Indonesianizing Marxism-Leninism: The Development and Consequences of Communist Polycentrism (1919-1966)

=== [PDF page 1] === This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received ®8 - 1 0,5 4 4 SILVERMAN, Jerry Mark, 1 9 4 2 - INDONESIANIZENG MARXISM-LENINISM: THE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSEQUENCES OF COMMUNIST POLYCENTRISM (1 9 1 9 -1 9 6 6 ). Claremont Graduate School and University Center, Ph.D., 1967 P olitical Science, international law and relations University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan === [PDF page 2] === IN D O N E SIA N!Z IN G M A R X ISM -L E N IN ISM: T H E D E V E L O P M E N T A N D C O N SE Q U E N C E S OF COM M UNIST P O L Y C E N T R ISM JE R R Y M A RK SIL V E R M A N A D is s e r t a t io n p r e s e n t e d to th e G e n e r a l F a c u lty o f th e C la r e m o n t G ra d u a te S c h o o l in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r th e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h ilo s o p h y 1967 === [PDF page 3] === We, th e u n d ersig n ed, c e r t i f y th a t we have read t h i s d is s e r t a t io n and approve i t as adequate in scope and q u a lit y fo r th e d egree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y. V is it in g Examiner F a cu lty Reader F a c u lty Reader F a cu lty Reader S u p ervisory Committee: Shairraan Date: January 1 0, 1967 === [PDF page 4] === T A B L E OF CONTENTS Page I N T R O D U C T I O N............................................................................................... 1 SE C T IO N I: T H E P O L IT IC A L C O M M U N I T Y.............................. 5 C h a p ter 1: T h e F u n c tio n o f P o l i t ic a l L e g i t im a c y... 9 C h a p ter 2: T h e F u n c tio n o f D e m a n d................................... 13 C h a p ter 3: T he F u n c tio n o f L e a d e r s h i p............................. 16 C h a p ter 4: T h e N a t io n a lis t M a n i f e s t a t i o n....................... 19 SE C T IO N II: T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L COM M UNIST C O M M U N I T Y........................................................................ 27 C h a p ter 1: T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f U n i t y................................... 33 C h a p ter 2: T he M a in te n a n ce o f U n i t y................................... 57 C h ap ter 3: T he D is in te g r a tio n o f U n i t y............................. 97 SE C T IO N IH: T H E IN D O N E SIA N P O L IT IC A L SY S T E M.. 132 C h ap ter 1: T he D e v e lo p m e n t o f U n i t y.................................. 133 C h a p ter 2: T he D is in te g r a tio n o f U n ity....................... 156 C h a p ter 3: T he A tte m p te d R e - e s t a b lis h m e n t o f U n ity. 173 C h a p ter 4: T h e In d e p e n d en ce o f th e P a r ta i K o m u n is I n d o n e s ia ( P K I )............................................................ 197 C h a p ter 5: T he P o s it io n a l A m b iv a le n c e o f the PK I. 212 C O NC LUSIO N............................................................................................... 228 A P P E N D I C E S..................................................................................................... 239 I. P a r t i e s, G rou p s and T r e n d s I n v ite d to th e F i r s t C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s.................................................................. 240 II. S ta tu te s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l A d o p ted a t the S e c o n d C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s............................... 243 III. C o n d itio n s of A d m is s io n to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l A p p ro v ed b y th e S e c o n d. - C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s............................................................ 252 IY. A ffilia tio n s o f In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n C o u n cil M e m b e r s................................................................................... 263 V. C o n fe s s io n o f D. N. A id it ( a b r i d g e d )........................ 