e tim e o f w ith d r a w a l.^ Sukarno made th e move t o d ra m a tiz e h i s o p p o s iti o n to B r it is h - d o m in a te d M a la y s ia and to a l l form s o f n e o - c o l o n ia l is m. He hoped t h a t o t h e r A fro -A s ia n n a t i o n s w ould fo llo w s u i t, b u t th e y d id n o t and seemed u n im p re sse d by P e k in g 's t h r e a t t h a t t h e i r " b lin d f a i t h i n th e U n ite d N a tio n s m ust be l i q u i d a t e d. " A te m p o ra ry tr u c e b etw een M a la y s ia and I n d o n e s ia w as a r r a n g e d i n F e b r u a r y, 1964, b u t was soon b ro k e n by f u r t h e r i n f i l t r a t i o n and b lo o d s h e d by I n d o n e s ia n v o l u n t e e r s. I n M a la y s ia th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s p e l l e d d i s a s t e r f o r l e f t i s t p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s, a s i n th e A pacil, 1964, e l e c t i o n s w h ich am ounted to a m a jo r p o l i t i c a l s e tb a c k f o r Communist and s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s i n M a la y s ia. v e e re d s h a r p ly to th e r i g h t. Even t r a d e u n io n ism i n M a la y s ia On a l l f r o n t s - - p o l i t i c. a l, eco n o m ic, and 62 C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, " I n d o n e s ia i n A g ain, B egin A g a in," New Y ork T im es, Ju n e 10, 1966. ^ " T h e R i t u a l D a n c e," Newsweek. LXV (J a n u a ry 15, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 0; B u tt w e ll, " M a la y s ia and I t s im p a c t on th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a ti o n s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," 946. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 157] === 152 s o c i a l — Communist a c t i v i t i e s i n M a la y s ia w ere a s s o c i a t e d by th e v a s t m a jo r it y w ith th e c o n s p i r a c i e s o f D ja k a r ta and P e k in g. 64. On th e o t h e r h a n d, th e M a la y s ia n c o n f r o n t a t i o n a b e t t e d th e PKI i n a number o f w ay s. The w ar m eant t h a t econom ic s t a b i l i t y i n In d o n e s i a, w h ich th e Communist s u r e l y o p p o sed, was f u r t h e r d e la y e d. The l e f t i s t s i n M a la y s ia, e s p e c i a l l y th e S o c ia l F r o n t and th e R ak y at p a r t y, tu r n e d more th a n e v e r to th e PKI f o r a s s i s t a n c e, in c lu d in g dep en d ence upon th e PKI f o r M a la y s ia n c a d re t r a i n i n g. T h is m ean t, o f c o u r s e, t h a t th e P K I's i n f i l t r a t i o n o f M a la y s ia n l e f t i s t e le m e n ts in c r e a s e d g re a tly. P e rh a p s m ost im p o r ta n t, th e P K I's f e r v e n t s u p p o r t o f th e " c ru s h M a la y s ia " cam paign e n d e a re d th e p a r t y to S u k arn o and re d u c e d th e f e a r s o f many a n ti-C o m m u n ists i n I n d o n e s ia t h a t th e PKI w ould a tte m p t a coup d ' e t a t. And, t o r e p e a t a p o i n t made p r e v i o u s l y, th e a r m y 's h a r r a s s m e n t o f th e PKI d e c re a s e d a s i t s b u rd e n i n th e M a la y s ia n w ar in c r e a s e d. A i d i t was w e l l p le a s e d w ith th e P K I's new momentum and e s p r i t de c o r p s; th e f u t u r e lo o k e d b r i g h t. 65 The M a la y s ia n - I n d o n e s ia n c o n f l i c t s tr e n g th e n e d th e D ja k a r t a P ek in g a x i s. A f t e r a l l, Communist C h in a c o u ld i l l a f f o r d to ig n o r e th e c r e a t i o n o f a s tr o n g anti-Com m unisfc re g im e i n th e c e n t e r o f S o u th e a s t A s ia. P e k in g 's a g e n ts w ere e s p e c i a l l y a c t i v e i n S araw ak and "S q u eeze P la y on U. S. i n A s ia: M ao-Sukarno A x i s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LVI, 72; P l u v i e r, C o n f r o n ta t io n s, 7 6 -7 7. 65 G ordon, D im en sio n s o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, 1 1 8 -1 1 9; Van Der K ro e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 3 3 5 -3 3 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 158] === 153 S in g a p o r e, w o rk in g i n c l o s e c o o r d in a tio n w ith PKI a g e n ts and r e s i d e n t C om m unists. The Communist u n d erg ro u n d movement in Saraw ak was s p e a r h e a d e d by th e p o w e rfu l SUPP, o r Saraw ak U n ite d P e o p l e 's p a r t y, w hich e f f e c t i v e l y p e n e t r a t e d t r a d e u n io n s, s t u d e n t g ro u p s, and th e la r g e C h in e s p o p u la c e. I n S in g a p o re th e P e k in g and D ja k a r ta Communists w orked c l o s e l y i n b u i l d i n g th e S o c i a l i s t F r o n t ( B a r is a n S o s i a l i s ) i n t o a s tr o n g c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e SUPP. The F r o n t, i n t u r n, g a in e d c o n tro l. o f th e SATU, o r S in g a p o re A s s o c ia tio n o f T rad e U n io n s, w h ich a c t u a l l y c o n s p ir e d w ith I n d o n e s ia a g a i n s t th e M a la y s ia n g o v ern m e n t. 66 The sq u e e z e p la y was on i n m a in la n d S o u th e a s t A s ia, w ith P e k in g p r o v id in g th e b a s ic s u p p o r t f o r th e V ietm in h i n t h e i r w ar and th e PKI s t r o n g l y b a c k in g D j a k a r t a 's e f f o r t to d e s tr o y T u n k u 's an ti-C o m m u n ist reg im e in M a la y s ia. The D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s seemed t o be w o rk in g w e l l. 67 S u d d en ly th e a x i s was t o r n t o s h r e d s by th e u n e x p e c te d Commun i s t f a i l u r e s i n I n d o n e s ia and f a r - o f f A lg e r ia i n 1965. A te rrify in g s u rg e o f an ti-C o m m u n ist h a t r e d sw ept I n d o n e s ia and i n m id-1966 was s t i l l g a t h e r in g momentum. The P K I's coup a t te m p t was s h a t t e r e d; th e p a r t y was v i r t u a l l y d e s tr o y e d, w ith i t s k ey l e a d e r s e x e c u te d; S u k a r n o 's pow er was s h o r n; and I n d o n e s ia was on th e v e r g e o f r e j o i n i n g th e U niteid N a tio n s. The r e a l b o s s e s o f D ja k a r t a b y e a r l y 1966 w ere L ie u t e n a n t G e n e ra l S u h a r to, th e S u lta n o f J o g j a k a r t a, F o re ig n M i n i s t e r Van D er K ro e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, ” 3 4 1 -3 4 3; " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta Communique D enounced U. S. and B r i t a i n, ” B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1965, 1 - 2. ^ " S q u e e z e P la y on U. S. i n A s ia: M ao-Sukarno A x i s, ” U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LV I, 7 2 -7 4. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 159] === 154 M a lik, and L ie u te n a n t G e n e ra l N a s u t i o n - - a l l avowed a n ti-C o m m u n is ts • • I n May, 1966, S ukarno was c a l l e d to a m e etin g o f th e above fo u r l e a d e r s t o d is c u s s th e " c r u s h M a la y s ia " cam p aig n. D e s p ite th e P r e s i d e n t 's p l e a s, th e g ro u p d e c id e d t h a t th e a f f a i r was a m a jo r c o n t r i b u t o r to th e g o v e rn m e n t's f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s and m ust be c u r t a i l e d. N a s u tio n em erged from th e m e e tin g to announce to a s tu d e n t assem b ly i n Bogor t h a t I n d o n e s ia was now p r e p a r e d t o n e g o t i a t e a p e a c e f u l s e tt le m e n t w ith M a la y s ia. Soon t h e r e a f t e r C h a r l o tte S a ik o w s k i, an A m erican c o rre s p o n d e n t, in te r v ie w e d an u n i d e n t i f i e d b u t h ig h - r a n k in g D ja k a r ta o f f i c i a l in th e f o r e ig n o f f i c e. To h e r q u e s tio n a b o u t th e f u t u r e o f th e M a la y sia n c o n fro n ta tio n, he r e p lie d: " I d o n 't t h i n k we h av e to w o rry a b o u t t h a t. We w i l l t a l k a b o u t i t - - g r u d g i n g l y f o r a w h i l e - - b u t i n tim e th e 'c r u s h M a la y s ia ' cam paign w i l l d ie down. a l l o u r n e ig h b o r s. What we n eed i s good r e l a t i o n s w ith We c a n 't a f f o r d u n n e c e s s a r y w a r s." th e p o p u la r r e a c t i o n: S aik o w sk i n o te d "The p e o p le o f D ja k a r ta w ere e x h i l a r a t i n g i n a f r e s h w ind o f h o p e. " ^ S u k a r n o 's w o r s t h u m i l i a t i o n t o d a t e came when a g o o d w ill m is s io n o f In d o n e s ia n army o f f i c e r s v i s i t e d K uala Lumpur i n l a t e May. A f te r th e t a l k s A bdul R azak, a c t i n g p rim e m i n i s t e r o f M a la y s ia, p ro c la im e d t h a t " I n d o n e s i a 's u n d e c la r e d w ar a g a i n s t M a la y s ia h a s u n o f f i c i a l l y C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, "S ukarno A g a in s t H im s e lf," New York Times A p r il 8, 1966; "What th e Gugu S a i d, " E c o n o m is t, CC.XIX ( A p r il 16, 1 9 6 6 ), 23 2. ^ D o n a ld K ir k, " D ja k a r ta I s Dumping S u k a r n o 's P o lic y, T o o," E c o n o m is t, CCXIX, May 2 2, 1966; C h a r l o t t e S a ik o w s k i, " I n d o n e s ia F in d s New O p tim ism," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, May 4, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 160] === 15 5 ended. The p a r t y o f e i g h t I n d o n e s ia n m i l i t a r y commanders came t o th e M a la y sia n c a p i t a l to d e m o n s tra te I n d o n e s i a 's s i n c e r i t y i n w a n tin g to end th e t h r e e - y e a r - o l d a tte m p t to d e s tr o y t h i s c o u n try." ^ ® The n e x t month th e two n a t i o n s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s ig n e d an ag ree m en t a t Bangkok w herby I n d o n e s ia o f f i c i a l l y p le d g e d t o end i t s e f f o r t s to e l im i n a te M a la y s ia. A fo rm a l a r m i s t i c e was n o t c o n c lu d e d, p e rh a p s i n o r d e r to e n a b le I n d o n e s ia to " sa v e fa c e " and n o t u n d e r li n e th e t o t a l i t y o f D j a k a r t a 's c a p i t u l a t i o n. 71 F o r some m onths a f t e r S u h a rto and h i s c o h o r ts w re s te d de j u r e c o n t r o l from S ukarno in e a r l y 1966, i t seemed t h a t u n c e r t a i n t y e x i s t e d a b o u t th e M a la y sia n s i t u a t i o n. fa c to r. The econom ic c r i s i s was th e d e te rm in in g The new le a d e r s r e a l i z e d t h a t n o t o n ly was th e w ar a s e r io u s f i n a n c i a l d r a i n and an i n f l a t i o n s ti m u l a n t b u t a l s o th e econom ic a id th e n a t i o n d e s p e r a t e l y n eed ed from W este rn s o u rc e s w ould n o t be. f o r th - -, coming u n t i l th e c o n f r o n ta tio n was e x t in g u is h e d. The peace, o v e r tu r e s to w ard M a la y s ia c l e a r l y in d i c a t e d a d r a s t i c change i n I n d o n e s i a 's f o r e ig n p o l i c y. I t was a m arked r e b u f f to th e c o n s p ir a c ie s o f P ek in g S e th S. K ing, " M a la y s ia L e a d e rs A s s e r t I n d o n e s ia Has Ended W ar," New York T im es, May 2 8, 1966; London O b s e r v e r, May 2 2, 1966; "S u k arn o G ives W ay," E c o n o m ist, CCXIX ( A p r il 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 1. ^ " T im e on Whose S id e? " E c o n o m ist, CCXIX (May 14, 1 9 6 6 ), 692; S e th S. K in d, "M a la y sia Has P ro b le m s--B u t P ro m is e, T o o," New York T im es, Ju n e 5, 1966; John H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia and M a la y s ia S tep N e a re r P e a c e," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, Ju n e 3, 1966; " A f te r C o n f r o n ta t io n," E c o n o m ist. CCXIX (May 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 932. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 161] === and w i l l p r o b a b ly be c o n s id e r e d i n th e lo n g ru n a s th e coup de g r^ c e 72 o f th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s. ' ^ K i n g, " M a la y s ia Has P ro b le m s --B u t P ro m is e, T o o," New Y ork T im es, Ju n e 5, 1966; Jo h n H ughes, "Bangkok T a lk s Seek C om prom ise," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, May 3 1, 1966; "P e a c e T a l k s," Newsweek, LXVII (Ju n e 13, 1 9 6 6 ), 52; " C ru s h in g C o n f r o n t a t i o n,” E c o n o m is t, CCXIX ( A p r il 30, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 5 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 162] === CHAPTER V I I SUKARNO, CHOU EN-LAl, AND THE SECOND AFRO-ASIAN CONFERENCE The B an d u n g -b o rn c o n c e p t o f A fro -A s ia n u n i t y p ro v ed to be l i t t l e more th a n a m yth i n th e y e a r s a f t e r 1955. A n t i - i m p e r i a l ism a lo n e was in a d e q u a te t o b in d th e b la c k and y e llo w p e o p le s r e p r e s e n t e d a t Bandung, and a s th e c o l o n i a l i s t s 1 r e t r e a t c o n tin u e d a ro u n d th e g lo b e, th e s e n a t i o n s h ad l i t t l e t o cem ent t h e i r i d e a l o f u n i t y. p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a c i a l, p o l i t i c a l, eco n o m ic, and c u l t u r a l view s loomed l a r g e by th e 1 9 6 0 's. As A fro -A s ia n u n i t y w aned, h o w ev er, Com m u n is t C h in a 's sway in c r e a s e d i n th e Bandufig n a t i o n s. I t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g th e n t h a t, when p la n s f o r a seco n d A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g w ere c o n s id e r e d, i t was P e k in g t h a t is s u e d th e c a l l t o c o n v e n e. The a tm o sp h e re s u r r o u n d in g th e e a r l y p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r a second c o n f e r e n c e w as p e rm e a te d by b i t t e r c o n tr o v e r s y and n a t i o n a l j e a l o u s i e s, stem m ing m a in ly from th e p o s t-1 9 5 5 d ev e lo p m e n ts o f Communist C h in e se e x p a n s io n is m, P e k in g 's a x i s w ith I n d o n e s ia, and th e S in o - S o v ie t con flic t. B oth th e Bandung D e c la r a tio n and P e k in g 's Panch S h e e la t o l l e d n o n - a g g r e s s io n and p e a c e, b u t Communist C h in a 's f l a g r a n t "A Myth D i s s o l v e s. ' 1 N a tio n a l R eview, XVII (November 1 6, 1 9 6 5 ), 1016; "The M irag e o f A fro -A s ia n U n i t y," I n d ia n L i b e r a t i o n, X I I I ( J u l y 1, 1 9 6 5 ), 2; A d ie, "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 1. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 163] === 158 a t t a c k s on K h ru s h c h e v 's p o l i c y o f p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e, to g e t h e r w ith P e k in g 's e f f o r t s t o c r e a t e ch ao s a l l th ro u g h A s ia, made i t c l e a r t h a t Chou c o u ld n o t c o u n t a g a in on th e welcome h e r e c e iv e d a t 2 an d u n g. The d e l e g a te s a t th e "S econd Bandung" w ould be more d i s t r u s t f u l o f e a c h o th e r b u t e s p e c i a l l y o f th e P e k in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s. 41 Chou E n l a i and h i s c o h o r ts i n P e k in g no lo n g e r p r e te n d e d o r h id t h e i r d e s i r e f o r a l l p e o p le s t o l i b e r a t e th e m s e lv e s by r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r, a s Communist C hina d i d. Chou c la im e d t h a t "more th a n n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f th e w o r l d 's p o p u la tio n w ant r e v o l u t i o n. " Army J o u r n a l s t a t e d: The P ek in g L i b e r a t i o n "O ur h i g h e s t g o a l i s to r e a l i z e Communism in C hina and a l l o v e r th e w o r ld." I n d i a 's N ehru commented t h a t P ek in g was a p p a r e n tly t r y i n g t o f o r c e i t s ways upon o t h e r s, a s i f i t was c o n f e r s r i n g g r e a t b e n e f i t s upon them. A lth o u g h no p erm a n en t s e c r e t a r i a t was s e t up a t th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e, th e a s s e m b ly 's f i n a l communique recommended t h a t th e Colombo s p o n s o rs p la n to w ard a f u tu r e g a t h e r in g. P r e p a r a t io n s w ere underw ay t o h o ld an A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g a t C a iro i n 1955, b u t i t was i n d e f i n i t e l y p o stp o n e d b e c a u se o f h e ig h te n e d te n s i o n s i n th e M iddle E a s t. T h e r e a f t e r s p o r a d ic a tte m p ts w ere made t o convene a m e e tin g, F r a n k li n B. W e in s te in, "The Second A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e; P r e lim in a r y B o u ts." A sia n S u rv e y. V ( J u l y, 1 9 6 5 ), 367; " A lg e r ia: A C louded F u tu re B e f i r e A fro -A siai?" I n d ia n F o re ig n A f f a i r s, V I I I ( J u n e - J u ly, 1 9 6 5 ), 7 - 8. ^A d ie, "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 4; " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta Vow no C o e x is te n c e w ith I m p e r i a l i s t s. " Background on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1965, 1 - 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 164] === 159 b u t to no a v a i l. L a te i n 1960 S ukarno and S u b a n d rio p u t o u t f e e l e r s a g a in, b u t th e e f f o r t f a i l e d s in c e i t d id n o t r e c e i v e th e en d o rsem e n t o f th e o th e r Colombo P o w ers. On th e o c c a s io n o f th e s ig n in g o f a S in o - I n d o n e s ia n t r e a t y o f a m ity i n D ja k a r ta i n A p r i l, 1961, th e Com m u n ist C h in e se and I n d o n e s ia n s ta te s m e n is s u e d a c a l l f o r an A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e, b u t a g a in th e movement was s t i l l b o r n. ^ I n J u l y, 1962, and a g a in th e fo llo w in g autum n D ja k a r ta s u g g e s te d to th e o t h e r Bandung s t a t e s t h a t a new A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g was n e e d e d. The e r u p t i o n o f th e S in o - I n d ia n b o r d e r w ar i n O c to b e r somehow made th e assem b ly id e a more a t t r a c t i v e to b o th Communist C h in a and P a k i s t a n. In J a n u a r y, 1963, P e k in g c a l l e d f o r su ch a m e e tin g in th e n e a r f u t u r e, and a few m onths l a t e r P a k is ta n p u b l i c l y l e n t i t s s u p p o r t t o th e p l a n. By th e f a l l o f 1963 I n d o n e s ia, Communist C h in a, and P a k is ta n w ere s e c r e t l y c o o p e r a tin g on p la n s to e x p l o i t a p o s s i b l e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r en ce to t h e i r own a d v a n ta g e s. To th e w o r ld, o f c o u r s e, th e y u rg e d th e co n v en in g o f th e assem b ly i n th e name o f p u r s u in g av en u es to b e t t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g and t o e a s e t e n s i o n i n num erous t r o u b l e s p o ts aro u n d th e g lo b e. S ukarno view ed th e c o n fe re n c e a s a c h an c e t o g a in w id e r b a c k in g ^ W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 359; Guy J. P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " A sia n S u rv e y, V (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 2 5. ^G eorge A. M o d e ls k i, I n d o n e s ia and H er N e ig h b o rs: P o lic y A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r th e W est ( P r in c e t o n, 1 9 6 4 ), 6 - 7; W e in s te in, "Second A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 5 9 -3 6 0. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 165] === 160 f o r h i s i n t e n s i f i e d M a la y s ia n cam p aig n. F u r th e r m o r e,•i f M a la y s ia was n o t i n v i t e d, th e new f e d e r a t i o n w ould s u f f e r c o n s id e r a b le l o s s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e; I n d o n e s ia and C h in a w o u ld, o f c o u r s e, v e to th e i n v i t a t i o n. P e k in g n eed e d th e m e e tin g t o c o u n te r S o v ie t c h a rg e s o f C h in e se w arm o n g erin g, and P a k i s t a n, now q u e s ti o n in g i t s a l l i a n c e w ith th e W est, d e s i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h anew i t s image a s a member o f th e A fro -A s ia n com m unity. When in O c to b e r, 1963, p la n s w ere an n o u n ced by I n d i a, Y u g o s la v ia, and th e U n ite d A rab R e p u b lic f o r a n o n a lig n e d n a t i o n s c o n f e r e n c e t h a t w ould e x c lu d e th em, th e C h in e s e, I n d o n e s ia n, and P a k i s t a n i l e a d e r s ' e a g e r n e s s f o r an A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e q u ic k ened. I n th e w i n t e r o f 1963-1964 P e k in g to o k th e i n i t i a t i v e i n s e n d in g a h ig h - r a n k i n g d e l e g a t i o n t o v i s i t t h i r t e e n A f r i c a n, M id d le E a s t e r n, and S o u th A sia n n a t i o n s t o r a l l y s u p p o r t f o r th e c o n f e r e n c e. Some g o v ern m e n ts a g r e e d t o c o o p e r a te o n ly a f t e r P e k in g h a d b r ib e d them w ith g e n e ro u s lo a n s and o u t r i g h t g i f t s o f econom ic a i d. N e e d le s s t o s a y, th e v i s i t s a l s o s e r v e d th e p u rp o s e o f s p r e a d in g C h in e se g o o d w ill and M a o is t id e o lo g y. Chou t o l d th e A f r ic a n s: "We A s ia n and A f r ic a n p e o p le s a r e b r o t h e r s s h a r in g th e same l i f e, b r e a t h, and f o o d." S tre s s in g t h e i r common f i g h t a g a i n s t W e ste rn im p e r ia lis m, h e c a l l e d th e U n ite d S t a t e s " th e a r c h - i m p e r i a l i s t n a t i o n, " more t o be f e a r e d th a n G. H. J a n s e n, "No D ra m a tic R e s u lts from A lg ie r s E x p e c te d," I n d ia n M a r x is t. I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2; W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e li m in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 0; " P e k in g 's S t r a t e g y f o r A fro A sia n M e e t," Indiaii_an^_iJ |o r e ig n LJRe\n^w, I I (May 15, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 - 5. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 166] === 161 a l l o f th e o l d e r c o l o n i a l pow ers o f E u ro p e.^ The C h in e se jo u r n e y s evoked a d is a p p o i n tin g r e s p o n s e; Burma, C ey lo n, and th e U n ite d A rab R e p u b lic w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y c o o l to th e n o ti o n o f a n A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g, some le a d e r s d u b b in g i t " a n o th e r C h in e se p r o j e c t. " I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g th e n t h a t D j a k a r t a 's i n v i t a t i o n t o th e Bandung n a t i o n s t o sen d d e l e g a t e s to a p r e p a r a t o r y m e e tin g a t th e I n d o n e s ia n c a p i t a l p ro d u c e d a l e s s - t h a n - e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e. Ten o f th e Bandung c o u n t r i e s r e j e c t e d th e D ja k a r t a i n v i t a t i o n, and f o u r o f th o s e w h ich a c c e p te d f a i l e d t o sen d d e l e g a t e s. A num ber o f th e tw e n ty -tw o d e l e g a ti o n s w h ich came t o D ja k a r ta opposed th e c a l l i n g o f an A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e, i n c lu d in g th o s e from I n d i a and th e U. A. R. The A rabs a r g u e d, among o t h e r r e a s o n s, t h a t su c h a m e e tin g w ould d e t r a c t from th e p r i o r i t y th e y w ere t r y i n g t o a c h ie v e f o r th e seco n d n o n a l ig n e d - n a t io n s a s s e m b ly, s c h e d u le d f o r O c to b e r, 1964. A t th e D ja k a r t a p la n n in g s e s s i o n i n A p r i l, 1964, th e I n d o n e s ia n d e l e g a t e s p u sh ed f o r th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e a s soon a s p o s s i b l e, p r e f e r a b l y b e f o r e th e n o n a lig n e d n a t i o n s m e e tin g. S u k arn o f e l t t h a t th e new e m erg in g f o r c e s, now c a l l e d th e N e fo s, m ust u n i t e t o sh ak e K yang-hua T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e,” C h in e se Communist A f f a i r s, I I (A u g u st, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 0; C h in -a n P a o, "Chou E n - l a i 's F o u r T r ip s to A f r ic a and th e F ia s c o o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," i b i d., 4; Seymour T o p p in g, "Chou T r ip C a lle d A g ain f o r P e k in g," New Y ork T im es, F e b r u a r y 9, 1964. ^ W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e li m in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 1; "C h in a and A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " I n d ia n and F o r e ig n R eview, I ( A p r il 15, 1 9 6 4 ), 2 1 -2 3. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 167] === 162 o f f new t h r e a t s from th e n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t moves o f th e o ld e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s, now term ed th e N ekolim. N ehru r e t o r t e d t h a t th e p ro p o s e d m eetin g w ould m e re ly d iv id e th e N efos w o rse th a n e v e r. 7 N e v e r th e le s s, th e D ja k a r ta d e l e g a te s e l e c t e d a f i f t e e n - n a t i o n s ta n d in g com m ittee t o la y f i n a l p la n s f o r th e asse m b ly, w h ich th e y d e c id e d t o convene somewhere i n A f r ic a on March 10, 1 0 6 5 - - th e s i t e to b e p ic k e d l a t e r by th e c o m m itte e. I n d i a p ro p o se d th e A f r ic a n l o c a t i o n, p o s s i b l y on th e a s su m p tio n t h a t su ch m ig h t make i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a x is t o d o m in ate th e a f f a i r. The I n d o n e s ia n s w ere v i s i b l y unhappy a b o u t th e s e l e c t i o n, b u t th e I n d ia n p r o p o s a l o b v io u s ly h ad w id e s u p p o r t and was a d o p te d. A p p a re n tly h a v in g in mind P a k i s t a n 's d is p u te s w ith I n d i a, B h u tto, P a k i s t a n 's f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r, p ro p o se d t h a t th e upcom ing c o n fe re n c e s e t up some ty p e o f d ip lo m a tic m a c h in e ry to s e t t l e b i l a t e r a l d is p u te s. S u s p e c tin g t h a t P a k is ta n m ig h t th e r e b y be a b le t o g e t K ash m ir, th e I n d ia n s b lo c k e d th e p r o p o s a l. 10 The p r i n c i p a l c o n tr o v e r s y a t th e D ja k a r ta m e e tin g c o n ce rn ed in v ita tio n s. I n d i a p ro p o se d t o i n v i t e R u s s ia and M a la y s ia, b u t F o re ig n M in is te r Chen Y i o f Communist C hina r e f u s e d t o c o n s id e r th e S o v ie t T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 0; W e in s te in, "Second A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 0 -3 6 1; " P e k in g 's S t r a t e g y f o r A fro -A s ia n M e e t," I n d ia n and F o re ig n R eview. I I, 3 - 5. ■ ^ " P e k in g -D ja k a rta Vow No C o e x is te n c e w ith I m p e r i a l i s t s, " Back grou n d on C h in a. J a n u a ry 2 8, 1965, 1 - 2; A d ie, "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 1 0 -1 1; T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e," 4 0 -4 1; W e in s te in, "Second A s ia n - A f r ic a n Con f e r e n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 3 -3 6 5; J a n s e n, "No D ram atic R e s u lts from A lg ie r s E x p e c te d," 2 1 -2 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 168] === 163 U nion s in c e i t was n o t an A fro -A s ia n c o u n t r y. ^ The P e o p le 's D a i l y, com menting s a r c a s t i c a l l y on th e e p is o d e, a s k e d: "Do th e S o v ie t le a d e r s r e a l l y th i n k t h a t th e A fro -A s ia n c o u n t r i e s c a n n o t s o lv e t h e i r own p ro b lem s i f th e v o ic e o f th e S o v ie t Union i s n o t h e a r d? " The P ek in g o rg a n a l s o w aondered w h e th e r' " th e S o v ie t U nion w i l l s to p a i d in g th e A fro -A s ia n c o u n tie s i f i t c a n n o t e n t e r th e c o n f e r e n c e." 19 The I n d o n e s ia n d e l e g a t i o n s o l i d l y b ack ed th e C h in e se i n o p p o sin g an i n v i t a t i o n to R u s s ia. The I n d o n e s ia n H e ra ld c la im e d t h a t " I n d i a 's move was in te n d e d o n ly t o e m b a rra s s C hina and to o b s t r u c t th e c o u rs e o f th e p r e p a r a t o r y m e e tin g." B h u tto d id n o t commit h im s e lf on th e i s s u e, w is h in g t o a v o id o f f e n s e t o th e S o v ie ts whose tr o o p s s to o d j u s t n o r th o f th e P am irs and v e r y n e a r th e P a k i s t a n i a rm y 's n o rth e rn m o s t p o s titio n s. L a t e r B h u tto seemed to s id e somewhat w ith P e k in g 's s ta n d, b u t he p r o b a b ly was t r y i n g to d i s c r e d i t I n d i a, w hich p ro p o se d th e S o v ie t i n v i t a t i o n. 13 S u b a n d rio, ch a irm a n o f th e D ja k a r ta m e e tin g, r e a l i z e d a f t e r s e v e r a l d ay s o f h e a te d d is c u s s i o n t h a t a s ta le m a te e x i s t e d, so he a p p o in te d a su b co m m itte on i n v i t a t i o n s. The group v o te d a g a i n s t an i n v i t a t i o n t o S o v ie t R u s s ia, and th e m a tte r was c l o s e d, th o u g h th e Seymour T o p p in g, "C h in a C h a lle n g e s R u s s i a 's R ig h t to a R ole i n A s i a," New York T im es, May 10, 1964. ■^Peking P e o p le 's D a i l y, May 3 1, 1964. ■^Quoted i n W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 5 -3 6 6. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 169] === b i t t e r n e s s e n g e n d e re d o v e r th e is s u e d id n o t s u b s id e q u ic k ly. I n d i a 's p r o p o s a l t h a t M a la y s ia be i n v i t e d p ro d u c e d f u r t h e r e v id e n c e o f d i s u n i t y a t th e D ja k a r t a g a t h e r i n g. I n d o n e s ia, Communist C h in a, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s v e h e m e n tly o b je c te d; P a k i s t a n 's s ta n d was a g a in a m b iv a le n t. The su b co m m ittee on i n v i t a t i o n s u l t i m a t e l y r e c e iv e d th e M a la y s ia n c a s e and recommended t h a t an i n v i t a t i o n be e x te n d e d o n ly a f t e r M a la y s ia, I n d o n e s ia, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s h a d r e s o lv e d t h e i r d i f feren ce s. Thus M a la y s ia was n o t i n v i t e d t o th e com ing conference."*"^ As th e c o n f e r e e s d e p a r te d from D ja k a r t a, i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t m ost w ere d i s i l l u s i o n e d a b o u t th e p r o s p e c t o f u n i t y a t th e p ro p o se d A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e. The d e l e g a t e s from I n d o n e s ia, C h in a, and P ak i s t a n is s u e d p u b l i c communiques h a i l i n g th e m e e tin g a s a triu m p h f o r A fro -A s ia n s o l i d a r i t y, b u t t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s o f I n d i a a s a n o b s t r u c t i o n i s t w ere a l s o n o te d. I n d i a, i n t u r n, c h a rg e d t h a t th e D ja k a r t a m e et in g was c o m p le te ly m a n ip u la te d by th e t r c i k a o f C h in a, P a k i s t a n, and Indonesia."*"^ A t i t i C a iro m e e tin g i n J u l y, 1964, th e O r g a n iz a tio n o f A f r ic a n U n ity e n d o rs e d th e com ing A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e and recommended A l g i e r s a s a m e e tin g s i t e. The Columbo Pow ers a g r e e d, and soon p u b l i c a tte n tio n ^ T o p p in g, " C h in a C h a lle n g e s R u s s i a 's R ig h t t o a R ole i n A s i a," 2; P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 42 7. ■ ^P auker, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 4 2 7; "S econd B andung." I n d ia n and F o r e ig n R eview, I (May 1, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 - 5; W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e li m in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 7 -3 6 8. ^ • ’A l g e r i a: A C louded F u tu re B e fo re A f r o -A s ia? " I n d ia n F o re ig n A f f a i r s, V I I I, 7 -8; W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A f r ic a n Conference*. P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 6 9. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 170] === 16 5 s h i f t e d from I n d o n e s ia to A lg e r ia. P ek in g was q u ic k to re s p o n d, sh o w e rin g upon Ben B e l l a 's A lg e r ia n reg im e a $ 5 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 lo a n, a dona t i o n o f $1 2, 0 0 0,0 0 0 f o r c o n fe re n c e e x p e n s e s, a s w e ll a s g i f t s w hich in c lu d e d a 1 3,0 0 0 -to n c a rg o v e s s e l, f o u r a i r t r a n s p o r t s, and much army e q u ip m e n t. M oreover, Chou E n - l a i tw ic e v i s i t e d Ben B e lla on g o o d w ill t r i p s, and num erous m is s io n s o f y o u th, women, and o th e r g ro u p s from P e k in g w en t to A lg ie r s on v a r io u s o c c a s i o n s. ^ P r e s i d e n t Ben B e lla re sp o n d e d by in a u g u r a tin g a n a m b itio u s b u il d in g p ro g ram a t p ic tu r e s q u e C lub Des P i n s, a b each r e s o r t tw e lv e m ile s w e s t o f A lg ie r s w here th e c o n f e r e n c e w ould m e e t. He p la n n e d a 1,0 0 0 - s e a t assem b ly h a l l s u r rou n d ed by s i x t y - f i v e v i l l a s t o h o u se th e d i s t i n g u i s h e d v i s i t o r s. Ben B e l l a 's i n a b i l i t y to co m p lete th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro g ram fo r c e d th e p o stp o n em en t o f th e c o n f e r e n c e 's o p en in g from M arch 10, 1965, t o Ju n e 29. D u rin g th e i n t e r i m P e k in g c o n tin u e d i t s u n ab ash ed c o u r ts h i p o f Ben B e l l a. 18 S im u lta n e o u s ly th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s l a i d i t s p la n s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g th e A lg ie r s m e e tin g. On A u g u st 17, 1964, S ukarno i n an in d e p e n d e n c e -d a y a d d r e s s made i t c l e a r t h a t I n d o n e s ia was no lo n g e r a n o n a lig n e d n a t i o n. S e v e r a l m onths l a t e r F o re ig n M in is te r Chen Yi was i n D ja k a r ta to map new j o i n t p la n s o f s t r a t e g y i n th e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e N ekolim. M eanw hile D ja k a r ta seemed to e n c o u ra g e th e ■ ^T ing, " A l e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and A b o rtio n o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 1. 18 W e in s te in, "S econd A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e: B o u ts," 370 P r e lim in a r y Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 171] === d e s t r u c t i o n o f A m erican p r o p e r ty by ram paging I n d o n e s ia n s a s p r o o f o f I n d o n e s i a 's s o l i d a r i t y w ith th e C o n g o lese r e b e l s, who w ere s u p p lie d by P e k i n g. ^ The P ek in g H sin h u a News A gency, com m enting on a P ek in g m e etin g betw een S u b a n d rio and Chou i n J a n u a r y, 1965, s a i d: p a r t i e s n o te d t h a t im p e r ia lis m and i t s "The two f o llo w e r s a r e t r y i n g to f o r e r s t a l l th e 's e c o n d A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e." I t added t h a t th e —t w e - s t a t e s men " e x p re s s e d t h e i r d e te r m in a tio n to w ork j o i n t l y w ith th e o th e r A sian and A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s f o r th e c o n v e n tio n and s u c c e s s o f t h i s c o n f e r e r n c e." A j o i n t communiqu^ by Chou and S u b a n d rio, q u o te d i n th e P ek in g o rg a n, d e c la r e d t h a t "no p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e i s p o s s i b l e b etw een th e new em erg in g f o r c e s and th e o ld e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s o r b etw een th e im p e r i a l i s t f o r c e s and th e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t. " I t c o n tin u e d: " F in a l v i c t o r y in f o r e v e r e r a d i c a t i n g im p e r ia lis m, c o l o n ia lis m and n e o c o l o n ia li s m w i l l be e n s u r e d, so lo n g a s a l l p r o g r e s s iv e and r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e o p le s o f th e w o rld u n i t e in s o l i d a r i t y and m i l i t a r y c o n s c io u s I n F e b ru a ry th e s ta n d in g co m m ittee s e t up a t th e D ja k a r ta m e e t in g to p la n th e c o n fe re n c e ag en d a is s u e d i t s r e p o r t on t o p i c s to be d is c u s s e d. They in c lu d e d th e c u r r e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n, ra c is m, d isarm am en t, im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e Bandung p e a c e p r i n c i p l e s, im prove ment o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s, c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e, econom ic d ev elo p m en t, and a p erm an en t A fro -A s ia n s e c r e t a r i a t. On th e s u r f a c e, th e agenda 19 D en n is W arner, "Mao Fans th e F i r e s o f W ar." I n d ia n M a r x is t. I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 1 -1 2. “^ P e k in g H sin h u a News A gency, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1965. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 172] === 167 seemed w e ll b a la n c e d, b u t m ost o b s e r v e r s p r e d i c t e d t h a t th e t a l k s w ould l a r g e l y r e v o lv e a b o u t th e i s s u e s o f th e V ietn am ese w a r, th e S in o - S o v ie t c o n f l i c t, th e M a la y s ia n - I n d o n e s ia n c o n f r o n t a t i o n, and th e N efo s-N ek o lim s t r u g g l e. 21 T h ree m onths l a t e r Chou E n - l a i, Chen Y i, and two v ic e f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r s from Communist C hina came to D ja k a r t a to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e t e n t h - a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e. Chou s p e n t much o f h i s tim e t r y i n g to w in a c c o rd f o r h i s p la n s f o r th e upcom ing A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e. Those w ith whom h e c o n f e r r e d in c lu d e d Mohammedi S a id o f A l g e r i a, Zam bia o f N o rth K a lim a n ta n, Madame Sekou T oure o f A f g h a n is ta n, Kim I I Sung o f N o rth K o rea, Pham Van Dong o f N o rth V ietnam, P r in c e S ih an o u k o f C am bodia, a n d, o f c o u r s e, S u k a rn o. 22 S ix ty n a t i o n s w ere i n v i t e d t o th e Bandung a n n i v e r s a r y o c c a s io n, b u t o n ly t h i r t y - s i x s e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s. The Colombo C eylon D a ily News o b s e rv e d t h a t th e m a n eu v erin g a t Bandung i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e had o c c u rre d s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l a lig n m e n ts d u rin g th e p r e v io u s d e c a d e. M ost d e l e g a t e s p r a i s e d th e warm welcome th e y r e c e iv e d in Bandung, b u t some w ere c r i t i c a l o f th e P e k in g D ja k a r ta a tte m p t t o t u r n th e o c c a s io n i n t o a p o l i t i c a l e x e r c i s e. T h a i l a n d 's d e l e g a t i o n d e p a r te d i n i p r o t e s t when p r e s s u r e d on c e r t a i n p o i n t s r e l a t i n g to th e im pending A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g. The I n d ia n s T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D’e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 1. 22,,P e k in g i n A f r o - A s ia," C h in a News A n a l y s i s, J u l y 3 0, 1965, 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 173] === 168 w ere e n ra g e d to f in d t h a t t h e i r n a t i o n 's f l a g was e x c lu d e d from th e c e re m o n ia l m a r c h - p a s t. The a n n i v e r s a r y p ro g ram was m o n o p o lized by 23 s p e a k e r s from I n d o n e s ia, Communist C h in a, and P a k is ta n. ' Soon a f t e r th e Bandung a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n th e s ta n d in g co m m ittee o f th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e announced i t s d e c i s i o n r e g a r d in g th e i n v i t a t i o n l i s t. c o u n trie s: I n v i t a t i o n s w ere th e n s e n t to f i v e g ro u p s o f (1 ) th e member n a t i o n s o f th e O r g a n iz a tio n o f A f r ic a n U n ity; (2 ) th e tw e n ty -n in e c o u n t r i e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e o f 1955; (3 ) th e A fro -A s ia n c o u n t r i e s w hich a n t i c i p a t e d in d e p en d en ce p r i o r t o th e co n v e n in g o f th e seco n d A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e; (4 ) r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e n a t i o n a l i s t movements in c e r t a i n A fro -A s ia n n a t i o n s s t i l l i n c o l o n i a l s t a t u s; and (5 ) a m is c e lla n e o u s grou p t h a t in c lu d e d N o rth K o re a, O u te r M o n g o lia, and th e p r o v i s i o n a l reg im e o f A n g o la. Among th o s e n a t i o n s n o t i n v i t e d w ere S o u th K o rea, S o u th V ietnam, S o v ie t R u s s ia, and M a la y s ia. d iffe re d l i t t l e from t h a t o r i g i n a l l y p ro p o s e d by th e su b co m m ittee a t 24 a t th e D ja k a r ta m e e tin g. re p lie d: Thus th e f i n a l l i s t Asked a b o u t some, o f th e e x c l u s i o n s, S ukarno 11No one now s e r i o u s l y r e g a r d s th e S a ig o n go v ern m en t a s a g o v ern m e n t. N o n -fre e S a ig o n i s n o t A s ia, n e i t h e r i s K u ala Lumpur, S e o u l, T a i p e i, Okinawa o r th e K u r ile I s l a n d s. ’"” ' ^ A i d i e, " C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 11. ^ T i n g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 2; P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o lid a r ity," 426. ^ Q u o te d i n A i d i e, " C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 1 1 -1 2. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 174] === 16 9 R e je c tio n s o f i n v i t a t i o n s w ere soon fo rth c o m in g. I n A p r i l th e F re n c h -s p e a k in g A f r ic a n n a t i o n s o f Dahomey, I v o r y C o a s t, Upper V o lta, and N ig e r announced t h a t th e y w ould n o t p a r t i c i p a t e. I n May t e n o u t o f th e f i f t e e n member n a t i o n s o f th e Common O r g a n iz a tio n o f A f r ic a n and M alag asy S t a t e s (OCAM), w hich was c r e a te d a few m onths e a r l i e r a t a c o n fe re n c e i n M a u r e ta n ia, s t a t e d t h a t th e y w ould n o t a t t e n d. O b je c t i o n s d i f f e r e d from s t a t e to s t a t e, b u t many a p p a r e n tly d i s t r u s t e d th e m o tiv e s o f th e s p o n s o r s, f e a r i n g t h a t t h e i r weak n a t i o n s w ould somehow be u sed t o a c h ie v e en d s w hich c o u ld l i t t l e b e n e f i t th e A f r ic a n p e o p l e s.26 N a s s e r, N ehru, and T i to w ere c o n v in ced t h a t P ek in g in te n d e d to e x p l o i t th e A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e t o th e u tm o st f o r M a o ist e n d s, so th e y e n d ea v o red t o form a new f r o n t o f n o n a lig n e d n a t io n s to c o u n te r th e Communist C h in e se p u r p o s e s. T hese th r e e s ta te s m e n w ere th e m ain d r a f t e r s o f an a p p e a l i n A p r i l, 1965, by s e v e n te e n n o n a lig n e d n a t io n s f o r a tr u c e in V ietnam. The P e o p l e d D a i l y, u n d o u b te d ly e c h o in g th e s e n tim e n t o f th e P e k in g l e a d e r s h i p, a i r i l y d is m is s e d th e a p p e a l " a s a c r e a t i o n m asterm in d ed by th e T i to c l i q u e o f Y u g o s a lv ia, c a t e r i n g to th e i n t e r e s t s o f A m erican im p e r ia l is m." The n ew sp ap er c o n tin u e d: "The s e v e n te e n - n a tio n a p p e a l makes no m e n tio n a t a l l o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s i m p e r i a l i s t i n t e r v e n t i o n and a g g r e s s io n i n V ietnam, b u t i n s t e a d makes g e n e r a l and vague c h a r g e s a g a i n s t f o r e ig n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n v a r io u s P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 428; " P e k in g and th e A fro -A s ia n C om m unity," I n d ia n and F o re ig n R eview, I I (Ju n e 15, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 - 5. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 175] === 170 f o r m s. I n l i g h t o f th e f a c t s t h a t th e m a jo r it y o f i n v i t a t i o n a c c e p ta n c e s w ere by n o n a lig n e d n a t io n s and t h a t P ek in g f u l l y in te n d e d to t r y t o make th e s e c o u n t r i e s a l t e r t h e i r p o s i t i o n s, th e seco n d A fro A sia n c o n fe re n c e was earm ark ed f o r t r o u b l e from th e s t a r t. 28 A t th e f o r t y - f i f t h a n n iv e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e PKI, h e ld a t D ja k a r ta in May, 1965, th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a x i s ' d i f f e r e n c e s w ith S o v ie t p o l i c i e s w ere much in e v i d e n c e. S in c e th e S in o - S o v ie t c o n f l i c t was a s i g n i f i c a n t fo c u s o f A fro -A s ia n r e l a t i o n s, th e new anti-M oscow a t t a c k s a t th e PKI c e l e b r a t i o n w ere n o te d by many p r o s p e c ti v e none a lig n e d p a r t i c i p a n t s i n th e A fro -A s ia n a sse m b ly. S uk arn o to o k a l i v e l y p a r t i n th e PKI c e re m o n ie s, among o th e r th i n g s t e l l i n g th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist a u d ie n c e t h a t h e " lo v e d th e Communist p a r t y, a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a r t y, w ith th r e e m i l l i o n members, t h r e e m i l l i o n y o u th, and tw e n ty m i l l i o n s u p p o r t e r s, th e a v a n t- g a r d e o f o p p o s iti o n to M alay s ia." Peng Chen, a r a n k in g member o f th e P e k in g p o l i t b u r o. th e n d e l i v e r e d a lo n g h a ra n g u e a g a i n s t M oscow's r e v is i o n is m; he a l s o a tte m p te d t o r e f u t e th e S o v ie t a l l e g a t i o n t h a t P e k in g d id n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t th e w o r l d 's b la c k and y e llo w p e o p le s. A i d i t p r e s e n te d a PKI c e n t r a l co m m ittee r e p o r t w h ich a l s o condemned S o v ie t i d e o l o g i c a l e rro rs. 29 ^ P e k i n g P e o p le 1s D a i l y, A p r il 2 2, 1965. 2®Pao, "Chou E n - l a i 's F our T r ip s to A f r ic a n and th e F ia s c o o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 13. 