269 === [PDF page 5] === Page B I B L I O G R A P H Y............................................................................................... 275 I. G E N E R A L.................................................................................. 276 II. T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L COM M UNIST C O M M U N I T Y............................................................................. 278 A. G e n e r a l............................................................................ 278 B. S o v ie t F o r e ig n P o l i c y.............................................. 285 C. T h e C o m i n t e r n.......................................................... 289 D. T he S in o -S o v ie t D i s p u t e......................................... 290 III. IN D O N E S I A.................................................................................. 300 A. G e n e r a l......................................................... 300 B. C o m m u n i s m................................................................ 305 i ii === [PDF page 6] === ABBREVIATIONS BABERKI B ad an P e r k u m p u la n K etu ru n a n T io n q h o a CC C e n tr a l C o m m itte e CPC C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f C hina C PI C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f In d ia CPSU C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f th e S o v ie t U nion CPY C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f Y u g o s la v ia DPRC D e m o c r a tic P e o p le s R e p u b lic o f C hina ECCI E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l KPD K o m m u n is tis c h e P a r t e i D e u ts c h la n d s NU N ah d a tu l U la m a PERTI P e r g e r a k a n T a r b ija h I s la m ija h PK I P a r ta i K o m u n is I n d o n e s ia PNI P a r ta i N a s io n a l I n d o n e s ia PSF P a r ti S o c ia lis t s F r a n c a is P SII P a r ta i S a r e k a t I s la m I n d o n e s ia RUSI R e p u b lic of the U n ited S ta te s I n d o n e s ia SI S a r e k a t I s la m SPD S o z ia ld e m o k r a tis c h e P a r t e i D e u ts c h la n d s U SP D U n ob h an gige S o z ia ld e m o k r a tis c h e P a r t e i D e u ts c h la n d s USSR U nion o f S o v ie t S o c ia lis t R e p u b lic s === [PDF page 7] === T h e S tr a n g e r w ith in m y g a te, H e m a y be tr u e o r k in d, B ut h e d o e s n o t ta lk m y t a lk - - I can n ot f e e l h is m in d. I s e e th e fa c e and th e e y e s and th e m o u th, B u t n o t th e s o u l b e h in d. T he m e n o f m y ow n s to c k T h e y m a y do i l l o r w e ll, B ut th e y t e l l th e l i e s I a m w o n te d to, T h e y a r e u s e d to th e l i e s I te ll; And w e do n o t n e e d in t e r p r e t e r s W hen w e g o to buy and s e l l. T he S tr a n g e r w ith in m y g a t e s, H e m a y b e e v il o r g o o d, B u t I ca n n o t t e l l w h a t p o w e r s c o n t r o l - - W hat r e a s o n s sw a y h is m ood; N o r w h en th e G ods o f h is f a r - o f f la n d M ay r e p o s s e s s h i s b lo o d. R u d y a rd K ip lin g, " T he S tr a n g e r " === [PDF page 8] === IN T R O D U C T IO N T h e r e h a s r e c e n t ly b e e n an in c r e a s i n g a w a r e n e s s a m o n g " w e ste r n " s c h o la r s o f a d e v e lo p m e n t w ith in th e " I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t, " g e n e r a lly r e f e r r e d to a s the r i s e o f N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism and p o ly c e n t r is m. * H o w e v e r, in a d d itio n to b e in g in m o s t c a s e s h ig h ly a b s t r a c t, a la r g e a m o u n t o f r e c e n t w o r k in th is a r e a h a s b e e n a t b e s t, h ig h ly c o n t r o v e r s ia l and a t w o r s t, u t t e r ly c o n fu sin g. I in te n d to p r e s e n t s o m e te n ta tiv e h y p o th e s e s c o n c e r n in g the r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n n a t io n a lis m and C o m m u n ism w ith in in d e p e n d e n t n o n - in d u s t r ia l n a t io n - s t a t e s, w ith p a r t ic u la r e m p h a s is on e v e n ts in I n d o n e s ia and t h e ir r e la t io n s h ip to th e " In te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t. " T he c o n c e p tu a