29»»pe k in g i n A f r o - A s ia," C hina News A n a l y s i s, " 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 176] === D e s p ite th e show o f S in o - I n d o n e s ia n harm ony, th e two a l l i e s w ere n o t i n a s c l o s e ag ree m en t a s s u g g e s te d. I n l a t e May S u b a n d rio and Chou c la s h e d s h a r p ly a t a C an to n m e e tin g o v e r th e o ld q u e s ti o n o f i n v i t a t i o n s t o th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e. Chou w arn ed t h a t, i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e w id e s p re a d s u p p o r t among A f r ic a n s and A s ia n s on c e r t a i n k ey p o i n t s a t th e com ing c o n f e r e n c e, P e k in g m ig h t be c o m p elle d to y i e l d to th e i n s i s t e n c e o f some n a t io n s t h a t M a la y s ia be in c lu d e d i n th e c o n f e r e n c e m em b ersh ip. -S u b an d rio la s h e d b a c k t h a t I n d o n e s ia m ig h t th e n be f o rc e d t o s u p p o r t S o v ie t p a r t i c i p a t i o n, w hich a num ber o f n o n a lig n e d c o u n t r i e s w ere s t i l l p u s h in g. C o in c id in g w ith t h i s open c l a s h was a t r i p by N a s u tio n t o Moscow w here he o b ta in e d a g e n e ro u s S o v ie t g r a n t t o b u i l d w e a p o n s-m a in te n a n c e w o rk sh o p s i n I n d o n e s ia. u On Ju n e 19, 1965, Chou E n - l a i, Chen Y i, and a b o u t s i x t y C h in e se o f f i c i a l s and a d v i s e r s a r r i v e d i n C a iro en r o u te t o A l g i e r s. T hat same d a y news a r r i v e d o f a sudden coup i n A l g i e r s, i n w h ich Ben B e l la was o u s te d by a j u n t a h ead e d by C o lo n e l H o u a ri B oum edienne, th e d e fe n s e m in is te r o f A lg e ria. Thus ended n o t o n ly Ben B e l l a 's t h r e e - y e a r t y r a n - ny b u t a l s o th e o f te n - p o s tp o n e d A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e. 31 The c o n s e n s u s o f m ost w o u ld -b e p a r t i c i p a n t s was t h a t th e ch ao s i n A l g e r i a 's i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s p r e c lu d e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f co n v e n in g th e m e e tin g i n th e n e a r f u tu re, a t l e a s t in th a t lo c a tio n. 30 Not a few o f th e A rab, A f r ic a n, and P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 4 2 8. ■ ^ "P ek in g i n A f r o - A s ia," C h in a News A n a l y s i s, 3; P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 42 9; "S eesaw Sum m it," Tim e. LXXXVI ( J u l y 2, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2 -2 3. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 177] === 172 A s ia n l e a d e r s b r e a th e d a s ig h o f r e l i e f a t th e t u r n o f e v e n t s. Even b e f o r e th e A lg e r ia n coup N ehru a p p a r e n tly p e rs u a d e d N a s s e r and a num-< b e r o f s ta te s m a n o f th e E n g lis h - s p e a k in g A f r ic a n s t a t e s t h a t p o s tp o n e m ent w ould b e w is e. Many o b s e r v e r s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t th e c o n f e r e n c e 's p o stp o n e m e n t was a s e v e r e d ip lo m a tic s e tb a c k f o r th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta f a c t i o n, w h ich c o n tin u e d to t r y to sa v e th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e. 32 Chou, who n e v e r made i t to A l g i e r s, f r a n t i c a l l y e n d e a v o re d t o sway N a s s e r. A t a C a ir o b a n q u e t g iv e n by N a s s e r, Chou blam ed th e A ng lo -A m erican b lo c f o r u n d e rm in in g th e m e e tin g. He a l s o denounced B r i t i s h p o l i c y i n th e M iddle E a s t a s p r o - I s r a e l i, o b v io u s ly t r y i n g t o c u r r y N a s s e r 's f a v o r. On Ju n e 2 2, two e v e n in g s l a t e r, Chou was h o s t a t a d in n e r i n N a s s e r 's h o n o r. T h ere Chou a s s e r t e d t h a t th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e w ould be h e ld somewhere somehow d e s p i t e th e A lg e r ia n c o u p. I n h i s own s p e e c h e s N a s s e r ig n o re d th e C h in e se e f f o r t t o e x p l o i t h i s a n t i - B r i t i s h, a n t i - I s r a e l i b i a s and s t a t e d f l a t l y t h a t th e A lg e r ia n a f f a i r m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t c o n v en in g th e d e l e g a t e s i n th e near f u tu r e.^ Chou th e n h u r r i e d one o f h i s en v o y s t o A l g i e r s t o a s s u r e Boum edienne t h a t P e k in g s u p p o rte d h i s new reg im e and fa v o re d g o in g ah ead w ith th e c o n f e r e n c e a t A l g i e r s. I n d o n e s ia s im u lta n e o u s ly " A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e: On t o Guy Fawkes D a y," E c o n o m ist. CCXVI ( J u l y 3 - 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 6; " A fro -A s ia: A M y th --an d a S o b er R e a l i t y, " Newsweek. LXVI ( J u l y 12, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 9. ■^Pao, "Chou E n - l a i 's F o u r T r ip s t o A f r ic a n and th e F ia s c o o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 141. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 178] === re c o g n iz e d th e Boumedienne g o v ern m en t. The h a s t y abandonm ent o f Ben B e lla by Chou and S u k arn o, who had b o th p r e v io u s l y p la y e d f o r h i s f a v o r, made a p o o r im p re s s io n upon n e u t r a l i s t s and le d many t o d o u b t th e s i n c e r i t y o f P ek in g and D j a k a r t a 's f r i e n d l y o v e r t u r e s. A t a B r i t i s h Commonwealth p rim e m i n i s t e r s ' m e etin g i n London on Ju n e 2 1, t h i r t e e n A fro -A s ia n m i n i s t e r s s ig n e d a r e s o l u t i o n f a v o r in g p o stp o n em en t o f th e c o n fe re n c e o f A f r ic a n and A sia n s t a t e s. News s p re a d r a p i d l y to n o n a lig n e d c a p i t a l s t h a t H siung H s ie n - h u e i, P e k in g 's c h a rg e d 'a f f a i r e s in London, com m itted f l a g r a n t v i o l a t i o n s o f p r o to c o l i n t r y i n g t o " s tr o n g - a r m " th e Commonwealth m i n i s t e r s i n t o s u p p o r tin g an A fro -A s ia n assem b ly t h a t s u m m e r.^ D e s p ite th e e f f o r t s o f th e C h in e s e, I n d o n e s ia n, P a k i s t a n i, and A lg e r ia n d ip lo m a ts, th e c o n f e r e n c e 's s ta n d in g com m ittee m et and v o te d to p o s tp o n e th e A fro -A s ia n m e etin g u n t i l November 5, 1965. 36 The d e c i s i o n was o b v io u s ly a m a jo r d e f e a t f o r th e c o n fe re n c e p ro m o te rs, e s p e c i a l l y P e k in g and D ja k a r t a. The m o d e ra te le a d e r s o f th e A fro - A sia n w o rld, f o r th e m ost p a r t, w ere s a t i s f i e d; some ev en i n t e r p r e t e d p o stp o n em en t a s a triu m p h f o r th e n e u t r a l i s t s. Moscow i n d i r e c t l y p r o f i t e d s in c e th e u n p r e d ic ta b l e t e s t o f s t r e n g t h w ith P e k in g was a v e rte d. N eh ru, who a l l a lo n g h ad opp o sed th e c o n f e r e n c e, b egan to P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 4 2 9. •^ I b i d., 4 3 0; " A fro -A s ia: A M y th --an d a Somber R e a l i t y, " Newsweek. LXVI, 3 9 -4 0; T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and A b o rtio n o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 3. • ^ P a u k e r, " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " 431; " A fro -A s ia: A M yth--A Somber R e a l i t y, " Newsweek, LXVL, 39. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 179] === 174 r e a s s e r t h i s fo rm e rly i n f l u e n t i a l r o l e a s a l e a d e r o f th e n o n a lig n e d b lo c. An u n i d e n t i f i e d I n d o n e s ia n d ip lo m a t c o n f e s s e d: " T h is s o r t o f c o n fe re n c e i s to o u n w ie ld y, to o l a r g e an u n d e r ta k in g. The f a c t i s t h a t a p a r t from o u r econom ic d ev elo p m en t p r o b le m s -- o u r o n ly r e a l com mon d e n o m in a to r- -we A fro -A s ia n s h a v e l i t t l e io n e d A rab spokesm an o b s e rv e d: more a s A fro -A s ia n ism. i n common." A d is illu s i- "T h ere i s s im p ly no su ch th i n g an y I t h a s b een ta k e n o v e r by th e b ig n a t i o n s l i k e C h in a, who e x p l o i t i t f o r t h e i r own p e r s o n a l, p o l i t i c a l e n d s. e x p e c t th e r e w i l l n e v e r be a n o th e r. A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e w o rth y o f th e n o m a **37 nam I n s p i t e o f th e a b o r ti o n o f th e c o n f e r e n c e, th e C h in e se Com m u n ists r e f u s e d t o a d m it f a i l u r e. F o re ig n M i n i s t e r Chen Y i is s u e d a communique in A lg ie r s w hich c la im e d t h a t th e p o stp o n em en t was f o r th e p u rp o s e o f m aking b e t t e r p r e p a r a t i o n s. Communist p a p e r, s a id on Ju n e 3 0: S h a n g h a i's Wen Wei P a o. a "The c o n f e r e n c e i s p o stp o n e d f o r fo u r m o n th s, d u r in g w hich th e A fro -A s ia n p e o p le s w i l l w in more v i c t o r i e s i n t h e i r a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t s t r u g g l e, th e a n ti- A m e r ic a n r e v o lu tio n!a r y s i t u a t i o n o v e r th e w o rld w i l l be im p ro v ed, and th e A fro -A s ia n n a t io n s w i l l be b e t t e r p r e p a r e d f o r th e c o n f e r e n c e." I t c o n c lu d e d: "The c o n fe re n c e w i l l be more s u c c e s s f u l and w i l l d e a l a h e a v i e r blow t o th e W estern i m p e r i a l i s t s and t h e i r l a c k e y s." 38 " A fro -A s ia: A M yth— and a Somber R e a l i t y, " Newsweek, LXVI, 4 0; " A fro -A s ia: The Faded D ream." Time:, LXXXVI (November 12, 1 9 6 5 ), 40. 38 T a ip e i F re e C hina W eekly, J u l y 4, 1965; T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o rtio n o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 4 -4 5. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 180] === 175 Chou and S uk arn o d id manage t o p e r s u a d e N a s s e r and P r e s i d e n t Ayub Khan o f P a k is ta n t o h o ld a n a b b r e v i a te d summit m e e tin g i n C a iro b e f o r e th e d e l e g a te s d e p a r te d f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c a p i t a l s. o n ly th o s e f o u r n a t i o n s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p a r t i c i p a t e d. A c tu a l ly The E g y p tia n p r e s s was l a r g e l y a n t a g o n i s t i c to w ard Chou, n o ti n g t h a t th e A lg e r ia n coup a t l e a s t e n a b le d him t o s t a y lo n g e r i n C a ir o, h i s v i s i t e x te n d in g from Ju n e 19 t o J u l y 1. a c c o m p lis h e d. A t th e C a iro m e e tin g v i r t u a l l y n o th in g was S uk arn o a rg u e d f o r a f u t u r e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e i n I n d o n e s ia, N a sse r p r e f e r r e d E g y p t, and n o th in g was d e c id e d on th e m a tte r. A j o i n t communique was is s u e d on J u n e 3 0, h o w ev er, i n w hich i t was p o in te d o u t t h a t th e p o stp o n e m e n t was n o t a s e tb a c k f o r A fro A s ia n u n i t y, th e c o n f e r e e s w ould c o n tin u e to cham pion th e Bandung p r i n c i p l e s, and th e N efos w ould i n t e n s i f y t h e i r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e N ekolim i n th e y e a r a h e a d. 39 On S ep tem b er 2 w ar b ro k e o u t b etw een I n d i a and P a k i s t a n. Two d ay s l a t e r Chen Y i a r r i v e d i n K a r a c h i, p u b l i c l y a f f ir m in g t h a t "C h in a c o m p le te ly s y m p a th iz e s w ith and s u p p o r ts th e K ashm ir p e o p l e 's j u s t s t r u g g l e t o r e s i s t I n d i a 's t y r a n n i c a l r u l e. " ^ j n P e k in g, Chou s t a t e d: "The I n d ia n r e a c t i o n a r i e s c o u ld n o t h av e en g ag ed i n su ch a s e r i o u s 39 " A fro -A s ia: A M y th --an d a Somber R e a l i t y, " Newsweek, LXVI, 3 9 -4 0; T in g, " A l g e r i a 's Coup D 'e t a t and th e A b o r tio n o f th e A fro A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e," 4 5 -4 6; "Warm H an d sh ak es, C ool G la n c e s," E c o n o m is t, CCXVI ( J u l y 3 - 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 6. ^ C h a lm e r s M. R o b e r t, "U. S.- S o v i e t D ip lo m a tic P r e s s u r e H a lte d th e I n d ia - P a k is ta n W a r," W ash in g to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 2 7, 1965; "Chen Y i 's P re S s C o n feren c e i n K a r a c h i," P e k in g R eview, S ep tem b er 1 0,.1965, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 181] === 176 m i l i t a r y a d v e n tu r e w ith o u t th e c o n s e n t and s u p p o r t o f th e U n ite d S ta t e s, and th e en co u rag em en t o f th e m odern r e v i s i o n i s t s. As th e w ar s p re a d t h a t autum n, P a k is ta n b ro k e d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s w ith M a la y s ia, a c c u s in g K u ala Lumpur o f a i d in g th e I n d ia i ls. B h u tto c la im e d t h a t " M a la y s ia f a i l e d t o make th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een a g r e s s o r and a g g r e s s e d i n th e I n d o - P a k i s t a n i d i s p u t e. " ^ announced s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r: S uk arn o "The p e o p le o f I n d o n e s ia w h o le h e a r te d ly s u p p o r t th e p e o p le o f K ashm ir and P a k is ta n in t h e i r h o u rs o f t r i a l. " The b i l a t e r a l a l l i a n c e o f D ja k a r t a and P e k in g was a p p a r e n tly expanded now to in c lu d e P a k is ta n i n a g ra n d d e s ig n t o sweep th e N ekolim s o u t o f S o u th and S o u th e a s t A s ia. B ut th e l a t e r a r m i s t i c e in th e I n d ia n - P a k i s - t a n i w ar and th e f r u s t r a t e d Communist coup i n I n d o n e s ia th w a rte d t h i s t r i p a r t i t e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e f o r e i t m a tu re d. When th e A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e 's s ta n d in g co m m ittee r e v e r s e d i t s e a r l i e r d e c i s i o n and d e c la r e d i n f a v o r o f S o v ie t and M a la y s ia n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t th e f u t u r e c o n f e r e n c e, P e k in g, K a r a c h i, and D ja k a r ta a l l s e n t word t h a t th e y w ould b o y c o tt th e A fro -A s ia n m e e tin g, now s e t f o r November 5, 1965. A t an A fro -A s ia n f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r s ' m e e tin g in A lg ie r s on November 2, i t was d e c id e d t o p o s tp o n e i n d e f i n i t e l y th e c o n tro v e r s ia l c o n fe re n c e. The P ek in g Review commented: " T h is r e s u l t 41 " C h in e se G overnm ent L e a d e rs Condemn I n d ia n E x p an sio n ism and A g g re s s io n a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n," P ek in g R eview, S ep tem b er 17, 1965, 5. ^ W a s h in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 6, 1965. ^ P a k i s t a n Em bassy, C a ir o, P a k i s t a n News, S ep tem b er 8, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 182] === 177 o f th e m e e tin g shows t h a t th e Bandung s p i r i t w hich gave e x p r e s s io n to th e A fro -A s ia n p e o p l e s ' d e s i r e f o r u n i t y a g a i n s t im p e r ia lis m p r e v a i l s once a g a in a f t e r overcom ing a l l o b s t a c l e s. " ^ " The P ek in g e d i t o r i a l i s t ' s r e a s o n in g was d i f f i c u l t f o r m ost non-Com m unist a n a l y s t s to: f o llo w. A c tu a lly Chou and S ukarno knew by th e f a l l o f 1965 t h a t th e p r o j e c t e d A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e w ould n o t be dom in ated by them. Most o f th e o th e r w o u ld -b e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e a l i z e d t h a t A fro -A s ia n u n i t y was a myth and t h a t th e c o n fe re n c e w ould l i k e l y become an a r e n a o f i n s o l u b le c o n f l i c t s. I n view o f th e t u r n o f e v e n t s, i t was h ig h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t, i f and when th e c o n fe re n c e m e t, P e k in g and D ja k a r ta w ould be a t th e h e l m. ^ P e t e r B r a e s tr u p, " A f r ic a n - A s ia n P a r le y C a n c e le d: Communist C hina C laim s V i c t o r y," New York T im es, November 2, 1965; W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2 6, 1965; P ek in g R eview, November 5 S 1965, 7. 4 5 " A fro -A s ia n: The Faded D ream," Tim e, LXXXVI, 4 0. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 183] === CHAPTER V I I I COLLAPSE OF THE DJAKARTA-PEKING AKIS S in o - I n d o n e s ia n r e l a t i o n s w ere n e v e r a s c o r d i a l a s S u k arn o and Chou p r e te n d e d. One o f th e t h o r n i e s t i s s u e s was th e a n im o s ity many I n d o n e s ia n s h e ld to w ard th e r e s i d e n t C h in e se o f t h e i r la n d. On May 10, 1963, u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s a t Bandung s p a rk e d an a n t i- C h in e s e r i o t w hich r e s u l t e d i n th e d e a th o f t h i r t e e n and th e w ounding o f s e v e r a l h u n d red C h in e se; p r o p e r t y d e s t r u c t i o n was v a lu e d a t n e a r l y $ 4,0 0 0,0 0 0.^ tim e S u b a n d rio sim p ly s a i d: A t th e "We a l l a p p r e c i a t e th e m i l i t a n t a t t i t u d e o f th e y o u th and th e com m unity. T h is m i l i t a n t a t t i t u d e m ust be th e t o o l o f o u r r e v o l u t i o n and n o t th e t o o l o f th e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y e le m e n ts. When P ek in g demanded an e x p l a n a t i o n, S uk arn o on May 19 announced t h a t th e r e a l b £ te n o i r e o f th e May 10 i n c i d e n t was th e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y e le m e n t, le d by th e M asjum i and S o c i a l i s t p a r tie s t "T hese e le m e n ts h ad e s p e c i a l l y p ic k e d o u t th e C h in e se m i n o r ity f o r " P e k in g and I n d o n e s i a," C hina News A n a ly s is. F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1965, 1 -2; W illa r d A. H anna. " I n d o n e s i a." H e a d lin e S e r i e s. November Decem ber, 1961, 4 8; W ash in g to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 2 6, 1966; "Awkward V i s i t o r, " Newsweek, L X III, 4 4; Van D er K ro e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 332; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, th e Army and th e Com m unists: The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e," 971. ^Q uoted i n "P e k in g and I n d o n e s i a," C hina News A n a l y s i s, F e b ru a ry 12, 1965, 5. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 184] === 179 t h e i r n e f a r i o u s schem es b e c a u se we h av e l a t e l y b een in c l o s e c o n t a c t w ith P e o p l e 's C h in a." The P e k in g Review a d o p te d S u k a r n o 's v iew and blam ed th e v io l e n c e on th o s e who w ish e d t o d i s r u p t th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a llia n c e. The C h in e se am b assad o r a t D ja k a r t a a c c e p te d S u k a r n o 's a p o lo g y f o r th e u n f o r t u n a t e e p is o d e and th e P r e s i d e n t 's a s s u r a n c e t h a t h e w ould p r e v e n t a r e c u r r e n c e. I n t r u t h, h o s t i l i t i e s b etw een th e In d o - n e s i a n and C h in e se i n h a b i t a n t s o f I n d o n e s ia w ere o f lo n g s t a n d i n g. The r i o t i n g d id n o t d i s r u p t p la n s f o r th e GANEFO, o r Games o f th e New E m erging F o r c e s, s ta g e d a t D ja k a r ta th e f o llo w in g N ovem ber. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l O lym pic Com m ittee e x p e l le d I n d o n e s ia from O lym pic c o m p e titio n a f t e r D ja k a r t a e x c lu d e d N a t i o n a l i s t C h in e se and I s r a e l i a t h l e t e s from th e F o u rth A sia n Games, h e l d a t D ja k a r t a in 1962. T hereu p o n S u k arn o v i c i o u s l y denounced th e O lym pics a n d, w ith P e k in g 's c o o p e r a tio n, fo rm u la te d i t s own c o m p e titio n f o r th e new e m erg in g f o r c e s o n ly. The P e o p l e 's D a ily h a i l e d "GANEFO's f u l l d i s p l a y o f th e s p i r i t o f d em ocracy and e q u a l i t y " a s a p l e a s i n g c o n t r a s t to th e O lym pic c o n t e s t s, w h ich w ere " p o is o n e d b y i m p e r i a l i s t e le m e n ts. ^Van D er K r o e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 3 3; " I n d o n e s ia n C h in e se F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r s ' J o i n t Com m unique," A s ia & A f r ic a R eview, I (May, 1 9 6 1 ), 3; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, The Army and th e Com m unists: th e T r ia n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 1 -9 7 2. ^ P e k in g R eview, May 2 4, 1963, 2 0; "The R io ts i n J a v a, " F a r E a s t e r n Economic R ev iew, XXXX (May 3 0, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 6 3 -4 6 4. ^Van D er K ro e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 3 5 0 -3 5 1; P e k in g P e o p l e 's D a i l y, November 2 3, 1963; F e i t h, " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, th e Army and th e C om m unists: The T r i a n g le Changes S h a p e," 9 7 4 -9 7 5; Ebon, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e to S u c c e s s,” 9 3; " P e k in g and I n d o n e s i a," C h in a News A n a l y s i s, F e b ru a ry 12, 1965, 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 185] === 180 The M a la y s ia n and V ietn am ese is s u e s w ere im p o r ta n t in f u r t h e r cem e n tin g th e t i e s b etw een Communist C hina and S u k a r n o 's re g im e. P e k in g f u l l y e n d o rs e d th e I n d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t 's " c r u s h M a la y s ia " d r i v e, a s i n A p r i l, 1963, when CPC l e a d e r L iu S h ao -C h i v i s i t e d D ja r k a ta and p r a i s e d I n d o n e s ia a s "a n im p o r ta n t f o r c e o p p o sin g im p eri a l i s m and c o l o n ia li s m i n S o u th e a s t A s i a." On th e o t h e r h an d, S ukarno l e n t h i s f u l l s u p p o r t v o c a l l y to th e V ie tc o n g 's f i g h t, w h ich p le a s e d P e k in g.^ M o reo v er, I n d o n e s ia and Communist C h in a j o i n t l y sp o n so re d a t D ja k a r t a i n O c to b e r, 1963, an A fro -A s ia n L ab o r C o n fe re n c e, d e l i b e r a t e l y convened a t th e tim e o f th e S o v ie t C o n feren c e o f T rad e U nions t o lu r e a s many la b o r g ro u p s a s p o s s i b l e from th e Moscow r e v i s i o n i s t s ' meeting. I n D ecem ber, 1963, S u k arn o, a g a in i n c l o s e c o n ju n c tio n w ith P e k in g, b eg an la y in g g r a n d io s e p la n s f o r C0NEF0, th e C o n fe re n c e o f th e New Em erging F o r c e s. D e s p ite th e a p p a l lin g s q u a lo r i n h i s c o u n tr y, S uk arn o w en t ah ead w ith an e x p e n s iv e b u il d in g p ro g ram f o r CONEFO, s c h e d u le d t o m eet i n 1966. The CONEFO com plex i n D ja k a r t a, n e x t to. th e Bung K arno s ta d iu m, in c lu d e d a 2,5 0 0 - s e a t a u d ito r iu m, 3,0 0 0 - s e a t b a n q u e t h a l l, num erous m onum ents, and o th e r c o s t l y p r o j e c t s. T o ta l c o s t was e s tim a te d c o n s e r v a t i v e l y a t $ 1 6,0 0 0,0 0 0, w ith P e k in g s u p p ly in g t e c h n i c a l a d v ic e and some m a t e r i a l s. A y e a r a f t e r th e CONEFO ^P e k in g R eview, A p r il 19, 1963, 9. ^D enis W arn er, " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta A x is," R e p o r t e r, XXXIII (S ep tem b er 2 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 5 -2 6; I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f I n f o r m a tio n, Handbook o f th e P o l i t i c a l M a n ife s to ( D ja k a r ta, 1 9 6 1 ), 5 0. ®Van D er K ro e f, " S in o - I n d o n e s ia n P a r t n e r s h i p, " 3 5 1 -3 5 2. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 186] === 181 p la n s w ere announced, S ukarno was c e r t a i n o n ly o f th e s u p p o r t o f Communist C h in a, N o rth K o rea, N o rth V ietnam, Cam bodia, and p o s s i b l y P a k is ta n. When S ukarno to o k I n d o n e s ia o u t o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s i n e a r l y 1965, h e hoped t h a t o th e r n a t io n s w ould soon f o llo w s u i t; he c o u ld th e n expand h i s CONEFO dream to UNEFO, a U n ite d N a tio n s o f New Em erging F o r c e s. I n d o n e s i a 's r e s i g n a t i o n from th e U n ite d N a tio n s drew warm p r a i s e from m ain lan d C h in a. Chen Y i c a l l e d i t " t h e f i r s t s p r in g th u n d e r o f 1965, w h ich w i l l c a u s e i m p e r i a l i s t s to tr e m b le." from M ao's p o e tr y to S u k a rn o 's move: He a p p lie d a p h ra s e "The fo u r s e a s a r e r o a r i n g and th e w a te r s a r e a n g ry; th e f i v e c o n t in e n ts tre m b le i n s to rm and t h u n d e r."1® When S u b an d rio v i s i t e d P e k in g i n l a t e J a n u a r y, 1965, Chou commented i n a b a n q u e t a d d r e s s: s a c ro s a n c t. "The U n ite d N a tio n s i s n o t so m eth in g What I n d o n e s ia h a s done showed th e w o rld t h a t one can q u i t th e U n ite d N a tio n s, o r one c a n, l i k e C h in a, j u s t n o t e n t e r and be h ap p y o u t s i d e; one f o u r th o f th e human r a c e i s n o t i n. The w ith d ra w a l o f I n d o n e s ia g r e a t l y p ro m o tes th e j u s t s t r u g g l e o f th e A fro -A s ia n H arvey S to ck w in, " C o n s tr u c tin g UNEFO," F a r E a s t e r n Economic R eview, VLVIII (Ju n e 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 6 1 -4 6 2; A d ie, "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," 11; "V engeance W ith a S m ile." Tim e. LXXXVII ( J u l y 15, 1 9 6 6 ), 2 2; R ic h a rd B u tw e ll, " I n d o n e s ia D e fin e s In d ep en d en ce Anew." C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. A ugust 17, 1966; W e in s te in, "Second A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e: P r e lim in a r y B o u ts," 3 72; "A n o th er B ig C o u n try A bout to Go t o th e R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LXXX, 8 0; W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2 1, 1965; New York Times, J u l y 6, 1966; W arn er, " P e k in g D ja k a r ta A x is," 2 5; D usen, " I n d o n e s ia Today: ^ N a t i o n i n T u rm o il," 587; T a ip e i C hina News, O c to b er 2 0, 1965; ■^Peking P e o p le 's D a il y, J a n u a r y 12, 1965. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 187] === 11 p e o p le s f o r th e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e U n ite d N a ti o n s. 11 M erdeka commented: D a j a k a r t a 's "The p u rp o s e o f th e m is s io n o f S u b a n d rio t o P ek in g i s th e s tr e n g t h e n in g o f t h i s p r o g r e s s iv e and r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i t y. The In d o n e s ia n p e o p le b e l i e v e t h a t th e m is s io n o f S u b a n d rio w i l l a c h ie v e a b r i l l i a n t s u c c e s s i n th e i n t e r e s t o f th e v i c t o r y o f th e I n d o n e s ia n re v o lu tio n." M erdeka c o n tin u e d: To th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le, i t i s so m eth in g u n u s u a l and e v en l o g i c a l b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e num erous s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een th e two b ig n a t i o n s. I n d o n e s ia and th e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a a r e b o th r e v o l u t i o n a r y and p r o g r e s s i v e. They a c h ie v e d t h e i r g r e a t n e s s and p r o g r e s s th ro u g h th e f i r e o f t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n s; b o th c o u n t r i e s a r e h ead e d by two g r e a t w o rld l e a d e r s, JBung K arno and Mao T s e - tu n g. B oth n a t i o n s a r e i n t e r e s t ed i n th e f i g h t f o r e l i m i n a t i n g n e o - c o l o n ia l is m from th e f a c e o f th e w o rld. They a r e a l s o f i g h t i n g f o r th e same a i m. ^ O th e r o rg a n s o f p u b l i c o p in io n jo in e d th e r e f r a i n, la u d in g th e e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g t i e s b etw een Communist C hina and I n d o n e s ia. The D ja k a r ta W arta B h a k ti on J a n u a r y 2 1, 1965, s a i d th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s c a s t f e a r i n th e h e a r t s o f a l l i m p e r i a l i s t s. 13 T h at same day B e r i t a I n d o n e s ia, a n o t h e r D ja k a r ta p a p e r, s t a t e d t h a t S u b a n d r io 's m is s io n was t o " d is c h a r g e h i s d w ik o ra d u ty i n s tr e n g t h e n in g th e u n i t y A-w r o f th e c o u n t r i e s b e lo n g in g to th e New E m erging F o rc e s i n e f f o r t s to d e s tr o y th e f o r c e s and pow ers o f n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t s, who h a v e become more d e s p e r a t e and m e r c i l e s s. " ^ S u lu h I n d o n e s i a, a l s o o f D ja k a r t a, 11 " P e k in g and I n d o n e s i a," C hina News Ana1v s i s, F e b r u a r y 12, 1965, 6; D usen, " I n d o n e s ia Today: A N a tio n i n T u r m o il," 587; H a rs c h, " I n d o n e s ia S t o r y, 11 C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, 6, 1966. • ^ D ja k a r ta M erd ek a, J a n u a r y 2 2, 1965. ■ ^ D ja k a rta W arta B h a k t i, J a n u a r y 2 1, 1965. ^ D j a k a r t a B e r i t a I n d o n e ia, J a n u a r y 2 1, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 188] === 183 p o in te d o u t: The P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a x i s i s n o t b a s e d on o p p o rtu n is m, b u t on o u r r e v o l u t i o n a r y a w a re n e s s. The i s s u e now i s, why a r e th e i m p e r i a l i s t s unhappy a b o u t th e a x i s? They a r e un h ap p y f o r th e o n ly r e a s o n t h a t th e a x i s i n n o t a r t i f i c i a l b u t a g e n u in e a x i s fo rg e d i n t o b e in g by two p e o p le s w ith r e v o l u t i o n a r y s p i r i t and w ith h e r o i c t r a d i t i o n s i n th e s t r u g g l e f o r freedom and p e a c e. And i t r e p r e s e n t s a t o t a l p o p u la tio n o f more th a n one f o u r th o f th e w o r l d 's p o p u l a t i o n. The i m p e r i a l i s t s d a r e o n ly a w ar d an ce b u t d a r e n o t s te p on u s. The u n i t y we w an t i s n o t one a l a U n ite d N a tio n s, b u t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i t y. A p r o g r e s s iv e n a t i o n a l u n i t y imbued w i t h th e NASAKOM s o u l n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y. 1"* A n o th er e d i t o r i a l, from th e P e o p l e 's D a ily on I n d o n e s i a 's ''r e s o l u t e d e c i s i o n " t o w ith d ra w from th e U n ite d N a tio n s, c la im e d: " T h is d e m o n s tr a te s th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p l e 's d e t e r m in a tio n to s a f e g u a r d n a t i o n a l d i g n i t y and t h e i r in d o m ita b le s p i r i t o f h e ro is m. The C h in e se p e o p le f ir m ly s u p p o r t t h i s r ig h t e o u s m e asu re o f th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e rn m e n t. " 16 A m ist su ch p u b l i c i t y Chou and S u b a n d rio is s u e d a j o i n t s t a t e ment a t P e k in g on J a n u a r y 2 8, 1.965, a n n o u n c in g t h a t t h e i r two c o u n t r i e s w ould s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a tio n, e n l a r g e th e m a ritim e c o n n e c tio n s betw een th em, d e v e lo p new m u tu a lly p r o f i t a b l e co m m ercial t i e s, and w ork c l o s e l y to g e t h e r i n m a tte r s o f m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y and s u p p l i e s. 1 ^. A t a d in n e r t h a t e v e n in g Chou s a i d: h a s co m m itted to o many m i s t a k e s. "The U n ite d N a tio n s I t h a s u t t e r l y d is a p p o in te d th e ^ D j a k a r t a Suluh. I n d o n e s ia. J a n u a r y 2 1, 1965. Q uoted i n " P e k in g S u p p o rte d S u k arn o M ove," B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 7, 1965, 1 -2. ^ " P e k i n g, D ja k a r t a t o S tr e n g th e n T i e s, 1' i b i d., J a n u a r y 2 8, 1965, 1 -2; P e k in g R eview. F e b ru a ry 5, 1965, 2 - 4; R o d e ric k, "S u k arn o i n N e ig h b o r s ' V iew," 8. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 189] === 184 A sia n and A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s. ... I n d e c id in g on I n d o n e s i a 's w ith d ra w a l from th e U n ite d N a tio n s, P r e s i d e n t S ukarno opened th e e y e s o f th e p e o p le." ^ ® On th e o t h e r h a n d, T a i p e i 's C hina News p r e d i c t e d t h a t S u k a r n o 's move n o t o n ly w ould n o t a s s i s t him i n s e i z i n g M a la y s ia b u t a l s o w ould i r r e p a r a b l y h u r t h i s own n a t i o n. As f o r h i s t i e s w ith P e k in g, th e N a t i o n a l i s t C h in e se o rg a n s t a t e d: I f th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a x i s i s n o t d i s r u p t e d a t i t s v e r y o u t s e t, th e co n se q u e n c e s f o r S o u th e a s t A s ia may w e ll be i n c a l c u l a b l e. B etw een them, Red C hina and I n d o n e s ia a r e i n a p o s tio n t o a p p ly a n u tc r a c k e r t o th e w hole a r e a. N ext t o m a in lan d C h in a, I n d o n e s ia h a s th e l a r g e s t p o p u la t i o n in E a s t A s i a - - t e n tim e s t h a t o f th e M a la y s ia i t i s t r y i n g to d e s tro y; A greem ent o f P ek in g and D ja k a r ta t o ex ch an g e m i l i t a r y e x p e r ie n c e p re su m a b ly means d i s p a t c h o f C h in e se Communist w eapons and m i l i t a r y a d v i s e r s f o r u s e i n th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f M a la y s ia. Red C hina f i n a l l y h a s found i t s S o u th e a s t A sia n a l l y, and means to move in on.1 0 4,0 0 0,0 0 0 I n d o n e s ia n s. The P e k in g - D ja k a r ta r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i t e d n a t i o n s p o s e s s c a n t t h r e a t t o anybody. A fro -A s ia n n a t io n s w i l l n o t th ro w away t h e i r U n ite d N a tio n s p o s i t i o n s and p r e s t i g e f o r th e mess o f p o tt a g e t h a t S ukarn o i s d is h in g u p. But th e m i l i t a r y a lig n m e n t o f Red C h in a and I n d o n e s ia i s so m eth in g e l s e a g a i n. 19 The f r u i t s o f S u b a n d r io 's a g re e m e n ts i n P e k in g w ere q u ic k ly a p p a r e n t. P e k in g announced i t s c o - s p o n s o r s h ip o f C0K(EF0, i t s econom ic and m i l i t a r y sh ip m e n ts to I n d o n e s ia w ere s te p p e d u p, and i t s a g e n ts i n M a la y s ia a c c e l e r a t e d t h e i r d i s r u p t i v e a c t i v i t i e s. 20 W ith p r e s s u r e 18 "Chou U rges New W orld Body to R iv a l U. N.," B ackground on C h in a. J a n u a r y 25, 1965, 2; I n d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Toward Freedom and th e D ig n ity o f Man: A C o l l e c t i o n o f F iv e S p eech es by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o. 124, 1 4 7 -1 4 8; H anna, "T h ree Men and th e R e v o l u tio n," 2 4. 19 T a ip e i C hina News. J a n u a r y 3 and 5, 1965. 20 T a ip e i F re e C hina W eekly, J a n u a r y 17, 1965; W arn er, " P e k in g D ja k a r ta A is is," 27 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 190] === 185 from P e k in g f o r an I n d o n e s ia n p e o p l e 's arm y, S u k arn o, a g a i n s t th e a d v ic e o f N a s u tio n, gave th e PKI a vague p ro m ise on A u g u st 17, 1965, t h a t i t m ig h t r e c e iv e arm s t o d i s t r i b u t e to p e a s a n t and p r o l e t a r i a n m i l i t i a v o lu n te e rs. T h is, o f c o u r s e, was e x a c t l y w h at A i d i t h o ped: fo r. 21 S uk arn o a t th e same tim e s c o ld e d N a s u tio n and h i s com m anders, rem in d in g them t h a t th e army c o u ld n o t e x i s t a p a r t from th e p e o p le and th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o l u t i o n: w ith o u t w a t e r. 2 "W ater can e x i s t w ith o u t f i s h, b u t n o t f i s h Those m ust h av e b een a n x io u s d ay s f o r th e a n t i com m unist army b r a s s. When Sukarno i n a n o th e r a d d r e s s im p lie d t h a t th e Communist r o l e i n NASAKOM s h o u ld be in c r e a s e d, P ek in g re sp o n d e d by s e n d in g Chen Y i t o D ja k a r ta in A ugust w ith th e p ro m ise o f an a to m ic bomb. Chen Y i a p p a r e n t l y t o l d S ukarno t h a t C h in e se te c h n i c i a n s w ould b r in g a n u c l e a r d e v ic e to I n d o n e s ia and s e t i t o f f i n an i s o l a t e d a r e a w e s t o f S u m atra. S ukarno w ould be a llo w e d to c la im c r e d i t f o r th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e d e v ic e and c o u ld p r e te n d m em bership i n th e n u c l e a r c l u b. P ek in g p r o b a b ly su rm ised t h a t an a to m ic e x p lo s io n "b y " I n d o n e s ia w ould t e r r i f y and awe a l l S o u th e a s t A s ia n s. W e ste rn o b s e r v e r s p r e d i c t e d t h a t. " T h a t Was th e Coup T h at Was.," E c o n o m is t, CCXVII (O c to b e r 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 139; D en is W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's Com m unists: Down b u t N ot O u t," R e p o r te r. XXXIII (November 18, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 4; L. M. T a u b in g e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P l o t T h at F a i l e d. " N a tio n a l R eview. X V III (F e b r u a r y 2 3, 1 9 6 6 ), 60. 22 ^■"Chinese P o k e r: S ukarno Has L e a r n t th e D an g ers o f Gam bling w ith C h in a: The R e s t o f th e W orld Has Been Reminded o f C h in a 's A im s," E c o n o m ist. CCXVII, 131; " I n d o n e s ia n Army S e ts Back C om m unists," B u s in e s s Week. O c to b e r 16, 1965, 3 1; " T h a t Was th a Coup T h at W as," E c o n o m is t. CCXVII, 139; T a u b in g e r, " I n d o n e s ia: The P l o t T h a t F a i l e d, " 160. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 191] === 186 P e k in g 's own a to m ic p r o g r e s s w ould n o t p e r m it i t t o sen d su ch a d e v ic e, w hich p ro v e d c o r r e c t. J In o t h e r a r e a s i n 1965 S in o - I n d o n e s ia n c o l l a b o r a t i o n was i n t i m ate and u n a p o l o g e tic. t e r, s ta te d: On J u l y 2 4, S u d jo n o, n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s m in is " C o o p e ra tio n i n th e f i e l d s o f s c ie n c e and te c h n o lo g y was a l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n f u r t h e r i n g p o l i t i c a l and econom ic c o o p e r a tio n w ith C h in a. On th e b a s i s o f th e s i m i l a r i t y o f o u r r e v o l u t i o n s, In d o n e s i a and C h in a, t o g e t h e r w ith th e A fro -A s ia n and N efos c o u n t r i e s, h av e d e c id e d t o e l i m i n a t e th e rem n a n ts o f im p e r ia lis m and c o l o n ia li s m from th e s u r f a c e o f t h i s w o r l d. T o f a c i l i t a t e th e P K I 's p la n to s e i z e suprem e pow er so o n, P ek in g s e c r e t l y s h ip p e d c o n s id e r a b le q u an t i t i e s o f arm s to th e I n d o n e s ia n C om m unists. Thus a t th e same tim e th e s u r f a c e a c c o rd b etw een S uk arn o and P e k in g Seemed s m o o th e s t, th e Communist C h in e se w ere c o n s p ir i n g w ith th e PKI t o o v e rth ro w th e D ja k a r t a re g im e. S u b a n d rio, S u k a r n o 's f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r and i n t e l l i gence c h i e f, was a p p a r e n t l y c o m p le te ly c o n v e r te d t o Communist t h i n k in g by m id-1965 and m ig h t h av e h ad know ledge o f th e P K I 's coup p l a n s, a b o u t w h ich S u k arn o was p r o b a b ly ig n o r a n t a t t h a t tim e. 25 P e k in g 's f a i l u r e to d e l i v e r th e a to m ic bomb w as due n o t o n ly to i t s own slo w p r o g r e s s i n t h a t f i e l d b u t a l s o t o i t s n eed t o be 23C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, " N u tc r a c k e r S u i t e, " New Y ork T im es, A p r il 10, 1966. 2^W arner, " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta A x i s,” 2 7; " I n d o n e s ia T a lk s Big a b o u t N u c le a r C lu b," B u s in e s s Week, F e b ru a ry 6, 1965, 3 2. ^ S u l z b e r g e r, " N u tc r a c k e r S u i t e, ” New Y ork T im es, A p r i l 10, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 192] === 187 c e r t a i n t h a t I n d o n e s ia was w o rth th e r i s k, i. e., am enable t o Communist d o m in a tio n. A i d i t r e p o r te d t h a t th e coup d ’e t a t w ould o c c u r on o r a b o u t O c to b e r 1, and P e k in g d e c id e d t o a w a it t h a t move b e f o r e p u r s u in g th e atom ic-bom b m a tte r f u r t h e r. 26 When th e r e b e l l i o n came, th e PKI q u ic k ly is s u e d a communique on O c to b e r 5 b la m in g i t on p o p u la r o p p o s iti o n to th e arm y ’ s h ig h -h a n d e d ta c tic s. S i m i l a r l y th e P e o p l e 's D a ily d i s a s s o c i a t e d th e PKI from th e coup and c h a rg e d t h a t th e v io le n c e was a s u b v e r s iv e p l o t c o n c o c te d by th e I n d o n e s ia n army and th e A m erican CIA. 27 When N a s u tio n 's tr o o p s b ro k e i n t o th e C h in e se em bassy i n D ja k a r t a i n s e a r c h o f p r o o f o f Chi'-. n e s e c o l l u s i o n, P e k i n g 's New C h in a News Agency c h a rg e d t h a t th e g ra v e i n c i d e n t th r e a te n e d S in o - I n d o n e s ia n r e l a t i o n s. 28 A c t u a l l y, d e s p i t e S u k a rn o ’ s k o to w, P e k in g p r o b a b ly was d e l i g h t e d t o h av e th e PKI ta k e c h a rg e i n D ja k a r t a and i f th e P r e s i d e n t r e f u s e d t o c o o p e r a te, e x te r m in a te him. The f a c t t h a t th e PKI p l o t in c lu d e d th e p o s s i b l e m u rd er o f S u k arn o l e n t c re d e n c e t o th e arg u m en t t h a t S u k a rn o, th o u g h p ro -C o m m u n ist, was n o t in fo rm e d o f th e P K I 's coup p l a n s, a t l e a s t n o t a l l o f them. 2 ^ I b i d.; A n to in e Y ared, "S u k arn o Ends S ta y i n P a l a c e, " W ashingto n P o s t, O c to b e r 18, 1965; "V engence W ith a S m ile," Time LXXXVII, 22; "Bung S ta n d s A lone-," Newsweek, LXVII ( F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 1. 27 V ic t o r Z o rz a, " P ra v d a C a l ls on I n d o n e s ia t o S to p P u rg e s o f I t s R e d s," W ash in g to n P o s t. O c to b e r 2 6, 1965; W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 7, 1965; " A f t e r An E v en in g W ith M orning S t a r, " Tim e, LXXXVI, 41.. 78 Y ared, "S u k arn o Ends S ta y in P a l a c e, " W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 18, 1965. 29 I b i d., O c to b e r 2, 1965; T o p p in g, " '6 5 U p r is in g i n I n d o n e s ia: S tu d y i n Red B lu n d e r in g," New Y ork T im es, A u g u st 2 3, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 193] === 183 I n r e t r o s p e c t, th e Communist moves and announcem ents i n In d o n e s i a s h o u ld h av e a l e r t e d PKI o p p o n en ts to th e im pending c o u p. e a r l y a s s p r in g, 1965, th e P K I's H a ria n R a k ja t made s ta te m e n ts t h a t w ere h a r b in g e r s o f th e f a l l ' s d e v e lo p m e n ts, su ch a s one t h a t p r o -, c la im e d: " I n I n d o n e s ia th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n i s r i p e n i n g. " ^ Some a n ti-C o m m u n is ts, h o w ev er, w ere immune to su ch w o rd s, h a v in g h e a rd them f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s. A f t e r th e c o u p ' s c o l la p s e i n O c to b e r S u ara I s la m and A pi P a n t i a s i l a, a n ti-C o m m u n ist n e w sp a p e rs, p u b lis h e d r e p o r t s t h a t th e army had found " u n d e n ia b le " e v id e n c e i n th e C h in e se em bassy im p lic a tin g P ek in g i n th e c o u p. N a s u tio n 's men s e iz e d num erous docum ents a l s o a t th e home o f pro-C om m unist L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l U ntung, th e p a la c e g u ard commander. T hese ite m s b u t t r e s s e d th e c h a rg e s a g a i n s t P e k in g and r e p u te d ly p ro v e d t h a t th e PKI e f f e c t i v e l y i n f i l t r a t e d th e h ig h command o f th e a i r f o r c e. S ukarno r e a c te d to th e coup and th e s u b se q u e n t a n ti- P K I r e a c t i o n by a n g r i l y o r d e r in g a l l v io le n c e to c e a s e. H is o r d e r s w ere ig n o re d 30 D o ro th y Woodman, "M y stery o f I n d o n e s ia," New S ta te s m a n. LXX (O c to b e r 8, 1 9 6 5 ), 507; W illia m L. Ryan, " I n d o n e s ia F ig h t A p p ears P re m a tu re Red C o u p," W ashin g to n E v en in g S t a r, O cto b er 6, 1965. ^ A n t o in e Y ared, "A ngry S u k a r n o 's S e s s io n w ith Army F a i l s t o H a lt A nti-C om m unist R a i d s," W ash in g to n P o s t, O cto b er 2 5, 1965; W ash in g to n D a ily News, O c to b er 8, 1965; G avin Young, " D ja k a r ta Reds F ace A r r e s t D a i l y," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2 2, 1965; W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's Com m unists: Down But Not O u t," 2 4 -2 5; D u r n ip i, "R enegade C o lo n e l's W ife E lu d e s D ja k a r t a T r o o p s." W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 11, 1965; " J u s t i c e i n D j a k a r t a," Tim e, LXXXVI (O c to b e r 2 2, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 194] === d e s p i t e h i s t h r e a t t o h av e v i o l a t o r s e x e c u te d. As p r e s s u r e on th e P r e s i d e n t mounted t h a t f a l l, he te m p o r a r ily ren o u n ce d h i s sym pathy f o r th e C om m unists. A c tu a l ly h e d e s ir e d t o a b o l i s h th e t a r n i s h e d PKI and form a new Communist p a r t y i n I n d o n e s ia w h ich w ould c o n tin u e; t o o f f s e t th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e arm y. S u k a rn o, h o w ev er, h ad t r o u b l e e x p la in in g h i s m y s te r io u s m e e tin g w ith U ntung, one o f th e k ey co n s p i r a t o r s, a t th e tim e th e coup was la u n c h e d. The m e e tin g a t H alim A ir F o rce Base i s s t i l l sh ro u d ed i n m y s te ry, a l s o why S ukarno h u r r i e d from t h a t known h av en o f c o n s p i r a t o r s t o h i s summer r e s id e n c e a t B ogor, s a f e l y away from th e v i o l e n c e. ^ A t Bogor on O c to b e r 3 S ukarno fa c e d th e i r a t e army h ig h com mand i n a te n s e m e e tin g. G e n e ra l S u h a rto, l a t e r t o h e a d th e new I n d o n e s ia n reg im e i n 1966, c h a rg e d t h a t Omar D h a n i, c h i e f o f th e a i r f o r c e, s u p p lie d th e Comm unists w ith men and arm s and w orked c l o s e l y w ith A i d i t and U ntung i n p la n n in g th e a f f a i r When D hani p le a d e d in n o c e n c e, S u h a rto h i t him and r ip p e d o f f h i s e p a u l e t s. I t was a t D h a n i's h e a d q u a r t e r s, H alim A ir F o rce B ase, by th e w ay, t h a t th e k id n a p p e d g e n e r a ls w ere m urdered a t th e h e i g h t o f th e co u p. The b a s e A n to in e Y a re d, "S u k arn o Moves t o Curb A rm y," W ash in g to n P o s t. O c to b e r 17, 1965; i b i d., O c to b e r 2 6, 1966; T o p p in g, " '6 5 U p r is in g i n I n d o n e s ia: S tu d y i n Red B lu n d e r in g." Hew Y ork T im es. A u g u st 2 3, 1966; B u tw e ll, " I n d o n e s ia D e fin e s In d ep en d e n ce A new." C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. A ugust 17, 1966; W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o l u tio n," 2 9; K ing, "S u k arn o Renews A ppeal f o r O r d e r," New Y ork T im es. November:: 2 2, 1965. 