l fr a m e w o r k w h ic h I p r o p o s e to u s e i s th e c o n c e p t of th e p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity. T he o b je c t o f th is stu d y i s to a c c o u n t fo r th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t's t r a n s it io n fr o m th a t o f a p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity to th a t o f p o lit ic a l d is u n ity and th e r e s u lt a n t c r e a t io n o f a u to n o m o u s, in d e p e n d e n t lo c a l c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s. T he p a p e r i s d iv id e d in to fo u r m a jo r s e c t io n s: 1) A c o n s id e r a t io n and e x p la n a tio n o f th e p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity c o n c e p t; 2) An a n a ly s is o f the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t w ith in th e c o n te x t of th e p o lit ic a l ^ F or a d is c u s s io n o f t h e s e t e r m s, I n fr a, pp. 2 7 - 3 1, 2 7 3 - 2 8 0. === [PDF page 9] === c o m m u n ity c o n c e p t; 3) A n a n a ly s is o f th e e f f e c t s o f th e c h a n g in g s itu a tio n w ith in th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t fo r i t s m e m b e r s, w ith s p e c ia l e m p h a s is on th e In d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n t and th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r ty; and 4) A C o n c lu s io n. E v e n ts in I n d o n e s ia le n d t h e m s e lv e s v e r y w e ll to t h is ty p e o f a n a ly s is. In d o n e sia * s p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e w a s a c h ie v e d r e la t iv e l y r e c e n t ly, bu t n o t to o r e c e n tly; i t i s c h r o n ic a lly u n d e r d e v e lo p e d; w a s r u le d b y an a v o w e d N a t io n a lis t and g o v e r n e d b y an a m b iv a le n t b u r e a u c r a c y, i s e x t r e m e ly h e t e r o g e n e o u s c u ltu r a lly and h i s t o r ic a lly; and l a s t, b u t n o t l e a s t, i t h a s an in d ig e n o u s C o m m u n ist P a r ty w h ic h, 1) u n til r e c e n t ly o p e r a te d le g a l ly, 2) i s th e o ld e s t in A s ia w ith r o o ts p r e d a tin g th e R u s s ia n r e v o lu tio n o f O c to b e r, 1 9 1 7, and 3) h a d th e l a r g e s t m e m b e r s h ip o f an y C o m m u n is t P a r ty n o t c o n tr o llin g th e de ju r e o r de fa c to g o v e r n m e n t o f an a v o w e d C o m m u n ist n a tio n - s t a t e. 1 w o u ld lik e to in d ic a t e, h o w e v e r, th a t th e s e c t io n c o n c e r n in g I n d o n e s ia i s n o t s im p ly an a c a d e m ic e x e r c i s e, e v e n though th e r e i s a la c k o f "hard" in f o r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g the c o u p, c o u n te r -c o u p o r c o u n t e r - c o u n t e r cou p w h ic h o c c u r r e d in I n d o n e s ia in O c to b e r o f 1965 and th a t I am t h e r e f o r e lim it in g (w ith a b r ie f e x c e p tio n ) m y d e s c r ip t io n o f I n d o n e s ia to th a t p e r io d p r io r to O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5. E ven if w e a c ce p t r e p o r t s th a t up to 3 0 0, 000 m e m b e r s o f th e PK I w e r e k ille d a s a r e s u lt of th e A r m y - e n d o r s e d a n t i-C o m m u n is t c a m p a ig n s and th a t the m in im a l T he te r m C o m m u n is t n a t io n - s t a t e i s m e r e ly u s e d to id e n t ify s t a t e s g o v e r n e d th ro u g h th e le a d e r s h ip of th e lo c a l C o m m u n ist P a r ty. === [PDF page 10] === f ig u r e, p r o v id e d b y th e U n ited S ta te s S ta te D e p a r tm e n t, o f 1. 9 m il lio n m em b ers is c o r r e c t, w e a r e s t i l l l e f t w ith 1. 