33 Don H u th, " R e v o lu tio n i n I n d o n e s ia: S to ry B ehind th e S t o r y, " W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r. O c to b e r 17, 1965; S e t h S. K in g, "How S u k arn o D id I t - - o r D id H e?" New Y ork T im es. M arch 6, 1966; J o n e s, " I n d o n e s ia n Coup Was a Red B o b b le," W ash in g to n P o s t. O c to b e r 10, 1965; A f t e r an E v en in g.W ith M orning S t a r. " Tim e, LXXXVI, 4 1. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 195] === h ad lo n g b e e n a m e e tin g p la c e f o r PKI c a d r e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e s s io n s. 34 The an ti-C o m m u n ist In d o n e s ia n p r e s s r e p o r t e d t h a t th e U n ite d S t a t e s h ad i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e p r o o f t h a t S u k arn o was in v o lv e d i n th e coup. T h is th e S t a t e D ep artm en t p ro m p tly d e n ie d. h o w ev er, c o n tin u e d t o a p p e a r i n p r i n t. Some o f i t, The p r e s s ' e v id e n c e, l a r g e l y c irc u m s t a n t i a l, was th e f o llo w in g: (1 ) S u k arn o h ad waged a lo n g, b i t t e r v e r b a l cam p aig n a g a i n s t th e arm y. (2 ) S uk arn o h ad p r e s s u r e d th e army to ta k e i n Communist y o u th and p e a s a n t u n i t s. He s u r e l y h ad know ledge o f th e f a c t t h a t th e a i r f o r c e was p r o v id in g a s e c r e t r e d o u b t f o r Com m unists a t H alim A ir F o rc e B ase. (3 ) D u rin g th e m orning o f O c to b e r 1, a f t e r th e k id n a p p e d g en e r a l s h ad b e e n ta k e n t o H alim A ir F o rce B a se, S u k arn o w en t to th e a i r b a s e. He e i t h e r a r r i v e d w ith o r m et M a rsh a l D hani t h e r e, and c o n f e r r e d w ith b o th D hani and th e coup l e a d e r, U n tu n g. (4 ) A f t e r th e coup was c r u s h e d, S u k arn o t r i e d to p r o t e c t th e a i r f o r c e by d e c l a r i n g t h a t i t was n o t in v o lv e d i n th e coup a t t e m p t - - * d e c l a r a t i o n h e h ad t o sw allo w two w eeks l a t e r when h e a d m itte d t h a t th e a i r f o r c e, th e p a l a c e g u a rd, and th e Comm unists w ere in v o lv e d. (5 ) S uk arn o i s s t i l l a t t a c k i n g th e W est and i n s i s t i n g t h a t th e Communist p a r t y s u r v iv e i n some f o r m. ^ I n th e m onths a f t e r th e coup S u k arn o s t e a d f a s t l y r e s i s t e d army " J u s t i c e i n D j a k a r t a. 11 Tim e. LXXXVI, 4 0; H u th, " R e v o lu tio n i n I n d o n e s ia: S to r y B ehind th e S t o r y, " W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r. O c to b e r 17, 1965; W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 6, 1965; H u th, "Can th e Army S tan d Up t o S u k arn o?" W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 18, 1965; " I n d o n e s ia n S u r p r is e P a c k a g e," N a tio n a l R eview, XVII (D ecem ber 2 8, 1 9 6 5 ), 1183; "V engeance w ith A S m ile," T im e, LXXXVII, 2 2. •^Rowan,. " I n t r i g u e s in I n d o n e s ia P u t Jam es Bond to S ham e," W ash in g to n P o s t, November 2 1, 1965; W arn e r, " I n d o n e s i a 's Com m unists: Down B ut N ot O u t," 2 5 -2 6; T o p p in g, " '6 5 U p r is in g i n I n d o n e s ia: S tu d y in Red B lu n d e r in g," New Y ork T im es, A u g u st 2 3, 1966; W ash in g to n P o s t, D ecem ber 11, 1965. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 196] === 191 p r e s s u r e t o o u tla w th e P K I. ^ He commented i n a c a b i n e t a d d r e s s: " I n d o n e s ia w ith o u t Communism c a n n o t be u n i t e d. W hoever t r i e s to c r u s h Communism i n I n d o n e s ia, i s l i k e a man b i t i n g i r o n —h i s t e e t h w i l l be b r o k e n." He i n s i s t e d t h a t I n d o n e s ia m ust r e t a i n b o th NASAKOM and i t s a l l i a n c e w ith P e k in g, ^ To th e g e n e r a ls h e s a i d: " I f you e lim i-. n a t e th e Kom ^Communist p a rty ^ j, th e n th e b a la n c e h a s b een d e s tr o y e d. T hat i s n o t p r a c t ic a l p o l i t i c s. But you c a n e l im i n a t e th e Kom t h a t i s a g a i n s t you and c r e a t e a n o th e r i n i t s p l a c e. T o th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le h e a d d r e s s e d r e p e a te d p l e a s t h a t th e b lo o d sh e d be s to p p e d: m ust u n i t e o u r s e l v e s, b e c a u se i f we do n o t, we w i l l n o t need an y e n e m ie s.. We w i l l d e s t r o y o u r s e l v e s. " 39 D efen se M i n i s t e r N a s u tio n r e t o r t e d: "We s h o u ld d e s t r o y th e PKI, n o t b e c a u se we a r e a n ti-C o m m u n is t, b u t b e c a u se th e Comm unists hav e a l r e a d y b e tr a y e d th e s t a t e w ith s l a u g h t e r, t o r t u r e, t e r r o r i s m, and tre a s o n." ^ * Yao Chung-m ing, P e k in g 's a m b a ssa d o r, made a lm o s t d a i l y " S i l e n t S e t t l e m e n t, " Tim e, LXXXVI (Decem ber 17, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 9; W ash in g to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 2 2, 1966; B u tw e ll, " I n d o n e s ia D e fin e s In d e p e n d e n c e A new," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, A u g u st 17, 1966. 37 W ash in g to n P o s t, November 8, 1965; T o p p in g, " '6 5 U p r is in g in I n d o n e s ia: S tu d y i n Red B lu n d e r in g," New York T im es, A u g u st 2 3, 1966. ~^ I b i d., O c to b e r 14, 1965; " J u s t i c e i n D j a k a r t a." T im e. LXXXVI, 3 9. 39 S e th S. K in g, "S u k arn o Renews A p p eal f o r O r d e r," New Y ork T im es, November 2 2, 1965; " I n d o n e is a n Army S e ts Back C o m m u n ists," B u s in e s s Week, O c to b e r 16, 1965, 3 1; W ash in g to n P o s t, Decem ber 19, 1965. ^ " T h e L ig h t T h at F a i l s, " Tim e, LXXXVI (Decem ber 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 35; W ash in g to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 2 9, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 197] === 1 92 t r i p s t o im p re ss upon S ukarno th e C h in e se g o v e rn m e n t's g ra v e c o n c e rn o v e r an ti-C o m m u n ist ex tre m ism and v en g ean ce i n I n d o n e s ia. Of c o u r s e, Sukarno c o u ld o n ly r e a s s u r e Yao t h a t h e d e s i r e d f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w ith P ek in g and w ould c o n tin u e to t r y t o s to p th e v io le n c e a g a i n s t In d o n e s ia n Communists F i r s t D eputy P re m ie r and F o re ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio was c o n s id e r e d by many on th e eve o f th e coup a s th e s u c c e s s o r someday to.S u k arn o. He had become S u k a r n o 's r ig h t - h a n d man and m a in ta in e d a b r a s h a n t i W e ste rn, p ro -P e k in g p o s tu r e t h a t p le a s e d th e PK I. L ik e S u k arn o, he i n c r e a s i n g l y s u s p e c te d th e army o f a l u s t f o r suprem e p o w er. coup he v o c i f e r o u s l y d efen d ed th e P K I 's in n o c e n c e. A f t e r th e I n l a t e O c to b e r, 1965, S u b a n d rio d e l iv e r e d a sp eech in w hich h e ch a rg e d t h a t c e r t a i n an ti-C o m m u n ist n ew sp ap ers w ere f in a n c e d by th e CIA. B r ig a d ie r G e n e ra l S u b a n d rio c o n s id e r e d any PKI o p p o n en t a r e c i p i e n t o f CIA a i d: “T here i s a li k e l i h o o d t h a t th e e n t i r e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le, who w an t to c ru s h th e PKI, w i l l be c h arg e d w ith r e c e i v i n g money from th e C IA." B e r i ta JYudha, ah army o rg a n, a s s u r e d S u b a n d rio t h a t i f h i s a c c u s a tio n was p ro v e d, “ th e p e o p le w i l l w h o le h e a r te d ly b u ry th e n ew sp ap er t h a t i s a ^ " G a t h e r i n g in th e P a d d ie s," Tim e. LXXXVI (November 12, 1 9 6 5 ), 31; W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2 8, 1965; Young, “ D ja k a r ta Reds F ace A r r e s t D a i l y," i b i d., O c to b e r 2 2, 1965; W illia m L. Ryan, " S o r t o f N a tio n a l M adness G rip s I n d o n e s ia; E x p lo s io n i s F e a r e d," Birm ingham News, March 6, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 198] === 193 CIA a g e n t and send i t s e d i t o r t o th e g a l lo w s." 42 B oth th e arm y and th e Moslems i n c r e a s i n g l y a t ta c k e d S u b a n d rio t h e r e a f t e r; th e c l a s h c u lm in a te d i n h i s a r r e s t, p e n d in g t r i a l f o r t r e a s o n a g a i n s t th e. s t a t e. 43 As th e m onths r o l l e d by and no end was i n s i g h t i n th e v i o l e n t an ti-C o m m u n ist u p h e a v a ls a f t e r th e c o u p, P e k in g c o n tin u e d a n am azing d i s p l a y o f p a t ie n c e to w ard D ja k a r t a. I t p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e c o n t in u in g t e r r o r i s m b u t c a r e f u l l y blam ed i t on r ig h t - w i n g e le m e n ts, p r o b a b ly in th e hope t h a t somehow S ukarno and th e PKI w ould be a b l e to r e a s s e r t th e ir in flu e n c e.^ P e k in g was h i g h l y p le a s e d and o v e r o p t i m i s t i c when S ukarno b o ld l y d is m is s e d N a s u tio n a s d e fe n s e m i n i s t e r on F e b ru a ry 18, 1965. A t th e tim e th e P r e s i d e n t b o a s te d p u b l i c l y: "H ere I am, S u k a rn o, P r e s i d e n t and G re a t L e a d e r o f th e R e v o lu tio n. I w ill not Rowan, " I n t r i g u e s i n I n d o n e s ia P u t Jam es Bond t o S ham e," W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r, November 2 1, 1965; R ic h a rd D. B en so n, " I n d o n e s i a A f t e r G e s ta p u," N a tio n a l R eview. X V III (F e b ru a ry 2 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 165; W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 7, 1965; Ryan, " I n d o n e s ia n F ig h t A ppears P re m a tu re Red C o u p," i b i d., O c to b e r 6, 1965; Y ared, "A ngry S u k a r n o 's S e s s io n w ith Army F a i l s to H a lt A nti-C om m unist R a i d s," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 2 5, 1965; " I n th e M id st o f M ush araw ah," Tim e, LXXXVI (N ovem ber 5, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 9. 43 A n to n in e Y a re d, "S u k arn o C o n fe rs a b o u t J a v a U n r e s t," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 3 0, 1965; Y ared, "S u k arn o Ends S ta y i n P a l a c e," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b e r 1 8, 1965; Woodman, "M y ste ry o f I n d o n e s i a," 5 0 7 -5 0 8; R ic h a rd H a ll o r a n, " N a s u tio n R is e s A n o th e r N o tc h," W ash in g to n P o s t, D ecem ber 16, 1965; "The C u ttin g Edge o f K b t i, " Tim e, LXXXVI (December 2 4, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2; " I n th e M id s t o f M ush araw ah," Tim e, LXXXVI, 4 9. ^ S e y m o u r T o p p in g, "Move F r u s t r a t e d F e k in g," New York T im es, M arch 16, 1965; Memphis C om m ercial A p p e a l, F e b ru a ry 2 6, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 199] === 194 r e t r e a t one s te p o r ev en one m i l l i m e t e r 1"45 D is ill u s i o n m e n t f o r S u k arn o, th e s u r v iv in g PKI le a d e r s ( A i d i t h ad b een e x e c u te d ), and P e k in g s e t i n s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s, h o w ev er, a s S u h a r to and h i s command e r s s o l i d i f i e d t h e i r c o n t r o l o f th e g o v ern m e n t. 46 I n M arch, 1965, S u h a rto d e l i v e r e d a v i r t u a l u ltim a tu m t o Sukarno*. I t s ta te d: (1 ) The g o v e rn m e n t's s i t u a t i o n i s h i g h l y p r e c a r i o u s. (2 ) The arm ed f o r c e s a r e c a p a b le o f s a v in g th e P r e s i d e n t, h i s t e a c h i n g s, and th e r e v o l u t i o n. (3 ) The P r e s i d e n t i s r e q u e s te d t o g iv e S u h a rto b ro a d r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y and to e x p r e s s h i s f u l l c o n f id e n c e i n th e armed f o r c e s. S u k arn o s ig n e d th e docum ent m aking h i s p o s i t i o n a t i t u l a r o n e, tu r n e d Jo h n H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia S k i r t s C i v i l W a r." C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. M arch 15, 1966; J a c k s o n D a ily News, M arch 12, 1966; W arn e r, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o l u tio n," 2 9; D onald K ir k, " S tr u g g le f o r Power i n,I n d o n e s i a," R e p o r t e r, XXXIV (F e b r u a r y 2 4, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 9; Memphis Com m ercial A p p e a l, M arch 9, 1966; New Y ork T im es. F e b ru a ry 2 3, 1966; B u tw e ll, " I n d o n e s ia D e f in e s In d e p e n d e n c e A new." C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, A u g u st 1 7, 1966; K in g, "How S u k arn o D id I t — o r D id H e?" New Y ork T im es, March 6, 1966; " B u n g 's B o u n c e," Tim e, LXXXVII (M arch 4, ^ T o p p in g, "Move F r u s t r a t e d P e k in g," New Y ork T im es. M arch 16, 1966; Jo h n C a n tw e ll, " S ix te e n i n I n d o n e s i a 's C a b in e t A r r e s te d by A n ti-R e d R eg im es, " A t l a n t a C o n s t i t u t i o n, M arch 1 4, 1966; Memphis C om m ercial A p p e a l, M arch 14, 1966; W a rn e r, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o l u tio n," 2 9; "As I n d o n e s ia T r i e s M i l i t a r y R u le," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LX, 4 6; K ir k, " S u h a r to I s th e Name, Not S u k a r n o," 3 3; H a ll o r a n, " N a s u tio n R is e A n o th e r N o tc h," W ash in g to n P o s t. Decem ber 16, 1965; Max F r a n k e l, " F a l l o f S u k arn o Welcomed i n U. S., " New Y ork T im es, M arch 13, 1966; H enry S. A ty e o, " S tu d e n ts B oot Out th e Commun i s t s, " N a tio n a l R ev iew, X V III (May 17, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 5 8; Seymour T o p p in g, " I n d o n e s ia n Envoy to P e k in g Q u i t s, " New Y ork T im e s, A p r il 17, 1966; S e th S. K in g, " G r e a t P u rg e i n I n d o n e s i a," New Y ork Times M a g a z in e, May 8, 1966, 9 0. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 200] === 195 t h e m e e tin g 's c h a irm a n s h ip t o Second D eputy P re m ie r L eim ena, and d e p a r t e d i n h a s t e from th e room. S u b a n d rio, who f l e d w ith S uk arn o to th e B ogor p a l a c e, l e f t b a r e f o o t e d, h a v in g s lip p e d o f f h i s sh o es a s th e m e e tin g c o n v e n e d.1^ S u h a rto th e n p ro c la im e d t h a t th e army, l e a d e r s w ould c o n tin u e I n d o n e s i a 's r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t f e u d a lis m, c o l o n ia li s m, and im p e r i a l ism. He ad d ed: "We h av e no i n t e n t i o n o f t u r n i n g o u r r e v o l u t i o n to th e r i g h t a s c h a rg e d by some p e o p le, n o r w i l l we t u r n i t t o th e e x “ trem e l e f t, b e c a u se i t i s a l r e a d y l e f t i s t. And w h ic h e v e r p e r s o n, p a r t y, o r o r g a n i z a t i o n t r i e s to go a g a i n s t t h i s w i l l be c ru s h e d by th e armed fo rc e s." ^ ® On M arch 17 h e o r d e r e d m ost o f S u k a r n o 's m in is - t e r s, in c lu d in g S u b a n d rio, ta k e n i n t o m i l i t a r y c u s to d y. 49 F u lly aw are o f th e trem en d o u s p o p u la r a p p e a l and im age o f th e P r e s i d e n t, th e g en e r a l s made no im m ed iate move t o remove h im. T h at w ould be l e f t f o r S ta n ly M. S w in to h, "P ro -R ed I n d o n e s ia n R eg im e's F a l l I s C r e d ite d t o C h i l d r e n 's C r u s a d e," Memphis C om m ercial A p p e a l. March 2 7, 1966; " P r id e and F a l l, " N a tio n. CCII (M arch 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 346; " T u rm o il R u le s i n I n d o n e s ia: S u k a r n o 's B a t t l e W ith Army L e a d e r s," B iisin e s s Week. M arch 19, 1966, 4 4; A ty eo, " S tu d e n ts Boot O ut th e C om m u n ists," 4 58; W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o lu tio n," 2 9; K irk, " S u h a rto I s th e Name, Not S u k a rn o," 18, 3 3; "V engeance w ith A. S m ile." Tim e. LXXXVII, 2 5; H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia S k i r t s C i v i l W ar," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, March 15, 1966. 48 S e th S. K in g, " M i l i t a r y L e a d e rs i n D ja k a r ta Move to B o l s t e r P o w e r," New Y ork T im es, March 13, 1966; London O b s e rv e r, May 8, 1966; K ir k, " S u k a r n o 's H o ld o u ts i n C e n tr a l J a v a, " 3 9. ^9"A s I n d o n e s ia T r i e s M i l i t a r y R u le. " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LX (M arch 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 6; " P r id e and F a l l. " N a tio n. C C I I,„ 346; Birm ingham News. M arch 2 0, 1966; "V engeance W ith a S m ile," Time, LXXXVII, 2 5; New York T im es, M arch 13, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 201] === 196 c a lm e r tim e s S u h a r to, N a s u tio n, and t h e i r c o l le a g u e s, now f ir m ly i n c o n t r o l a t D ja k a r t a, w ere s t i l l f e r v e n t n a t i o n a l i s t s who w ere com m itted to much o f S u k a rn o ' s t e a c h i n g s. Some W este rn o b s e r v e r s w ere n a iv e i n c o n c lu d in g t h a t b e c a u se th e y w ere a n ti-C o m m u n is ts, t h e r e f o r e th e y w ere p ro -W e s te rn. S u h a rto v e n tu re d th e o p in io n soon a f t e r th e M arch u l t i matum t h a t h e fo re sa w no sudden s h i f t i n I n d o n e s ia n f o r e ig n p o l i c y a s f a r a s i t s r e l a t i o n s w ith th e W est w ere c o n c e r n e d.^ Moscow, to whom D ja k a r ta owed o v e r a b i l l i o n d o l l a r s, w as, o f c o u r s e, v i t a l l y co n ce rn ed a b o u t d ev elo p m en ts i n I n d o n e s ia. The R u s s ia n s ’ lam en t o v e r th e d o w n fa ll o f a Communist p a r t y was p r o b a b ly o u tw eig h ed by t h e i r jp y o v e r th e c o l la p s e o f th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x j.s. T here was e v id e n c e by l a t e s p r in g, 1966, t h a t Moscow n o t o n ly in te n d e d t o c o n tin u e h e r m i l i t a r y and econom ic a id p ro g ram s i n I n d o n e s ia b u t 1 ^ ’’S c a p e g o a ts." E co n o m ist. CCXVII (O c to b e r 16, 1 9 6 5 ), 266; Jo h n H ughes, ’’Campaign S n o w b a lls -to Remove S u k a rn o,” C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. S eptem ber 15, 1966; K in g, ” How S ukarno Did I t - o r D id He?” New York T im es, March 6, 1966; Seymour T o p p in g, ’’S ukarno S t i l l S tru g g le s to Hold on i n I n d o n e s i a,” New Y ork T im es. A ugust 22, 1966; i b i d.. May 30, 1966. -^Rowan, " I n t r i g u e s i n I n d o n e s ia P u t Jam es Bond to Sham e," W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r. November 2 1, 1965; " I n d o n e s ia n S u r p r is e P a c k a g e." N a tio n a l R eview. X V II, 1183; S e li g S. H a r r is o n, " In d o n e s i a M is s io n S eeks Speed Up on Em ergency A id," W ash in g to n P o s t. S eptem ber 2 7, 1966; H ughes, "Cam paign S n o w b alls t o Remove "Sukarno j " C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. S eptem ber 15, 1966; J o n e s, " I n d o n e s ia n Coup Was a Red B o b b le," W ash in g to n P o s t, O c to b er 10, 1965; Hanna, Bung K arn o ’ s I n d o n e s ia, 9; W ash in g to n E v en in g S t a r, O c to b e r 2, 1965; D avid K. W i l l s, "U. S. E x h i b its C a u tio u s O ptim ism i n I n d o n e s ia n U p s e t," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. March 16, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 202] === a l s o c o n te m p la te d e n l a r g i n g h e r a s s i s t a n c e t o D ja k a r t a. The P K I's O c to b e r 1 f i a s c o 52 was view ed in P e k in g a s t h a t r e g im e 's w o r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e tb a c k i n s i x t e e n y e a r s. B ecau se In d o n e s i a was so v i t a l to P e k in g 's p la n s f o r th e n u tc r a c k e r move a g a i n s t S o u th e a s t A s ia, Mao and h i s a s s o c i a t e s p r o b a b ly w ere more co n c e rn e d o v e r e v e n ts i n D ja k a r ta th a n i n V i e t n a m. O n A p r il 16 D jaw o to, D j a k a r t a 's am b assad o r t o Communist C h in a, r e s ig n e d i n p r o t e s t o v e r S u h a r t o 's a n ti-C o m m u n ist p o l i c i e s. He a s s e r t e d t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n army reg im e seemed b e n t upon " d e s tr o y in g th e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t a x i s o f D ja k a r t a, Phnompenh, H an o i, P e k in g and Pyongya ng. Adam M a lik, a p p o in te d i n D ja w o to 's s t e a d, t o l d P e k in g l i s t e n e r s t h a t h e saw no re a s o n f o r a c o n tin u e d w o rse n in g o f r e l a t i o n s b etw een th e two co u n“... trie s. H is w ords w ere mocked by a d e s t r u c t i v e a t t a c k on th e C h in e se em bassy i n D ja k a r t a, th e w o r s t a n t i- C h in e s e o u t b u r s t th u s f a r. ^ 52 P r e s to n G ro v e r, " D ja k a r ta A n ti-R e d A tta c k s a r e C r i t i c i z e d i n S o v ie t P r e s s, " W ash in g to n P o s t. O c to b e r 10, 1965; S u lz b e r g e r, "S u k arn o A g a in s t H im s e lf," New Y ork T im es, A p r i l 8, 1966; A lf r e d F r ie n d ly," B u r n e s Money Men A p p ra is e I n d o n e s i a, " i b i d.. S ep tem b er 18, 1966; T o p p in g, "Move F r u s t r a t e d P e k in g," i b i d., M arch 16, 1966; W ash in g to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 2 6, 1966; Jo h n H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia f o r I n d o n e s ia n s," New R e p u b lic, CLIV ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 6 6 ), 11. ^ A m e r ic a. CXVI ( J a n u a r y 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 2; C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, " N u tc r a c k e r S u i t e, " New Y ork T im es. A p r il 10, 1966; K in g, " G r e a t P u rg e i n I n d o n e s ia," 9 1. ^ R o w la n d E vans and R o b e rt N ovak, " P e k in g P a p e r T i g e r, " W ash in g to n P o s t, D ecem ber 2 1, 1965; W erner L e n i, " C h in a 's A sia n P o l i c y, " C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, L I (S ep tem b er 19, 1 9 6 6 ), 1 5 7 -1 5 8; T o p p in g, " I n d o n e s ia n Envoy t o P e k in g Q u i t s, " New Y ork T im es, A p r il 17, 1966. •^New Y ork T im es, A p r i l 1 6, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 203] === 198 P e k in g r e c a l l e d m ost o f i t s d ip lo m a tic s t a f f i n D ja k a r t a, i n c lu d in g th e a m b a ssa d o r. S u h a rto re s p o n d e d by c l o s i n g th e New C h in a News A gency b u re a u i n th e. I n d o n e s ia n c a p i t a l. The P e o p l e 's D a ily a c c u se d th e D ja k a r ta reg im e o f b e in g " th e v e r y o r g a n iz e r and d i r e c t o r o f th e f a s c i s t v i o l e n c e "; th e g e n e r a ls seemed " b e n t on b r i n g i n g d i p l o m a tic r e l a t i o n s b etw een C hina and I n d o n e s ia to a r u p t u r e. " On A p r il 18 P e k in g s e v e re d h e r econom ic a i d p ro g ram t o I n d o n e s ia and r e c a l l e d th e C h in e se te c h n i c i a n s and a d v i s e r s w o rk in g t h e r e. A bout th e same tim e S u h a r to announced th e d i s m i s s a l o f e i g h te e n r a n k in g p e r s o n n e l i n th e D ja k a r t a f o r e i g n m i n i s t r y who w ere a c c u se d o f pro-C om m unist le a n in g s. ^ The O c to b e r 1 a b o r t i o n v i r t u a l l y d e s tr o y e d th e P K I 's l e a d e r s h ip and c o u n t l e s s num bers i n i t s lo w er r a n k s. M o reo v er, th e Communist d i s a s t e r i n I n d o n e s ia a p p a r e n tly s e t o f f a l a r g e - s c a l e r e t r e a t from Communist p a r t y r a n k s i n o t h e r n a t i o n s. A U n ite d S t a t e s D ep artm en t o f S t a t e in tellig en ce r e p o r t i n 1966 c la im e d t h a t t h e r e w ere a b o u t 4,5 0 0,0 0 0 c a r d - c a r r y i n g Communists, i n th e non-C om m unist and n e u t r a l i s t n a t i o n s o f th e w o rld i n 1964, o f w h ich 2,0 0 0,0 0 0 w ere i n I n d o n e s ia. By J a n u a r y, 1 966, th e w id e s p re a d r e p r i s a l s i n I n d o n e s ia l e f t no more th a n 1 0 0,0 0 0 a c t i v e Comm unists i n t h a t c o u n tr y. " I n d o n e s ia and C h in a: CCXIX ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 6 6 ), 340. The w o r l d 's t h i r d l a r g e s t P o lic y Becomes P o s s i b l e. " E c o n o m is t, R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 204] === 199. Communist p a r t y was a lm o s t o b l i t e r a t e d.