6 m illio n I n d o n e s ia n s w ho h ad b e e n m e m b e r s and p e r h a p s a s m a n y a s 18 m illio n p e r s o n s w ho m a y be c l a s s e s a s " v o tin g s y m p a th iz e r s " (i. e., p e r s o n s w ho w o u ld v o te fo r th e PKI i f P a r lia m e n t a r y e le c t io n s w e r e h e ld ). T h u s, th e f a c t th a t the PK I h a s b e e n o f f ic ia l ly o u tla w e d i s p o l i t i c a lly l e s s s ig n ific a n t th an the e x is t e n c e o f a b a s e fr o m w h ic h i t c a n r e b u ild, a s i t h a s don e tw ic e b e fo r e. T he r e a d e r s h o u ld n o t " r e a d in to " th is stu d y m o r e than i s in te n d e d b y th e a u th o r. A c o n c e p tu a l fr a m e w o r k s h o u ld n o t be a p p r o a c h e d a s i f in s c r ib e d in s to n e. A s D a v id E a s to n h a s p o in te d out: A c o n c e p tu a l fr a m e w o r k c o n s i s t s o f th o s e t h e o r ie s and a s s u m p t io n s w h ic h an in v e s t ig a t o r u s e s in u n d e r ta k in g an a n a ly s is w ith in a g iv e n f ie ld. I t s e r v e s a s a t h e o r e t ic a l m o d e l to t e s t th e r e le v a n c e o f s u c c e e d in g r e s e a r c h. I t i s a s y s t e m o f w o r k in g h y p o t h e s e s, a d o p ted and u s e d o n ly a s lo n g a s i t h e lp s to o r ie n t e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h in su c h a w a y th a t s o c i a l l y s ig n if ic a n t p r o b le m s a r e b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d. T h e r e i s n o th in g s a c r o s a n c t a b ou t a t h e o r e t ic a l s c h e m e su c h a s t h i s, and th e s a m e one n e e d n o t be a d o p te d to h e lp u n d e r s ta n d d if fe r e n t p r o b le m s. T he D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te, B u r e a u o f I n t e llig e n c e and R e s e a r c h, W orld S tr e n g th o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty O r g a n iz a tio n s (W a sh in g to n, D. C.: G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffic e, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1. S in c e J u n e 15, 1 9 6 4, th e PKI h a s c la im e d th r e e m il lio n m e m b e r s. T he fig u r e o f 18 m il lio n " v o tin g s y m p a th iz e r s " i s b a s e d on an e s t im a t e r e p o r te d b y Guy P a u k e r, " In d o n esia: T he P K I's 'R o a d to P o w e r '" in R o b e r t A. S c a la p in o ( e d.), T h e C o m m u n is t R e v o lu tio n in A s ia (E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, In c., 1 9 6 5 ), p. 2 6 7. === [PDF page 11] === s u p r e m e t e s t i s i t s u t ilit y in u n d e r sta n d in g p h e n o m e n a. T h u s, I do n o t c o n te n d th a t th e u s e o f th e p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity c o n c e p t fo r an u n d e r s ta n d in g of the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t o r th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n n a t io n a lis m and C o m m u n ism i s a ll i n c l u s i v e. T h a t i t c a n n o t b e i s c le a r ly e v id e n c e d, fo r e x a m p le, b y th e b r i e f t r e a t m e n t g iv e n th e r o le and c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t e r r o r and i t s u s e w ith in th e m o v e m e n t. T h e o b je c t i s s im p ly to d e s c r ib e s o m e o f th e r e la t io n s h ip s w ith in the m o v e m e n t w h ic h a c c o u n t fo r th e fa c to r c f n o n - c o e r c e d c o m p lia n c e. F in a lly, p o r tio n s o f S e c tio n II; C h a p te r s 2 and 3, S e c tio n III; C h a p ter 4 and th e C o n c lu s io n w e r e r e a d u n d e r th e t it le M a r x is m - L e n in is m in I n d o n e s ia a t th e In a u g u r a l M e e tin g o f A s ia n S tu d ie s on th e P a c if i c C o a s t in San F r a n c is c o, J u n e 18, 1 9 6 6, a s p a r t o f a p a n e l e n tit le d P o ly c e n t r is m in A s ia n C o m m u n ism. D a v id E a sto n, T he P o l i t i c a l S y s te m: A n In q u iry In to th e S ta te o f P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e (N ew Y ork: A lfr e d A. K nopf, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 5 7 - 5 8. F i r s t p u b lis h e d in 1 9 5 3. === [PDF page 12] === SECTION I T H E P O L IT IC A L COM M UNITY A s in d ic a te d in the p r e fa c e., th e p u r p o se o f th is c h a p te r i s to p r o v id e an a n a ly t ic a l fr a m e w o r k w ith in w h ic h d a ta c o n c e r n in g th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t c a n be c o lla t e d and in s ig h t s p r o v id e d c o n c e r n in g th e c a u s e s o f c h a n g e w ith in th a t m o v e m e n t. T he g e n e r a l o p e r a tiv e c o n c e p t i s th a t o f th e p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity. A fu n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m a r i s e s fr o m th e o ft r e p e a t e d m is ta k e o f lin k in g th e c o n c e p t o f th e p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity w ith th at o f th e s t a t e. A lth o u g h th e r e i s no u n iv e r s a l a g r e e m e n t, tw o o f th e f a c t o r s g e n e r a lly e n c o m p a s s e d w ith in any d e fin itio n o f th e s ta te a r e: 1) a d e fin e d g e o g r a p h ic a l t e r r it o r y w ith in w h ic h th e r e e x i s t s (2) in s t it u t io n a liz e d p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip. In o r d e r to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n a p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity and th e s t a t e, a p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity i s h e r e d e fin e d a s th a t g ro u p o f p e r s o n s am o n g w h o m c o n f lic t s a r e r e s o lv e d le g it im a t e ly. T h is g r o u p m u s t b e r e la t iv e ly s ta b le and c o h e s iv e; r e q u is it e s o f any p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity. A s in d ic a te d b y J. M. G u llick: A p o li t ic a l s y s t e m b oth r e q u ir e s a s a p r e - c o n d it io n of i t s ow n e x is t e n c e and by i t s fu n c tio n in g s e r v e s to c r e a t e a c o h e s io n o r s o lid a r it y o f the c o m m u n ity. A s an e x tr e m e e x a m p le i t i s im p o s s ib l e to a p p ly p o li t ic a l c o n tr o l to a p u r e ly ra n d o m c o lle c t io n o f p e o p le, su c h a s a c ro w d g a th e r e d to lo o k on a t th e r e s u l t o f a s t r e e t a c c id e n t. T he p u r e ly te m p o r a r y a g g r e g a tio n o f p e o p le u n ite d in a p a s s in g i n t e r e s t la c k s th e n e c e s s a r y c o h e s io n. A p o lic e m a n c a n === [PDF page 13] === b id th e c r o w d to " m o v e a lo n g, p le a s e, " bu t no o n e ca n g o v e r n i t. A m u s ic a l s o c ie t y or a fo o tb a ll s u p p o r t e r s ’ clu b h a s s u ffic ie n t p e r m a n a n c e but i s b a s e d on to o n a r r o w a r a n g e o f c o m m o n a c t iv it y (a s c o m p a r e d w ith th e t o t a lity o f s o c i a l in t e r e s t s ) to s e r v e a s th e b a s i s o f p o lit ic a l c o n tr o l. A p o lit ic a l s y s t e m m u s t b e b u ilt up on th e g e n e r a l c o h e s io n and " in grou p " a g g r e g a tio n o f i t s s o c ie t y. It d e m a n d s R oyalty to i t s s y m b o ls a s w e ll a s f e a r o f i t s a u th o r ity. T h is d e fin itio n r e q u ir e s s o m e e x p la n a tio n. It i s g e n e r a lly a c c e p t e d th a t c o n f lic t i s in h e r e n t in p o li t ic s and th a t c o n f lic t c a n b e r e s o lv e d in m any w ays. H o w e v e r, w h ile r e c o g n iz in g the u b iq u ity o f c o n flic t, th e r e h a s b e e n a r e c e n t s h ift in e m p h a s is fr o m the a n a ly s is o f c o e r c iv e p o w e r to th at o f p e a c e f u l a d ju s tm e n t. A s a n th r o p o lo g is ts h a v e in d ic a te d, s o m e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s in c e r t a in p r im it iv e tr ib a l s o c i e t i e s m a in ta in th e ir p o s it io n w ith o u t u s in g p h y s ic a l c o e r c io n, e v e n a g a in s t th o s e w ho h a v e v io la t e d a c c e p te d c o m m u n ity n o r m s. O r g a n iz e d f o r c e i s o n ly one o f th e m e c h a n is m s m a k in g fo r o r d e r ly lif e in an y c o m m u n ity, and to adop t i t a s th e d is t in c t iv e c r it e r io n o f p o lit ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n w o u ld m e a n n e g le c t in g u n d u ly the v a r io u s o th e r s th a t h e lp to u n ite p e o p le in to s e lf - g o v e r n in g g r o u p s.... C o o p e r a tio n n e c e s s a r i l y i m p lie s s o m e fo r m o f s o c ia l c o n tr o l, s o m e s y s t e m o f r e g u la tin g r e la t io n s b e tw e e n m e m b e r s o f th e c o m m u n ity. A s am o n g B e r g d a m a /a tr ib e in S o u th w e st A fr ic a./a n d B u s h m e n, h o w e v e r, v io la t io n o f a c c e p te d n o r m s m a y be d e a lt w ith s o le l y o r la r g e l y b y in