^ A t th e tim e o f th e coup S u k a r n o 's p r e s t i g e was immense apiong th e I n d o n e s ia n m a ss e s. H is many t i t l e s in c lu d e d " G re a t L e a d e r o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n," "Suprem e Commander o f th e R e p u b lic o f In d o n e s i a, ’’ and "Suprem e L e a d e r o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t, " to name a few. Bung K arno was g r a n te d th e p r e s id e n c y f o r l i f e i n an A ugust cerem ony i n 1963. S u h a r to, o f c o u r s e, was a l e r t to th e P r e s i d e n t 's p o w e rfu l im age even a f t e r h e was s t r i p p e d o f a l l e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l po w er. The d i r e c t move o f ta k in g away h i s p r e s i d e n t i a l o f f i c e, h o w ev er, was f e a r e d a s a p o s s i b l e p r e c i p i t a n t o f a new c i v i l w ar and a r e v i v a l o f Communism. S u h a rto t h e r e f o r e p la c e d h i s ho p e i n th e p e o p l e 's c o n s u l t a t i v e c o n g r e s s, w h ich h ad aw arded S uk arn o th e l i f e p r e s id e n c y. U n til t h a t body m e t, h o p e f u ll y by summer o f 1966, S u h a rto in te n d e d t o maneuv e r a g a i n s t S uk arn o w ith d e l i b e r a t e c a u t i o n. M eanw hile c r i t i c i s m o f S u k arn o, i n f a c t, r i d i c u l e o f th e r u d e s t fo rm s, c o n tin u e d t o mount i n th e I n d o n e s ia n p r e s s and i n v a r io u s le a d e r s ' sp eech es. G e n e ra l Sarwo E d h ie, whose f o r c e s a n n i h i l a t e d Communist E ndre M arto n, " I n d o n e s ia n Coup C u ts P a th Through Communist R a n k s," Memphis C om m ercial A n n e a l. Ju n e 6, 1966; Seymour T o p p in g, " S la u g h te r o f Reds G iv es I n d o n e s ia A Grim L e g a c y," New York T im es. A u g u st 24, 1966; W arn er, " I n d o n e s i a 's U n fin is h e d R e v o lu tio n," 2 8; H enry G. S ch w arz, " C h in a and S o u th e a s t A s i a." C hina R e p o rt, I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 0. ■^Benjam in H ig g in s and J e a n H ig g in s. I n d o n e s ia: The C r i s i s o f M ill s t o n e s ( P r i n c e t o n, 1 9 6 3 ), 121; New York T im es, A p r il 2 5, 1966; London O b s e r v e r. May 15, 1966; K ir k, " S u h a rto I s th e Name, Not S u k a rn o," 3 8 -3 9; New Y ork T im es, Ju n e 1 3, 1966; J a c k s o n, "New In d o n e s i a M ust Have UK a s a F r i e n d," London O b s e rv e r, Ju n e 2 6, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 205] === 200 r e s i s t a n c e i n c e n t r a l J a v a i n l a t e 1965, a s s a i l e d S u k arn o f o r t r y i n g to ’’make h im s e lf in d is p e n s a b le and a m y th.” The t a b l o i d T r i s a k t i, one o f many p a p e rs a t t a c k i n g th e P r e s i d e n t a lm o s t d a i l y, s a i d o f S u k a r n o 's le a d e r s h i p: " I f a le a d e r d o es so m eth in g w ro n g, h e m ust n o t s a y i t was th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a s u b o r d in a te and l e t him ta k e th e b la m e.... Such a l e a d e r i s a cow ard, a f a k e, and m ust be e x p e lle d from h i s p o s i t i o n. " Yudha Mlnggu commented: d o es n o t need t o make lo n g s p e e c h e s. s e n te n c e s. "A p e r s o n w ith p r e s t i g e He n e e d s o n ly a few p o l i t e He d o es n o t h av e to r e p e a t h i s a p p e a ls s e v e r a l tim e s u n t i l p e o p le g e t s i c k o f l i s t e n i n g t o i t. ’’^ Such s ta te m e n ts w ere among th e more m o d e ra te o f th e a n ti- S u k a r n o b a r r a g e s l e v ie d i n th e s p r in g and summer o f 1966. S u h a rto was n o t th e o n ly one c a r e f u l to a v o id a d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith S u k arn o. A n ta r a, th e o f f i c i a l D ja k a r ta news ag e n c y, r a t h e r th a n h i t t i n g the P r e s i d e n t, k e p t up a c o n s ta n t c a l l f o r th e co n v e n in g o f th e p e o p l e 's c o n s u l t a t i v e c o n g r e s s, w h ich i t knew w ould p ro b a b ly e i t h e r remove S ukarno o r a n n u l th e g r a n t o f a l i f e t i m e p r e s i dency. Thus A n ta ra demanded sim p ly " th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g a l i t y i n I n d o n e s ia." A l e a d e r o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s, a new o r g a n iz a ti o n o f p o l i t i c a l, p r o f e s s i o n a l, and la b o r g ro u p s, commented: " I f l a t e r Bung K arno w ere n o t e l e c t e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y, h i s a c t i o n w ould n o t mean he was o v e rth ro w n." B r ig a d ie r G e n e ra l S u t j i t o,, ■^London O b s e rv e r. May 13, 1966; Don M oser, "Where th e R iv e r s Ran C rim son From B u tc h e r y," L i f e, LXI ( J u l y 1, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 0 -3 3; W ashing to n P o s t, S ep tem b er 19, 1966; A lf r e d F r ie n d l y, " I n d o n e s ia n Y outh S eek New O r d e r," New Y ork T im es, S ep tem b er 18, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 206] === '201 S u h a r t o 's k ey a d v i s e r on p o l i t i c s, o b s e rv e d t h a t " th e i s s u e i s n o t one o f t o p p l in g th e P r e s i d e n t b u t o f re v ie w in g o u r p a s t a c t i o n s i n th e l i g h t o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1945. We m ust s a f e g u a r d th e C o n s ti t u t i o n. " 60 U T h a n t 's o f f i c e su rv e y e d U n ite d N a tio n s s e n tim e n ts and found t h a t a c o n s e n s u s fa v o re d r e a d m is s io n o f I n d o n e s ia i f i t resum ed p ay m en ts on i t s a s s e s s m e n ts and i f i t p ro v e d s i n c e r e i n e n d in g i t s " c r u s h M a la y s ia " cam p aig n. S in c e S u h a r t o 's reg im e i n d i c a t e d i t s d e s i r e t o resum e m em bership " s o o n," a n a l y s t s p r e d i c t e d t h a t by e a r l y f a l l, 1966, I n d o n e s ia w ould p r o b a b ly be r e s e a t e d i n th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l body. S u k arn o re m a in e d a d a m a n tly opposed to th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and s t i l l view ed h i s UNEFOS scheme a s I n d o n e s i a 's b e s t 61 hope. On Ju n e 17 Adam M a lik, th e new f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r o f I n d o n e s ia, s ta te d: "B a n k ru p t b u t p o t e n t i a l l y r i c h, I n d o n e s ia w i l l r e l y h e a v i l y on th e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l a i d i n th e n e x t few y e a rs." He a sk e d t h a t A m erica " u n d e r s ta n d " h i s g o v e rn m e n t's "new p ro g ram o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n " and g r a n t th e " g u id e d f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e, w h ich I n d o n e s i a 's s t r a n g l e d economy b a d ly n e e d s." By m id-1966 th e U n ite d S t a t e s h ad a l r e a d y s e n t 5 0,0 0 0 to n s o f r i c e, v a lu e d a t o v e r $ 8,0 0 0,0 0 0, and p ro m ise d t o sen d more fo o d, a s w e ll a s m a c h in e ry 60New Y ork T im es, J u n e 1 3, 1966. 6 -®-C. L. S u lz b e r g e r, " I n d o n e s ia i n A g a in, B eg in A g a in," i b i d.. J u n e 10, 1966; H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia f o r I n d o n e s ia n s,* ' 1 1 -1 2; J a c k s o n, "New I n d o n e s ia M ust Have UK a s a F r i e n d. " London O b s e r v e r, Ju n e 2 6, 1966; A lf r e d F r i e n d l y, " I n d o n e s ia R e p o rts M ajo r S te p s Toward R e jo in in g I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s, " New Y ork T im es, S ep tem b er 18, 1966. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 207] === 202 and p a r t s. 62 The new D ja k a r ta reg im e made a num ber o f h o p e f u l moves i n th e summer o f 1966. Though S uk arn o s a v a g e ly c r i t i c i z e d th e m e e tin g, M alik a t te n d e d th e c o n f e r e n c e i n Bangkok w ith M a la y s i a 's A bdul R azk a, a t w h ich tim e, a s e a r l i e r n o te d, th e I n d o n e s ia n m i n i s t e r re n o u n c e d th e " c r u s h M a la y s ia " cam p aig n. M a lik s a i d i n Bangkok: "The c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f th e p e o p l e 's stom ach i s more im p o r ta n t th a n an y o t h e r c o n fro n ts *. M o reo v er, M alik e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n th e c r e a t i o n o f ASFAC, a new A s i a n - P a c i f i c s t a t e s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n t o p ro m o te b ro a d c o o p e r a tio n i n many f i e l d s. S i g n i f i c a n t l y, th e n in e n a t i o n s w hich founded AZPAC a t a S e o u l c o n f e r e n c e i n m id -J u n e, 1966, w ere non-C om m unist: S o u th K orea, N a t i o n a l i s t C h in a, J a p a n, M a la y s ia, New Z e a la n d, A u s t r a l i a, th e P h i l i p p i n e s, T h a ila n d, and S o u th V ietn am. D evelopm ents i n D ja k a r t a s u g g e s te d t h a t I n d o n e s ia m ig h t soon become th e t e n t h member.64H ap p en in g s i n I n d o n e s ia t h a t summer bode i l l f o r Bung K am o. S u h a rto r e l e a s e d num bers o f p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s j a i l e d by S u k a rn o -men who m o st l i k e l y w ould b e r e tu r n e d t o o f f i c e so o n. One o f th o s e p e r s o n s r e l e a s e d was M o ch tar L u b is, h a r d - h i t t i n g e d i t o r o f R aya, who im m e d ia te ly announced p la n s t o s t a r t h i s p r e s s r o l l i n g a g a i n. F u ll Memphis C om m ercial A p p e a l. Ju n e 1 8, 1966; H a r r is o n, " In d o n e s ia n M is s io n S eeks Speed Up on Em ergency A id," W ash in g to n P o s t. S ep te m b er 2 7, 1966. ^ " T i g h t e n i n g th e N o o se," Tim e. LXXXVII (May 2 7, 1 9 6 6 ), 2 7. ^ J a m e s R e s to n, "A Gleam o f L i g h t i n A s i a," New Y ork T im es, Ju n e 1 9, 1966; Seymour T o p p in g, " A s ia n s In c h Toward a R e g io n a l D e fen se S y s te m," i b i d., Ju n e 2 0, 1966; "A New A l l i a n c e, and More H elp f o r V ie t Nam," Tim e, LXXXVII (J u n e 2 4, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 0. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 208] === o f v i n d i c t i v e n e s s to w ard S u k arn o, L u b is s t a t e d: " I t i s more t r u e now th a n e v e r b e f o r e t h a t th e c o u n tr y n e e d s a good, h o n e s t, c r i t i c a l p r e s s.'* Huge s t u d e n t d e m o n s tr a tio n s demanded t h a t S u k a rn o, a s w e ll a s S u b a n d rio, be t r i e d a s a c o n s p i r a t o r i n th e O c to b e r 1 c Ju n e 21 N a s u tio n, o u s te d by S u k arn o, was e l e c t e d ch airm an o f th e p e o p l e 's c o n s u l t a t i v e c o n g r e s s, th e n a t i o n 's h i g h e s t law -m aking b ody. The c o n g re s s th e n c o n firm ed u n an im o u sly S u h a r to 's p o s i t i o n a s h ead o f th e e x e c u tiv e b r a n c h.66 N ext th e c o n g re s s s t r i p p e d S u k arn o o f h i s l i f e p r e s id e n c y, p e r m i tt in g him t o re m a in, h o w ev er, a s p r e s i d e n t u n t i l th e n e x t g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n. I t a l s o c u r t a i l e d w hat few pow ers S u h a rto had l e f t t o h im.6? The new reg im e a p p e a re d t o h av e c o n s o lid a te d i t s pow er by m id summer, 1966. S u h a rto and N a s u tio n r e p r e s e n t e d th e p o w e rfu l arm y; M a lik, th e f r a n k, b r i l l i a n t S u m atran, d e f t l y h a n d le d f o r e ig n a f f a i r s; and Hamengku Buwono, S u lto n o f J o g j a k a r t a, a d m in is te re d econom ic a f f a i r s and r e p r e s e n t e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s m and p r e s t i g e o f th e " o ld " In d o n e s ia n p o p u la c e. H o p e fu lly, th e s e fo u r seemed t o sy m b o lize " T ig h te n in g th e N o o se," Tim e. LXXXVII, 2 7; B u tw e ll, " I n d o n e s ia D e fin e s In d ep en d e n ce A new;" C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. A u g u st 1 7, 1966; J e f f W illia m s, "Army t o A pply B rak es t o I n d o n e s ia n S t u d e n t s, " J a c k s o n C la r io n - L e d g e r. S ep tem b er 2 2, 1966; Memphis Com m ercial A p p e a l, O c to b e r 1, 1966; i b i d.. O c to b er 5, 1966; A lf r e d F r ie n d l y, " I l l u s i o n s i n I n d o n e s ia," New Y ork T im es, O c to b e r 1, 1966. Memphis Com m ercial A p p e a l. Ju n e 2 2, 1966; New York T im es. J u n e 2 1, 1966; i b i d., J u l y 6, 1966. 6 7"V engeance w ith A S m ile," Tim e. LXXXVII, 2 2; "Unmaking o f a P r e s i d e n t. " i b i d.. LXXXVII, 2 9. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 209] === 204 I n d o n e s i a 's b e s t i n b r a i n s, p ow er, and t r a d i t i o n a l i s m. A ll seemed aw are o f th e n a t i o n 's g ra v e p ro b le m s, a l e r t t o i t s g e n e r a l w e l f a r e, 68 and c o n s c io u s o f th e d e l i c a t e s i t u a t i o n w ith S u k a rn o.00 As f a r a s i t s c u r r e n t l e a d e r s h ip was c o n c e rn e d, I n d o n e s ia in m id -1966 seemed p r e p a r e d t o ta k e th e f i r s t s te p s on th e lo n g ro a d to w ard econom ic b e tte r m e n t, l i m i t e d dem ocracy, and g r e a t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e. The c o u n t r y 's p ro b lem s w ere s t i l l s ta g g e r i n g t o o p t i m i s t s, i n s u r m o u n tab le t o s k e p t i c s. But a t l e a s t t h r e e o f th e f o r c e s m i l i t a t i n g a g a i n s t th e n a t i o n 's p r o g r e s s w ere now im p o te n t, nam ely S u k a rn o, th e PK I, and th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g a x i s. ^®New Y ork T im es. J u ly 6, 1966; C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. J u l y 6, 1966; M oser, "Where R iv e r s Ran C rim son From B u tc h e r y," 3 3; D onald K ir k, " A f te r S u k arn o, th e H e a d a c h e," New York T im es, S ep tem b er 11, 1966; Jo h n H ughes, " I n d o n e s ia, M a la y s ia End W a r," C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r. A u g u st 2, 1966; " E c l i p s e, " Newsweek, LXVI ( J u l y 18, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 8; " U n ite d N a tio n s a t 2 1," i b i d., LXVII (O c to b e r 3, 1966, 36; "V engeance w ith a S m ile," Tim e, LXXXVII, 2 6; T o p p in g, "S u k arn o S t i l l S tr u g g li n g to H old on in I n d o n e s ia," New Y ork T im es, A u g u st 2 2, 1966. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission === [PDF page 210] === ABSTRACT Woo Ju n g J u. M ajo r: D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y, 1967 H is to r y, D e p artm en t o f H is to r y T itle o f D is s e rta tio n: D ir e c te d b y: The R is e and F a l l o f th e D ja k a r ta - P e k in g A x is, 1949-1966 D. C la y to n Jam es P ages i n D i s s e r t a t i o n: 234 Words i n A b s t r a c t: 440 ABSTRACT The h i s t o r y o f S in o - I n d o n e s ia n r e l a t i o n s, 1 949-1966, was m arked by u p s and downs, w ith e a c h s id e u s in g th e o t h e r o p p o r t u n i s t i c a l l y. The u n d e r s ta n d in g b etw ee n Communist C h in a and I n d o n e s ia had a p o o r f o u n d a tio n, m aking p e rm a n e n t a c c o rd b etw een th e two im p o s s ib le. D j a k a r t a 's ra p p ro c h e m e n t w ith P e k in g was p r e d i c a t e d upon c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e p r e c a r i o u s b a la n c e o f pow er i n I n d o n e s ia a n d, more e s p e c i a l l y, upon S u k a r n o 's p i v o t a l p o s i t i o n i n t h a t b a l a n c e. I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y, P e k in g and D ja k a r t a re a c h e d t h e i r z e n i t h i n 1955. T o g e th e r w ith S u k arn o, Chou E n - l a i p la y e d a d o m in an t r o l e i n th e Bandung C o n fe re n c e. A sia n h i s t o r y. The m e e tin g m arked a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n modern P e k in g and D ja k a r ta w ere a l s o th e p rim e b a c k e r s o f th e p r o j e c t e d seco n d A fro -A s ia n c o n f e r e n c e a t A l g i e r s. S u k arn o s o u g h t t o keep h i s f a r - f l u n g and d iv id e d n a t i o n t o g e t h e r by p la y in g o f f i t s m ost p o w e rfu l e le m e n ts one a g a i n s t th e o t h e r, th e army and th e PK I. NASAKOM, h i s th e o r y o f c o a l i t i o n g o v ern m e n t, was R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 211] === 206 im plem ented w ith g r a d u a l ly in c r e a s in g p a r t i c i p a t i o n by th e In d o n e s ia n Com m unists. M oreover, S u k a r n o 's f o r e ig n p o l i c y was in c lo s e a c c o rd w ith t h a t o f P ek in g by th e e a r l y I 9 6 0 's. The In d o n e s ia n p r e s i d e n t 's e n t e n te w ith th e C om m unists, how ever, was o n ly one a s p e c t o f th e s t e a d i l y grow ing t i e s betw een I n d o n e s ia Communist C hina d u r in g th e y e a r s 1955-1965. and P ek in g a v i d l y b ack ed D j a k a r t a 's a n ti- D u tc h s t r u g g l e and M a la y sia n cam paign, w h ile D ja k a r ta s u p p o rte d P e k in g 's p o s i t i o n in i t s c o n f l i c t s w ith S o v ie t R u s s ia, I n d i a, and th e U n ite d S t a t e s. B oth n a t i o n s ' l e a d e r s b e lie v e d t h a t a S in o - In d o n e s ia n a x i s c o u ld s p e a rh e a d a triu m p h f o r th e New Em erging F o rc e s o v e r th e Old E s ta b lis h e d F o rc e s t h a t w ould f o r e v e r e x t in g u is h W estern im p e r ia lis m in th e A fro -A s ia n w o rld. D u rin g th e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r th e seco n d A fro -A s ia n assem b ly i t seemed t h a t th e P e k in g - D ja k a r ta a l l i a n c e was e n la r g e d to in c lu d e K a ra c h i a l s o. As S u k a r n o 's G uided D em ocracy, h i s s o c i a l i s t i c d o m e stic p rogram, f a l t e r e d a m id st a p p a l l i n g so c io -e c o n o m ic t r o u b l e s, P ek in g and PKI p la n n e r s advanced th e d a te f o r a lo n g -p la n n e d coup d ' e t a t in I n d o n e s ia. By 1965 th e b a t t l e f o r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o f D ja k a r ta p r o b a b ly loomed more s i g n i f i c a n t i n P e k in g s t r a t e g y th a n th e w ar i n V ietnam. P K I's r e v o l t i n O c to b e r, 1965, f a i l e d d i s a s t r o u s l y. But th e F u rth e rm o re, th e seco n d A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e c o lla p s e d w ith grow ing n e u t r a l i s t d i s t r u s t o f P ek in g and D ja k a r t a. a v io le n t ri'g h trw in g The Communist f a i l u r e i n I n d o n e s ia p r e c i p i t a t e d r e a c t i o n t h a t p ro d u c e d a s h i f t o f pow er to a n t i com m unist army l e a d e r s h i p. M ost a f f i n i t i e s w ith P e k in g w ere s e v e r e d, S u k a r n o 's a u t h o r i t y was s h a r p ly c u r t a i l e d, th e PKI was d e c im a te d, and th e S u h a rto reg im e p le d g e d i t s e l f to th e b e tte r m e n t o f I n d o n e s i a 's i n t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n and h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s. The im p o ten ce o f Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 212] === 207 S u k arn o, th e PKI, and th e D ja k a rto -P e k in g a x is im proved I n d o n e s i a 's o u tlo o k f o r th e f u t u r e, b u t i n m id -1966 th e n a t i o n 's p o l i t i c a l, econ o m ic, and s o c i a l p ro b lem s rem ain ed c r i t i c a l. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 213] === BIBLIOGRAPHY PUBLIC DOCUMENTS B r i t i s h I n f o r m a tio n S e r v ic e, The F e d e r a tio n o f M a la y s ia, London, 1963. Colombo C o n fe re n c e P r e s s I n f o r m a tio n D e p a rtm e n t, F in a l Communique I s s u e d by th e Colombo C o n fe re n c e. K andy, 1954. F o re ig n Language P r e s s, C hina and th e A s ia n -A fric a: P e k in g, 1955. C o n fe re n c e, _______________________. R e p o rt on F o re ig n A f f a i r s, 3 3 rd S e s s io n o f th e C e n tr a l P e o p l e 's Governm ent C o u n c il, P e k in g, 1954. G re a t B r i t a i n, S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r F o re ig n A f f a i r s, Docum ents R e l a ti n g to th e D is c u s s io n o f K orea and I n d o n e s ia a t th e Geneva C o n fe re n c e, M is c e lla n e o u s No. 16, London, 1954. I n d ia n M in is tr y o f I n f o r m a tio n and B r o a d c a s tin g, C h in a 's B e tr a y a l o f I n d i a, New D e lh i, 1962. In d o n e s ia n M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s, A s ia n - A f r ic a S p eak s from B andung, D ja k a r t a, 1955. __________________, A s ia n - A fr ic a n B u l l e t i n, D ja k a r t a, 1955. ’________, A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e, Bandung, 1955. _______________________, New C oncept o f Governm ent S t r u c t u r e by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o. D ja k a r t a, 1957. , Toward Freedom and th e D ig n it y o f Man: A C o ll e c t i o n o f F iv e S p eech es by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, D ja k a r t a, 1961. , A Y ear o f D e c is io n by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o. D ja k a r ta 1957. U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e, M a la y a: 1958. A New In d e p e n d e n t S t a t e. W ash ington M alay a, W a sh in g to n, 1963. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 214] === 209 BOOKS Adams, C in d y, S u k arn o; An A u to b io g ra p h y, New Y ork, 1965 Appadori, A ndadipuram, The Bandung C o n fe re n c e. New D e lh i, 1955. A s ia n R e l a ti o n s O r g a n iz a tio n, A sia n R e l a t i o n s. New Y ork, 1948. B a r n e t t, A. Doak, Communist S t r a t e g i e s i n A s i a. New Y ork, 1964. _______________________, Communist C h in a and A s i a. New Y ork, 1960. B o u sg a re n, A nthony T., S o v ie t F o r e ig n P o l i c y. New Y ork, 1962. Boyd, R. G., C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y. New Y o rk, 1962. Brackm an, A rn o ld C., I n d o n e s ia n Communism. New Y o rk, 1963. B u ss, C lau d e A., S o u th e a s t A s ia and th e W orld T o d ay. New Y o rk, 1958. Chatham House S tu d y G roup. C o l l e c t i v e D e fe n se i n S o u th e a s t A s i a. London, 1956. C r o z i e r, B r ia n. S o u th e a s t A s ia i n T u rm o il. B a ltim o r e, 1965. D u b in s te in, A lv in, The F o r e ig n P o lic y o f th e S o v ie t U n io n. New Y ork, 1960. F e i t h, H e r b e r t, The D e c lin e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D em ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a, I t h a c a, 1962. F i f i e l d, R u s s e l H., S o u th e a s t A s ia i n U n ite d S t a t e s P o l i c y, New Y ork, 1963. F i s c h e r, L o u is, The S to r y o f I n d o n e s ia, New Y ork, 1959. G i t t i n g s, J o h n, The S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, L ondon, 1964. G ordon, B e rn a rd K., The D im en sio n s o f C o n f l i c t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a. Englewood C l i f f s, 1966. G r a n t, B ra n c e, I n d o n e s i a ^ New Y ork, 1964. G u p ta, Dharam Chand, I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s. New D e lh i, 1964. H ig g in s, B en jam in, and J e a n H ig g in s, I n d o n e s i a; M i l l s t o n e s. P r i n c e t o n, 1963. The C r i s i s o f H ig g in s, B en jam in, I n d o n e s ia " s Econom ic S t a b i l i z a t i o n and D ev elo p m ent, New Y ork, 1957. H s ie h, A lic e L., Communist C h in a 1s S t r a t e g y i n th e N u c le a r E r a. Englewood C l i f f s, 1962. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 215] === 210 H udson, G. F., and o t h e r s. The S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, New Y ork, 1963. Hwang, T ie n -c h e n, M oscow -Peking R e la tio n s and th e K hrushche?-M ao S t r u g g l e, T a i p e i, 1965. I n s t i t u t e o f P a c i f i c R e la tio n s,- Bandung C o n fe re n c e; D ocum ents, New Y o rk, 1955. J a c k, Homer-A.., B andung: A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n fe re n c e, Bandung, I n d o n e s ia, A p r i l, 19 5 5, C h ic ag o, 1955. K a h in, G eo rg e, A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e, I t h a c a, 1956. , M ajor G overnm ents o f A s i a, I t h a c a, 1963. K a u ts k y, Hohn H., Moscow and th e Communist P a r ty o f I n d i a. New Y ork, 1956. K ennedy, J o s e p h, A H is to r y o f M a la y s ia, London, 1962. K ennedy, Malcom P.. Communism i n E a s t A s i a. New Y ork, 1957. K in g, F ran k H. H., The. New M a la y sia n N a ti o n s: and N a tio n a lis m, New Y ork, 1957. L eg g e, J. P., I n d o n e s i a, Englewood C l i f f s, A S tu d y o f Communism 1964. L ew is, R eba, I n d o n e s i a, New Y ork, 1963. Lukman, M. H., R e p o rt on Changes i n th e Communist P a r ty C o n s t i t u t i o n. W a sh in g to n, 1961. McVey, R uth T., The C a l c u t t a C o n fe re n c e and th e S o u th e a s t A sia U p r i s i n g s, New Y ork, 1958. _______________________, The Development, o f th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, and I t s R e la tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n, C am bridge, 1954. The P ev elo p m en t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, and I t s R e l a ti o n s w ith th e S o v ie t U nion and C h in e se P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic, C am bridge, 1954. _______________________ I n d o n e s ia, New H aven, 1963. , The. R is e o f I n d o n e s ia n Communism. I t h a c a, 1965. The S o v ie t View o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n, I t h a c a, 1957. M e h n e rt, K la u s, P e k in g and Moscow, New Y o rk, 1964. M in tx, J e a n n e S., I n d o n e s ia, P r in c e t o n, 1961. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 216] === 211 M o d e ls k i, George A., In d o n e s ia and H er N e ig h b o rs: f o r th e W est, P r in c e to n, 1964. P o lic y A l t e r n a t i v e s N e i l, R o b e rt V., The Em ergence o f th e Modern In d o n e s ia n E l i t e, C h icag o, 1960. N ikham ih, V. P., I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la tio n s i n S o u th e a s t A s ia A f te r W orld War I I, Moscow, 1956. O v e r s t r e e t, B onaro, and H a rry A lle n, The War C a lle d P e a c e, New Y ork, 1961. P o p la i, S. C., A sia and A f r ic a i n th e W o rld, Bombay, 1955. P l u v i e r, J a n M., C o n f r o n ta t io n s, London, 1965. P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t o f th e C e n tr a l C om m ittee o f th e PK I, S ix th N a tio n a l C o n g ress o f th e P K I. D ja k a r t a, 1959. Ratnam, K. J., Communism and th e P o l i t i c a l P ro c e s s in M alay a, K u alalu m p er, 1.965. R eed, S. W., I n d o n e s ia: A rea Handbook on I n d o n e s ia, New H aven, 1964, R o b eq u ain, C h a r le s, M alaya, I n d o n e s ia, B o rn eo, and th e P h i l i p p i n e s. New Y ork, 1958. R onchey, A lb e r t, The Two Red G i a n t s, New Y ork, 1965. 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F., I n d o n e s ia n S o c ie ty i n T r a n s i t i o n, Bandung, 1956. W in t, Guv. Communist C h in a 's C ru s a d e, New Y ork, 1965. Z a g o r ia, D onald S., The S in o - S o v ie t C o n f l i c t: 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 1. P r in c e t o n, 1962. ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES AND JOURNALS A b d u lg a n i, R o e s la n, " I n d o n e s i a 's N a tio n a l C o u n c il: The F i r s t Y e a r," F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XXVII ( J u l y, 1 9 5 8 ), 9 7 -1 0 4. , "The L e sso n o f I n d o n e s i a 's E x p e rie n c e i n P la n n i n g, " J to ite d _ A s ia, X II (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 0 ), 4 3 7 -4 4 2. "A bout F a c e," Tim e, LXV ( J a n u a r y 7, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 6. A d ie, W. A. C., "C h in a and th e Bandung G e n ie," C u r r e n t S c ie n c e. I l l (May 1 5, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 -1 2. " A f r ic a - A s ia M e e tin g," S e n io r S c h o l a s t i c, LXVI (May 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 3 -1 5. " A f r ic a n - A s ia n C o n fe re n c e," W orld T oday, I I (M arch, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 1 4 -1 1 5. " A f r o - A s ia: A Myth— and a S o b er R e a l i t y, " Newsweek, LXVI ( J u l y 12, " A f r o - A s ia: Red G a in s, and L o s s e s." Newsweek, L I ( F e b r u a r y 17, 1 9 5 8 ), " A f r o - A s ia: The Faded D ream," Tim e, LXXXXVI (November 1 2, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 0. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 218] === " A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e, 11 Commonweal, LXI ( J a n u a r y 14, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 9 6. " A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e: On t o Guy F a w k e s," E c o n o m is t, CCXVI ( J u l y 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 6 -2 7. " A fro -A s ia n s Speak f o r T h e m s e lv e s," B u s in e s s Week. A p r il 3 0, 1955, " A f t e r C o n f r o n t a t i o n s," E c o n o m is t, CCXIX (May 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 9 3 2. " A f t e r D ark D eed, th e H ard L i n e," L i f e, XXXXV ( J u l y 7, 1 9 5 8 ), 13, 17. " A l g e r ia: A C louded F u tu r e B e fo re A f r o -A s ia? " I n d ia n F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, V I I I ( J u n e - J u l y, 1 9 6 5 ), 6 - 8. A n d erso n, B e n e d ic t R., " I n d o n e s ia: U n ite d A g a in s t P r o g r e s s, " H i s t o r y, XXXXVIII ( F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 5 ), 7 5 -8 1. C u rr e n t "And Now B an d u n g," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII (M arch 30, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 8 9 -3 9 1. " A n o th e r B ig C o u n try A bout To Go t o th e R e d s," R e p o r t, LIX (May 17, 1 9 6 5 ), 8 0 -8 2. U. S. News & W orld " A n o th e r P ro b lem f o r U. S.: Keep Reds from T ak in g I n d o n e s i a, " News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXV ( J u l y 2 5, 1 9 5 8 ), 7 1 -7 2. "A rab s a t B an d u n g." N a tio n, CLXXX ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 5 7. A rm stro n g, H a m ilto n F., " T h is War i n B orneo: R e p o r t e r, XXX (Ju n e 4, 1 9 6 4 ), 1 6 -2 0. Whose S id e A re We On?" " A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n f e r e n c e," C u r r e n t N o tes on I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, XXVI (May, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 1 6 -3 2 5. " A s ia n - A f r ic a n P a r le y S e t f o r A p r i l, ". C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII ( J a n u a r y 1 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 5. " A s ia n A f te r - G lo w," E c o n o m is t, CLXXV ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 6 1 -3 6 2. " A s ia n s M eet A f r i c a n, " New R e p u b lic, CLXXXII ( A p r il 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 5. A ty e o, H enry C., " S tu d e n ts B oot O ut th e C o m m u n ists," N a ti o n a l R eview, X V III (May 1 7, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 5 8. "A w akening o f I n d o n e s i a, " A m e ric a, C ( F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1 9 5 9 ), 59 5. B a in, C h e s te r A., "S araw ak: C o n tr o lle d E x p e rim e n t i n D em o cracy," S o u th A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y, L V III ( W in te r, 1 9 5 9 ), 5 2 8 -5 3 9. "Bamboo C u r t a i n, " E c o n o m is t. CLXXV ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 7 3. "B andung: A fro -A s ia n C o n f e r e n c e." New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX ( A p r il 3 0, R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 219] === 214 "Bandung C o n fe re n c e, 11 W orld T oday, I I ( J u n e, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 3 4 -2 3 7. "Bandung L e f t UN a L e g a c y," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII (O c to b e r 19, 1 9 5 5 ), 1195. B eech, K ey es, " S tr u g g le f o r Power u n d e r th e P a lm s." S a tu r d a y E v en in g - P o s t, CCXXX (O c to b e r 12, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 6 -3 7, 10 3 -1 0 4. B eichm an, A rn o ld, " I n d o n e s ia n B ig B r o t h e r, " S p e c t a t o r. CCXI (A u g u st 30, B enda, H a rry J., "Communism i n S o u th e a s t A s i a." Y ale R eview. XXXXV (M arch, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 1 7 -4 2 9. , "Dem ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a." J o u r n a l o f A sia n S t u d i e s. X X III (May, 1 9 6 4 ), 4 4 9 -4 5 6. B enson, R ic h a rd D., " I n d o n e s ia A f te r G e s ta p u," N a tio n a l R eview. X V III (F e b r u a r y 2 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 161. "Blow Up in I n d o n e s ia: What I t Means t o U. S. and R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LIX (O c to b e r 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 3 -4 4. Bone, R o b e rt C., "New Hope i n I n d o n e s i a," F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n. XXXV (O c to b e r 1, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 3 -1 5. _______________________. " O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e In d o n e s ia n E l e c t i o n, " A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview, XLIX (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1067 -1 0 8 4. _______________________, " W ill I n d o n e s ia D i s i n t e g r a t e? " F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n. XXXVI (May 1, 1 9 5 7 ), 1 2 5 -1 2 7. "B rin k m an sh ip P h ase o f R u s s ia n and C h in e se D ip lo m a c y." Newsweek, L X III ( A p r il 13, 1 9 6 4 ), 4 1. B r z e z in s k i, A b ig n ie w, " C h a lle n g e o f Change in th e S o v ie t B lo c," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s. XXXIX ( A p r i l, 1 9 6 1 ), 4 3 0 -4 4 3. _______________________, "Communist D is u n ity and th e W e s t," New R e p u b lic, CXXXXV (D ecem ber 18, 1 9 6 1 ), 1 3 -1 7. B u d ia r d jo, M iriam S., " P r o v i s i o n a l P a r lia m e n t o f I n d o n e s i a," F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XXV (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 6 ), 1 7 -2 3. " B u n g 's B o u n ce," T im e, LXXXVII (M arch 4, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 0. "Bung S ta n d s A lo n e," Newsweek, LXVII ( F e b ru a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 1. Burham, Jam es, " D is p a tc h from a F o r g o tte n F r o n t. " N a tio n a l R eview. X (M arch 2 5, 1 9 6 1 ), 176. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 220] === 215 _______________________, "On th e S o u th e rn F la n k," N a tio n a l R eview, XVII (F e b ru a ry 2 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 146. B u tw e ll, R ic h a rd, " M a la y sia and I t s Im p act on th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la tio n s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," A sia n S u rv e y, IV ( J u l y, 1964) C a rv a lh o, G eorge d e, "P ek in g C alls U. S. S. R. and U. S. L o v e b ir d s," L i f e, LIX ( J u l y 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 6 2 -6 4. Chen, Ho, "The G re a t A s ia n - A fr ic a n C o n f e r e n c e," P e o p l e 's C h in a, May 21, 1955, 4 - 6. "Cheb Y i’ s P r e s s C o n feren c e i n K a r a c h i," P ek in g R eview, S ep tem b er 10, 1965, 8 -1 0. "C hina and A f r o - A s ia," I n d ia n and F o re ig n Review, I (Decem ber 15, "C hina and A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " I n d ia n and F o re ig n R eview, I ( A p r il 15, 1 9 6 4 ), 2 1 -2 3. " C h in ese Communist I n v i t a t i o n to T a l k," New R e p u b lic. LXXXII (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 3. " C h in ese G overnm ent L e a d e rs Condemn I n d ia n E x p an sio n ism and A g g res s io n A g a in s t P a k i s t a n," P ek in g R eview, S ep tem b er 17, 1965, "C h in e se P o k e r: S ukarno Has L e a r n t th e D angers o f G am bling w ith C h in a. The R e s t o f th e W orld Has Been Reminded o f C h in a 's Aim. " E c p n o m is t. CCXIC (O c to b e r 9, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 3 1 -1 3 2. "Chou E n - l a i E a se s T e n s io n," New S ta te s m a n, XXXXIX ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 5 5 ), 597. "Chou E n - l a i: I t Was a Famous V i c t o r y," New R e p u b lic, CXXXII (May 30, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 - 4. "Chou E n - l a i: Red C h in a 's S m o o th ie," U. S. News & W orld R e p o rt XXXVIII (May 6, 1 9 5 5 ), 7 1 -7 2. " C h o u 's T r ic k y P erfo rm an c e a t B andung," Newsweek, XXXV (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 32. "Chou U rges New W orld Body t o R iv a l U. N., 11 Background on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 5, 1965, 1 -2. "C louds i n th e S o u th S e a s," Newsweek, LXI (M arch 4, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 2 -4 4. " C o a l i t i o n i n D j a k a r t a, ” New S ta te s m a n, XXXXVI (A u g u st 2 9, 1 9 5 3 ), 222. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 221] === 216 "Colombo C o n fe re n c e M arks New D a y," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXI (May 12, 1 9 5 4 ), 57 2. "Coming Bandung C o n fe re n c e W o rrie s th e W e s t," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII ( J a n u a r y 1 9, 1 9 5 5 ), 6 8. "Communist C h in a 's R e t r e a t from F a n ta s y," Newsweek, L X III ( A p r il 13, "C om m unists: The B a t t l e o v e r th e Tomb," T im e, LXXXIII ( A p r il 2 4, 1 9 6 4 ), " C o n f r o n tin g S u k a rn o, " E c o n o m is t, CCX (J a n u a r y 2 5, 1 9 6 4 ), 2 8 1. " C o u n c il o f A s i a." E c o n o m is t, CLXXV ( A p r il 16, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 7 9 -1 8 0. C o u s in s, Norman, " R e p o rt from B an d u n g," S a tu r d a y R ev iew, XXXVIII (May 2 1, 1.955), 7 - 9, 5 4 -5 6. Cowan, C. D., " I n d o n e s ia and th e Commonwealth i n S o u th e a s t A s ia: A R e -a p p ra:i.s a l," I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, XXXIV ( O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), C rankshaw, Edw ard, "B eh in d G rim K rem lin R e v e r s a l L ie s th e Growing Power o f C h in a," L if e., XXXXV ( J u l y 7, 1 9 5 8 ), 1 5 -1 6. ________________________, "Two Dogmas Shake th e Communist W orld: M ao's C h a lle n g e t o th e Suprem acy o f M oscow," New York Times M ag a z in e, J u l y 2 1, 1.963,.5, 5 8 -6 1. " C ru s h in g C o n f r o n t a t i o n," E c o n o m is t, CCXIX ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 5 2 -4 5 3. " C u tti n g Edge o f K o t i, ” T im e, LXXX.VI (D ecem ber 2 4, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2. " C u ttin g th e R a te, ” EC'.)nos?.ist, CLXXXXV (J u n e 2 5, 1 9 6 0 ), 1324. 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New Y ork Times M a g a z in e, M arch 13, 1955., 1 3 -1 4. Times M ag azin e, "B eh in d th e F acad e o f A sia n U n ity.": New York A p r il 1 7, 1955, 9, 3 0 -3 4. Ebon, M a r tin, " I n d o n e s ia n Communism: From F a i l u r e t o S u c c e s s," Review o f P o l i t i c s, XXV ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 3 ), 9 1 -1 0 9. " E c l i p s e, " Newsweek, LXVI ( J u l y 18, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 8 -4 1. " E ig h th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," A m e ric a, LXXXVI (O c to b e r 13, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 3. " F a i l u r e i n I n d o n e s i a." New R e p u b lic, C LII (May 1, 1 9 6 5 ), 7. 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S o u th e a s t A s ia S e r i e s, V II (S ep tem b er 12, 1 9 5 9 ), 1 -1 6. ________________________, "Bung K a rn o! s I n d o n e s ia," S o u th e a s t A s ia S e r i e s, V II (S ep tem b er 2 8, 1 9 5 9 ), 1 -1 2. , " I n d o n e s ia," H e a d lin e S e r i e s, Novem ber-D ecem ber, 1961, 4 8 -5 0. , "T h re e Men and T h ree R e v o l u tio n s," R e p o r t e r, XXIV (F e b ru a ry 19, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 3 -2 6. _______________________, "U sdekadence o f Bung K a rn o," R e p o r t e r, X X III (A u g u st 4, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 2 -2 5. H anson, H a ld o r e, "A Gamble on G uided Dem ocracy.*’ R e p o r t e r, XXI ( J u l y 2 3, 1 9 5 9 ), 2 3 -2 6. H a tc h, J o h n, " S u k a r n o 's Weak H an d," New S ta te s m a n, LXIV (S ep tem b er 27, H a tta, Mohammed, " I n d o n e s ia Between th e Power B lo c s." F o re ig n A f f a i r s, XXXVI ( A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 8 0 -4 9 0. H aw kings, E v e r e t t D., "L ab o r R e l a ti o n s i n I n d o n e s ia," U n ite d A s i a, X II ( J u n e, 1 9 6 0 ), 2.25-229. H en d erso n, W illia m, " I n d o n e s ia D r i f t s Toward C h a o s," B u l l e t i n, XXXVII ( A p r il 1, 1 9 5 8 ), 1 0 5 -1 0 6. F o re ig n P o lic y H ig g in s, B enjam in, " I n d o n e s ia and U. S. P o l i c y, " New R e p u b lic, CXXXVII (Decem ber 3 0, 1 9 5 7 ), 7 -8. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 224] === 219 H in d le y, D o n ald, " I n d o n e s ia: P r id e & P o l i t i c s, " N a tio n, CC (J u n e 14,, " In d o n e s ia n Communists and th e CPSU Tw entysecond C o n g r e s s," A sia n S u rv e y, I I (M arch, 1 9 6 2 ), 2 0 -2 7. , " In d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y and th e C o n f l i c t in th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Communist M ovem ent," C hina Q u a r t e r l y, J u l y S ep te m b er, 1964, 2 1 -2 6. , " I n d o n e s ia n C o n f r o n ta tio n w ith M a la y s ia: A S e a rc h f o r M o tiv e s," A sia n S u rv e y, V ( J u n e, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 0 4 -9 1 3. ________________________, " P r e s i d e n t S ukarno and th e Com m unists: The P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s tic a tio n," A m e r ic a n ilP o litic a l S c ie n c e R eview, LVI (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 9 1 5 -9 2 6. H odgkin, Thomas, "B ackground on B andung," S p e c t a t o r, CLXXV ( A p r il 15, "Hope f o r P eace.R aised By Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y, LXXII (May 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 2 3 -5 2 4. H o rn e, D o n ald, " S tro n g f o r M a la y s ia," S p e c t a t o r, CCX (M arch 8, 1 9 6 3 ), 28 8. "How A u s t r a l i a I s R earm ing A g a in s t T h r e a ts o f W ar," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L C II (November 2 3, 1 9 6 4 ), 10. H udson, G. F., " B a la n c e S h e e t on B an d u n g." Comm entary, XIX ( J u n e, 1 9 5 5 ),, "Mao and M oscow," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, XXXVI (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 7 ), 7 8 -9 0. , "Mao, Marx and M oscow," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, ( J u l y, 1 9 5 9 ), 5 6 1 -5 7 2. H ughes, J o h n, " I n d o n e s ia f o r I n d o n e s i a n s," New R e p u b lic, CLIV ( A p r il 3 0, 1 9 6 6 ), 1 1 -1 2. Hyde, D o u g la s, "Land They N ever K new," Commonweal, LXXII ( J u l y, 1 9 6 0 ), " I n d o n e s ia A f t e r th e E l e c t i o n, " W orld T o d ay, X II (A u g u st, 1 9 5 6 ), " I n d o n e s ia and C h in a: P o lic y Becomes P o s s i b l e, " E c o n o m is t, CCXIX ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 6 6 ), 340. " I n d o n e s ia: Awkward V i s i t o r, " Newsweek, LXI ( A p r il 2 9, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 4. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 225] === 220 " I n d o n e s ia: C o n v e n ie n t C o n f e s s io n," Newsweek. LXVII ( F e b r u a r y 2 1, " I n d o n e s ia: F i n a l l y, th e C h a lle n g e," Newsweek, L I ( F e b r u a r y 2 4, " I n d o n e s ia: J i n g J a m b o re e," Tim e, LXXXV (J u n e 4, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 9. " I n d o n e s ia: O ld e fo A v a u n t," E c o n o m is t, CCXII (Decem ber 19, 1 9 6 4 ), " I n d o n e s ia Snubs th e W e s t," B u s in e s s Week, O c to b e r 15, 1955* 1 7 2 -1 7 3. " I n d o n e s ia: s p a r r i n g, " Newsweek, L I (M arch 17, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 0 - 4 4. " I n d o n e s ia T a lk s B ig a b o u t N u c le a r C lu b," B u s in e s s Week. F e b r u a r y 6, 19 65, 3 2. "As I n d o n e s ia T r i e s M i l i t a r y R u le," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LX (M arch 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 6 -4 7. " I n d o n e s ia: Two i n t e r v i e w s. " E c o n o m is t, CCXI ( A p r il 1 1, 1 9 6 4 ), " I n d o n e s ia: Unmaking o f a P r e s i d e n t, " T im e, LXXXVII ( J u l y 1, 1 9 6 6 ), " I n d o n e s ia: 27. W a itin g f o r a L e t t e r, " Newsweek, LXV ( J a n u a r y 1 8, 1 9 6 5 ), " In d o n e s ia n - C h in e s e F o re ig n M i n i s t e r s ' J o i n t Com m unique," A s ia n & A f r ic a n R ev iew, I (May, 1 9 6 1 ), 3 - 5. 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 226] === 221 I tlg b e r, D a v id, ’’I n d o n e s ia T o d ay,” C ontem porary R eview. CLXXXVIII ( Ju ly -D e c e m b e r, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 0 4 -1 0 6. ’’I n t e r - A s i a n C o n fe re n c e M eets i n New D e l h i, ” C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXIV ( F e b r u a r y 12, 1 9 4 7 ), 197. J a c k, Homer A., ’’A s i a n 's L a s t C a l l t o th e W e s t,” S a tu rd a y R eview, XXXIX (M arch 17, 1 9 5 6 ), 1 9 -2 0. , ’’Bandung i n P e r s p e c t i v e, ” F o r e ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n. XXXV (S ep tem b er 1, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 8 9 -2 0 2. J a c k s o n, C o lin, "Communist P a r t i e s i n S o u th e a s t A s i a, ” New R e p u b lic, CXXX (May 3 1, 1 9 5 4 ), 8 -1 0. J a c q u e s, J a c q u e t - F r a n c i l l o n, ’’S u k arn o L eads from W ea k n ess.” New R e p u b lic. CXXXXIX (November 2 3, 1 9 6 3 ), 1 1 -1 2. _______________________, " S u k a rn o 18 War A g a in s t M a la y s ia,” New R e p u b lic, CXXXIII ( A p r il 10,.1 9 6 5 ), 1 6 -1 8. J a f f e, Sam A., "Chou E n - l a i a t B an d u n g,” N a tio n, CLXXVI ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 359. , ” Chou E n - l a i T a lk s to th e W e s t,” N a tio n, (May 7, 1 9 5 5 ), 385. , ’’N ehru and Chou E n - l a i, ” N a tio n, CLXXX (May 2 8, 1955) 352. J a n s e n, G. H., "No D ram atic R e s u lts from A lg ie r s E x p e c te d,” I n d ia n M a r x is t. I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 1 -2 2. J o n e s, Howard P., ’’In d o n e s ia n -A m e ric a n R e l a ti o n s T o d ay,” U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n, XXXXVII (Novem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), " J u s t i c e i n D j a k a r t a. ” Tim e, LXXXVI (O c to b e r 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 9 -4 0. K a h in, G eorge M., G. V. F a u k e r, and L. W. P y e, " C o o p e ra tiv e P o l i t i c s o f N on-W estern C o u n t r i e s," A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview, LXIX (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 0 2 2 -1 0 4 1. K a in, R. S., "Moscow i n I n d o n e s i a, ” C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XVII (A u g u st, K a lb, B e rn a rd, " M a g n if ic e n t, E x a s p e r a tin g I n d o n e s i a. ” New York Times M a g azin e, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1962, 1 3 -2 4. K am alu d in, R u s la n, " F i f t h C e n t r a l C om m ittee P le n u m," B in ta n M erah, X I I I (A u g u st, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 1 0 -3 1 7. with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission === [PDF page 227] === 222 K e r ts s z, S tep h e n B., "U. S. S. R. and th e Communist B lo c,1' H i s t o r y, XXXXI (November, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 8 0 -2 8 5. C u rre n t "K hrushchev a t Communist C h in a 's A n n iv e rs a ry C e l e b r a ti o n: E x c e rp ts from A d d re ss, S ep tem b er 3 0, 1 9 5 9," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 6 5 -3 6 6. " K h ru s h c h e v 's Z ig and C h o u 's Z a g," Newsweek, XXXXIX ( J a n u a r y 1.4, 1 9 5 7 ), 39. K ing, S e th S., " G re a t P u rg e i n I n d o n e s ia," New York Times M ag azin e, May 9, 1966, 2 5, 8 9 -9 4. _______________________, "S u k arn o S t i r s up A n o th er A sia n S to rm," New York Times M ag azin e. J a n u a ry 19, 1964, 1 5 -6 2. K irk, D o n ald, "A nti-C om m unist C ru sad e o f I n d o n e s i a 's M oslem s," R e p o r t e r, XXXI.V ( J a n u a ry 2 7, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 1 -4 4. , " S tr u g g le f o r Power i n I n d o n e s i a." R e p o r t e r, XXXIV (F e b ru a ry 2 4, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 8 -4 0. Times M a g azin e, J u l y 2 4, 1966, 1 8 -3 9. New York _______________________, " S u k a r n o 's H o ld o u ts in C e n tr a l J a v a,," R e p o r te r, XXXV (S ep tem b er 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 9 -4 1. K o n ig s b e rg e r, H an s,' " I n d o n e s ia: Camping i n No M an's L a n d," N a tio n, CLXXVI ( J a n u a r y 3, 1 9 5 3 ), 8 - 9. K o z ic k i, R ic h a rd J., "Bandung from A f a r," U n ite d A s i a, V II (May, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 4 5 -1 4 9. Landman, D av id, "Bandung C om prom ise," New R e p u b lic, CXXXII (May 16,, " I n d o n e s ia ’s F i r s t E l e c t i o n, " New R e p u b lic, CXXXIII (O c to b e r 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 9 -1 0. , "Nobody Won a t Bandung, " New Repub 1.i c, CXXXII (May 2 3, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 1 -1 3. L aw rence, D av id, "Where I s I n d o n e s ia G oing?" F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXV (Ju n e 15, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 4 8 -1 5 0. L ev, D a n ie l S., " P o l i t i c a l R ole o f th e Army i n I n d o n e s i a," P a c i f i c A f f a i r s, XXXVI (W in te r, 1 9 6 3 -1 9 6 4 ), 3 4 9 -3 6 4. L e v i, W erner, " C h in a ’s A sia n P o l i c y, " (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 6 ), 1 5 3 -1 5 8. C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, LI Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 228] === 223 " L ig h t T h at F a i l s, " Tim e, LXXXVI (Decem ber 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 5. L in, T s u n - c h i, "Road to th e P e a c e f u l S o lu tio n o f th e A sia n Q u e s tio n," P e o p le 's C h in a, May 16, 1954, 1 4 -1 7. "M alaya Sees. S uk arn o a s D anger f o r S o u th e a s t A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LIV (M arch 18, 1 9 6 3 ), 8 0 -8 1. " M a la y s ia: C o n f r o n ta tio n C o n tin u e d," Newsweek, LXIV ( J u l y 6, 1 9 6 4 ), " M a la y s ia: G o b b le, G obble?" Newsweek, LIV (S ep tem b er 2 4, 1 9 6 4 ), 33. M a llo r y, W a lte r, "M aking A F r ie n d o f I n d o n e s ia," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, XXXII ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 5 4 ), 2 8 2 -2 9 5. "Mao on K: A B e tr a y e r and Tim id a s a M ouse," Newsweek, LXI ( J a n u a r y 4, 1 9 6 3 ), 37. "M ao 's Two S p e e c h e s," Time, LXIX (May 2 7, 1 9 5 7 ), 33. M ansergh, N., " A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, X X III ( J u l y, 1 9 4 7 ), 2 9 5 -3 0 6. M arsh ack, A le x a n d e r, " U n re p o rte d War i n I n d o n e s i a," A m erican M e rc u ry, LXXIV ( F e b ru a ry, 1 9 5 2 ), 3 7 -4 7. M a r tin, H a ro ld H., " T ro u b le I s l a n d s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a," S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXX ( J a n u a r y 3, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 0, 6 3 -6 4. M a r tin, K in g s le y, "C h in a We F a c e," N a tio n. CLXXX (May 14, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 1 5. M a r tin, R o b e rt P., "A War R u s s ia I s T ry in g to S t a r t, " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L I I ( A p r il 2 3, 1 9 6 2 ), 5 5 -6 0. McCune, S hannon, " I n d o n e s ia: T e s ts o f In d e p e n d e n c e," B u l l e t i n, XXXI ( J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 5 2 ), 5 - 7. F o r e ig n P o lic y McLane, C h a rle s B., "M oscow -Peking A l l i a n c e: The F i r s t D e c a d e," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 2 6 -3 3 2. "M eetin g i n Moscow f o r th e Red G r e a ts: W orld C o n g ress o f th e Commun i s t P a r t y, " L i f e, XXXXVI ( F e b ru a ry 9, 1 9 5 9 ), 2 6 -2 8. " I n th e M id st o f M usharaw ah," Tim e, LXXXVI (November 5, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 9 -5 0. M i l l s, L e n n o x.A., " I n d o n e s i a 's G rowing P a in s.," F o r e ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXIII (November 1, 1 9 5 3 ), 5 - 7. "M irage o f A fro -A s ia n U n ity," I n d ia n L i b e r a t i o n, X I I I ( J u l y 1, 1 9 6 5 ), Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 229] === 224 M oser, Don, "Where th e R iv e rs Ran C rim son from B u tc h e r y," L i f e, LXI ( J u l y 1, 1 9 6 6 ), 2 4 -3 3. "Mr. S u k arn o P la y s f o r T im e," E c o n o m ist, CLXXXII (M arch 2 3, 1 9 5 7 ), 98 8. "Mr. S u k a r n o 's S t a t e o f W ar," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXXIII (D ecem ber 2 6, Murphy, R. D., " D e fe n se i n A s i a," U. S. D ep artm en t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n. (November 2 9, 1 9 5 4 ), 7 9 9 -8 0 3. " M u sic a l C h a irs i n D j a k a r t a," E c o n o m is t, CCXIV ( F e b ru a ry 2 0, 1 9 6 5 ), 768. M ysbergh, Jam es H., " I n d o n e s ia n E l i t e, " F a r E a s t e r n S u rv e y, XXVI (M arch, 1 9 5 7 ), 3 8 -4 2. "A Myth D i s s o l v e s," N a tio n a l R eview. XVII (November 16, 1 9 6 5 ), 1016. "A New A l l i a n c e, and More H elp f o r V ie t Nam," Tim e, LXXXVII (J u n e 2 4, "New G uinea R e s o lu tio n F a i l s. " U n ite d N a tio n s R eview, I I I ( A p r il 1, "New P ek in g A tta c k on S o v ie t R e v is io n is m." B ackground on C h in a, Ju n e 18, 1965, 1 -8. "A New S ea o f T ro u b le i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LIV ( F e b ru a ry 1 1, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 6 -4 8. "N ext S t a g e," E c o n o m is t, CCXIV ( J a n u a r y 16, 1 9 6 5 ), 20 5. "N ext W ar," N a tio n, CLXXXXIX (S e p te m b e r 2 8, 1 9 6 4 ), 150. N o rth, R o b e rt C., " P e k in g 's D riv e f o r E m p ire," P ro b lem s o f Communism, LX ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 0 ), 2 3 -3 0. "Now A u s t r a l i a F in d s S h e 's i n th e L in e o f F i r e, " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, LXXX ( J a n u a r y 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 5. "Now I t ' s Gomulka V s. M ao," Newsweek, L I (Decem ber "Now S u k arn o W ants A ll o f B o rn eo, T o o," U. L IL T (D ecem ber 2 4, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 1 -3 2. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, O ltm an s, W illia m L., " I n d o n e s ia n Communism," U n ite d A s i a, XV (May, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 4 9 -3 5 0. P a n n ik a r, K. M., " A s ia n - A f r ic a n C o n fe re n c e: Symbol o f In d e p e n d e n c e," N a tio n. CLXXX ( A p r il 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 8 7 -2 8 9. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. === [PDF page 230] === 225 P ao, C h in -a n, "Chou E n - l a i* s F o u r T r ip s to A f r ic a and th e F ia s c o o f th e A fro -A s ia n C o n fe re n c e," C h in e se Communist A f f a i r s. I I (A u g u st, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 -1 4. P a t t e r s o n, G eo rg e, "C h in a and T i b e t: B ackground to a R e v o l t," C hina Q u a r t e r l y, J a n u a r y, 1960, 8 7 -1 0 2. P a u k e r, Eva T., "Has th e S ukarno Regime Weakened th e PKI?" A sia n S u rv e y, LV (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 4 ), 1 0 54-1070. The Y ears o f T riu m p h," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXIII (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 2 7 2 -2 7 7. P a u k e r, Guy J., " I n d o n e s ia n Im ages o f T h e ir N a tio n a l S e l f, " P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y, XXII ( F a l l, 1 9 5 8 ), 3 0 5 -3 2 4. . " R is e and F a l l o f A fro -A s ia n S o l i d a r i t y, " A sia n S u rv e y, V (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 2 5 -4 3 2. . "R o le o f P o l i t i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n s in I n d o n e s i a," F a r E a s te r n S u rv e y. XXVII (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), 1 2 9 -1 4 2. , " S o v ie t C h a lle n g e i n I n d o n e s i a," F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, XXXX ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 2 ), 6 1 2 -6 2 6. , "Where I s I n d o n e s ia G o in g?" F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXXV (Ju n e 15, 19!56), 1 4 9 -1 5 0. "P e k in g and I n d o n e s i a," C hina News A n a ly s is, F e b ru a ry 12. 1965, 1 -7. " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta Communique Denounced U. S. and B r i t a i n, " B ackground on C h in a. J a n u a r y 3 0, 1965, 2 - 3. " P e k in g, D ja k a r ta to S tr e n g th e n T i e s, " B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 9, 1965, 1 - 2. " P e k in g - D ja k a r ta Vow No C o e x is te n c e w ith I m p e r i a l i s t s, ” B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 8, 1965, 1 - 2. "P e k in g i n A f r o - A s ia," C hina News A n a l y s i s, J u l y 30, 1965, 1 - 7. " P e k in g ’ s S t r a t e g y f o r A fro -A s ia n M e e t," I n d ia n and F o re ig n R eview, I I (May 15, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 - 5. "P e k in g S u p p o rte d S ukarno M ove," B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 7, 1965, " P e k in g S u p p o rts I n d o n e s ia: A s s a i l s U. S. and B r i t a i n, " B ackground on C h in a, J a n u a r y 2 5, 1965, 1 -3. P e k in g R eview, A p r il 19, 1964, 9; Ju n e 14, 1964, 3; F e b ru a ry 5, 1965, 2 -5; November 5, 1965, 7. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 231] === 226 P e o p l e 's C h in a, A u g u st 1, 1954, 1 -2. P h i l i p, P. Oomman, " I n d i a I s H o st to A sia n C o n f e r e n c e," C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXIV ( A p r il 30, 1 9 4 7 ), 562. " P o l i t i c a l P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia," R e p o rt on I n d o n e s ia, V II ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 5 ), 15, 1 7 -1 8. " P o l i t i c a l S tr u g g le in I n d o n e s ia," W orld T oday, XIV ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 5 8 ), P o w e ll, A. C., "My M is s io n to B an d u n g," N a tio n, CLXXX (May 2 8, 1 9 5 5 ), " P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o." R e p o rt on I n d o n e s ia. X (Novem ber, 1 9 5 7 ), 2 1 -2 2. " P r id e and F a l l, " N a tio n, CCII (M arch 2 8, 1 9 6 6 ), 346. R a 'a n a n, U r i, "Coup T h a t F a il e d: A Background A n a l y s i s, " P roblem s o f Communism, XV (M arch, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 7 -4 3. R a f f e l, B u rto n, " I n d o n e s ia," Y ale R eview, XXXXVI (M arch, 1 9 5 7 ), Rand, C h r is to p h e r, "O ur F a r-F lu n g C o r r e s p o n d e n ts," New Y o rk e r, XXXI (Ju n e 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 3 9 -4 8. "Red C h in a E x p o se d --N o t Dom inant i n A s i a," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, XXXVIII ( A p r il 2 9, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 2 -4 4. "Red C h in a 's Wounded P r i d e, " Newsweek, LXI (F e b ru a ry 11, 1 9 6 3 ), 4 1. R ed d in g, S a u n d e rs, "M eaning o f B andung," A m erican S c h o la r, XXV ( F a l l, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 1 1 -4 2 0. " R e p o r te r in I n d o n e s ia," Newsweek, LXIV (O c to b e r 5, 1 9 6 4 ), 8 3 -8 6. " R e s o lu te ly S u p p o rt th e I n d o n e s ia n P e o p le 's J u s t S tr u g g le A g a in s t M a la y s ia," P e k in g R eview, S ep tem b er 11, 1964, 1 5 -1 7. R ig g s, F. W., "Can I n d o n e s ia S e t P a t t e r n f o r S o u th e a s t A s ia? " F o re ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n, XXIX (J a n u a r y 6, 1 9 5 0 ), 2 - 3. " R io ts i n J a v a, " F a r E a s te r n Economic R eview, XXXX (May 30, 1 9 6 3 ), " R itu a l D a n c e," Newsweek, LXV (J a n u a r y 2 5, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 0. R o d e ric k, J o h n, "S u k arn o in N eig h b o rs'' V iew," I n d ia n M a r x is t, I ( J u l y, 1 9 6 5 ), 7 -8, 42. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 232] === 227 R o se, J e r r y R., "We A re Going t o Change T h is Damn W o rld," S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXXVI (November 2, 1 9 6 3 ), 7 7 -8 1. R o th, Andrew, " I n d o n e s ia: Q u a li f i e d O p tim ism," N a tio n, CLXIX (A u g u st 2 7, 1 9 4 9 ), 2 0 3 -2 0 5. R u b in s te in, A lv in, "P ro b lem o f C o e x is te n c e,". C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 1 ), 2 7 3 -2 7 9. " S a b o ta g e a t UNO," New S ta te s m a n, XXXVII ( J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 4 9 ), 1 - 4. S a k r ik a r, D in k a r, "Bandung to A l g i e r s, " U n ite d A s i a, XVII (M ay-June, S a n d e rs, S o l W., "A n o th er B ig C o u n try a b o u t to Go t o th e R e d s," U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t, L V III (May 17, 1 9 6 5 ), 8 0 -8 2. S c a la p in o, R o b e rt A., "Moscow, P e k in g, and th e Communist P a r t i e s i n A s i a." F o r e te n A f f a i r s, XXXXI ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 3 ), 3 2 1 -3 4 3. " S c a p e g o a ts," E c o n o m is t, CCXVII (O c to b e r 16, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 6 5 -2 6 6. Schm id, P e t e r, " I n d o n e s ia S ip s th e Wine o f I n d e p e n d e n c e," XI ( J u n e, 1 9 5 1 ), 5 3 2 -5 4 0. Commentary, Schram, S tu a r t ~ R., " C h in e s e and L e n i n i s t Components i n P e r s o n a l i t y o f Mao T s e - tu n g," A sia n S u rv e y, I I I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 3 ), 2 5 9 -2 7 3. S ch w arz, H enry G., "C h in a and S o u th e a s t A s i a," C h in a R e p o rt I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 1 8 -2 0. "S easaw S um m it," Tim e, LXXXXVI ( J u l y 2, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 2 -2 3. "S econd B an d u n g," I n d ia n and F o r e ig n R eview, I (May 1, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 - 5. S e rg e y e v a, N., "The Bandung C o n f e r e n c e," New T im es, A p r il 2 7, 1955, S h a f i e, Muhamm4d G. B., " M a la y s ia and I n d o n e s ia n C o n f r o n ta t io n," U n ite d A s i a, XVII (M ay-June, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 1 8 -2 2 2. S h e rro d, R o b e r t, " A s i a 's P r i z e H e a d a c h e,” S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t, CCXXV (May 16, 1 9 5 3 ), 3 2 -3 3, 151. " S i l e n t S e t t l e m e n t," Tim e, LXXXVI (D ecem ber 1 7, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 9 -3 0. S in g h, I q b a l, " A ll A sia a t D e l h i," S p e c t a t o r, GLXXVII ( A p r il 18, S k i l l i n, Edward S., " C o lo n ia l Swan S o n g," Commonweal, XXXXIX (F e b ru a ry 4, 1 9 4 9 ), 4 1 3. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission === [PDF page 233] === 228 “ S la u g h te r i n I n d o n e s ia: When P e o p le Turn on R ed s. " U. S. Mews & W orld R e p o r t, LX (May 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 6 6 -6 7. “ S o u th C h in a S ea: 13. P u n c h -D ru n k,” New R e p u b lic, CL ( J a n u a r y 18, 1 9 6 4 ), “S queeze P la y on U. S. i n A s ia and M ao-Sukam o A x is," W orld R e p o r t. LVI (May 18, 1 9 6 4 ), 7 2 -7 3. U. S. News & “S t a l i n i s m on th e M a rc h.11 Newsweek. L I ( F e b ru a ry 2 4, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 8. S to c k w in, H arv ey, “ C o n s tr u c tio n g UNEFO,11 F a r E a s t e r n Economic R eview. LV II (J u n e 3, 1 9 6 5 ), 4 6 1 -4 6 2. “S torm W arnings i n I n d o n e s i a, 11 C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y. LXXIV (M arch 6, S t r a i g h t, M ic h a e l, "Do We Want A s ia n U n ity? 19 New R e p u b lic. CXXXII ( A p r i l 2 5, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 -6. J1What A s ia N e e d s." New R e p u b lic. CXXXII ( J a n u a r y 2 4, 1 9 5 5 ), 8 -1 0. S u b a n d rio, H u r u s t i a t i, “I n d o n e s ia and USA," U n ite d A s i a, X ( O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 3 5 -4 3 9. “S u b a n d rio i n E u r o p e," L in k, A p r il 19, 1964, 2 5. S u k a rn o, Achmed, “ C o lo n ia lis m W ill P e r i s h: C h in a, November 1, 1956, 1 2 -1 5. I t I s C e r t a i n, " P e o p l e 's “ S ukarno G iv es W ay,11 E c o n o m is t, CCIX ( A p r il 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 31 “ S ukarno th e S tr o n g," New R e p u b lic. CXXXXVIII ( J u l y 11, 1 9 6 4 ), 3 - 4. " S u k a rn o 1s Army,11 Tim e, LXXX (O c to b e r 12, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 6. " S u k a r n o ^ R e t u r n," New S ta te s m a n. LXXX ( J u l y 11, 1 9 6 5 ), 3 5. “ S u k a r n o ^ T a k e -o v e r B id," E c o n o m is t, CLXXXXII ( J u l y 18, 1 9 5 9 ), 148. " S u k a r n o ^ W a r--W ill I t I n v o lv e U. S.? " U. S. News & W orld R e p o r t. L C II (S ep tem b er 2 1, 1 9 6 4 ), 6 4. "S u k arn o Takes th e W h e e l," E c o n o m is t. CLXXXII ( A p r il 13, 1957^), 120. T a lb o t, P h i l i p s, “R e v o lt i n A s i a," New R e p u b lic, CXVI ( A p r il 2 8, “ T a lk w ith S u k arn o: I Am I n d o n e s i a," Newsweek, LXIV (O c to b e r 5, Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 234] === T a n t r i, K e tu te, " I m p e r i a l i s t F o lly i n I n d o n e s ia." New R e p u b lic, CXX ( J a n u a r y 3, 1 9 4 9 ), 1 4 -1 5. T a u b in g e r, L. M., " I n d o n e s ia: The P l o t T h a t F a i l e d, " N a tio n a l R eview, X V III ( F e b r u a r y 2 2, 1 9 6 6 ), 160. " T h a t Was th e Coup T h at W as," E c o n o m ist, CCXVII (O c to b e r 9, 1 9 6 5 ), Thomas, W inburn T., "Bandung Shows S p i r i t o f U n ity." C h r i s t i a n C e n tu ry, LXXII (May 11, 1 9 5 5 ), 5 7 2 -5 8 2. . 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C h in ese Communist A f f a i r s, I I (A u g u st, T iw a r i, B. K., " I n d o n e s ia Going P e k in g W ay." I n d ia n M a r x is t, I ( J u n e, 1 9 6 5 ), 2 3 -2 5. T r a g e r, F ra n k N., "R o o ts o f I n d o n e s ia n C o n f l i c t, " F o r e ig n P o lic y B u l l e t i n. XXXVI (F e b ru a ry 1, 1 9 5 7 ), 7 7 -7 9. "T ry Out f o r A l g i e r s, " I n d ia n M a r x i s t, I ( J u n e, 1965) 4 - 5. "T u rn o f th e W h eel," E c o n o m ist, CLXXX (M arch 14, 1 9 5 9 ), 9 5 5. "T u rm o il i n I n d o n e s ia: S u k a r n o 's B a t t l e w ith Army L e a d e r s," B u s in e s s Week, M arch 19, 1966, 4 4. " U n ite d N a tio n s a t 2 1," Newsweek. LXX (O c to b e r 3, 1 9 6 6 ), 3 5 -3 9. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. === [PDF page 235] === 230 "U p set a t B andung," Tim e, LXV (May 2, 1 9 5 5 ), 2 6 -2 8. "U. S. S u r v iv o r s A w ait S u k a rn o 's A x," B u s in e s s Week, Ju n e 2 6, 1965, V andenbosch, Amry, "C h in e se T h r u s t i n S o u th e a s t A s i a," C u r r e n t H i s t o r y, XXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 3 3 -3 3 8. , "G uided Democracy i n I n d o n e s ia," C u rre n t H i s t o r y, XXXXI (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 1 ), 3 2 9 -3 3 4. "Power B alan ce i n I n d o n e s i a," C u rre n t H i s t o r y. XXXXVI ( F e b ru a ry, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 5 -1 0 0. Van D er K ro e f, J u s t u s M., " A g ra ria n R eform and th e I n d o n e s ia n Communist P a r t y, " F a r E a s te r n S u rv e y. XXIX ( J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 0 ), 5 -1 3. , "The C hanging P a t t e r n o f I n d o n e s i a 's R e p r e s e n ta t i v e G ov ern m en t," C an ad ian J o u r n a l o f Econom ics and P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e. 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