s tit u tio n s su c h a s s e l f - h e l p, w h ic h a lth o u g h p u b lic ly a p p r o v e d a r e e x c e r c i s e d a t th e d is c r e t io n, and a c c o r d in g to th e a b ility, o f th e p e r s o n s in ju r e d. T he b a s ic, in d e e d a lm o s t o n ly, ta s k s o f th e o f f ic ia l a u t h o r itie s J. M. G u llic k, I n d ig e n o u s P o l it ic a l S y s t e m s o f W e ste r n M a la y a (L ondon: T he A th lon e P r e s s, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 1 3 2 -1 3 3. === [PDF page 14] === h e r e a r e o r g a n iz a tio n and le a d e r s h ip. P o l it ic a l s c i e n t i s t s h a v e b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly a w a r e o f th e f a c t th a t p o lit ic a l le a d e r s c a n n o t m a in ta in th e ir p o s itio n b y r e ly in g on p h y s ic a l c o e r c io n or t e r r o r a lo n e. N o p o w e r c o u ld sta n d i f i t r e l i e d upon v io le n c e a lo n e, fo r f o r c e i s n o t s tr o n g en o u g h to m a in ta in i t s e l f a g a in s t th e a c c id e n ts of r iv a lr y and d is c o n te n t. T he m ig h t th a t m a k e s r ig h t m u s t b e a d if fe r e n t m ig h t fr o m th a t o f th e r ig h t a r m. It m u s t b e a m ig h t d e e p r o o te d in e m o tio n, e m b e d d e d in f e e lin g s and a s p ir a t io n, in m o r a lit y, in s a g e m a x im s, in fo r m s o^ r a tio n a liz a t io n a m o n g th e h ig h e r l e v e l s o f c u ltu r a l grou p s. T he d e fin itio n m a y a p p e a r to b e s im il a r to D a v id E a s t o n 's d e f in i tio n o f a p o lit ic a l s y s t e m. He d e fin e s a p o lit ic a l s y s t e m a s "the w a y v a lu e s a r e a u t h o r ita tiv e ly a llo c a te d " in a s o c ie t y. H ow ever, a d is tin c t io n b e tw e e n le g it im a t e m e th o d s o f r e s o lv in g c o n f lic t s and n o n le g it im a t e m e th o d s o f d o in g s o w ith in th e c o n te x t o f p o lit ic a l b e h a v io r is e s s e n tia l. H e n c e, a p o li t ic a l s y s t e m sh o u ld m o r e a p p r o p r ia te ly be d e fin e d a s th e m e th o d s b y w h ic h c o n f lic t s a r e r e s o lv e d p e r s e, w h e th e r th is i s done le g it im a t e l y o r n o t. A c tu a lly, E a s to n in c lu d e s n o n le g itim a te m e th o d s w ith in h is c o n c e p t o f a u th o r ita tiv e a llo c a t io n s w h en h e w r it e s: A p o lic y i s a u th o r ita tiv e w h en th e p e o p le to w h o m i t i s in te n d e d to a p p ly o r w h o a r e a ff e c te d b y i t c o n s id e r th a t th e y m u s t o r I. S c h a p e r a, G o v e r n m e n t and P o l i t i c s in T r ib a l S o c ie t i e s (L ondon: C. A. W atts and C o., L t d., 1 9 5 6 ), p. 2 1 8. C. E. M e r r ia m, P o l i t i c a l P o w e r (N ew Y ork: M c G r a w -H ill, 1 9 3 4 ), p. 102. D a v id E a s to n, T h e P o l it ic a l S y s te m: An In q u iry in to the S ta te o f P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e (N ew Y o rk: A lfr e d A. K nopf, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 13 1. === [PDF page 15] === ou gh t to o b e y it; a c c e p ta n c e m ig h t flo w s im p ly fr o m a d e s i r e to c o n fo r m, f e a r o f c o e r c io n, o r to ta l in d if f e r e n c e and a p a th y. ® T h u s, th e r e a r e le g it im a t e and n o n le g itim a te p o lit ic a l s y s t e m s. T he d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n the tw o ty p e s o f s y s t e m s i s b e s t illu s t r a t e d by c o n tr a s tin g th e s y s t e m w h ic h o p e r a t e s w ith in m o s t " W e ster n " p o li t i c a l - c o m m u n ity s t a t e s ( i. e., " n a tio n -s ta te s " ) w ith th a t o p e r a tin g b e tw e e n s t a t e s w ith in th e in t e r n a t io n a l p o lit ic a l s y s t e m. H o w e v e r, i t i s a m is t a k e to lim it th e c o n c e p t o f p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity to th a t o f the p o li t ic a l c o m m u n it y - s t a t e. ^ T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t tw o o th e r fo r m s th a t p o li t ic a l c o m m u n itie s ta k e in th e c o n te m p o r a r y w o r ld. P o l it ic a l c o m m u n itie s w ith in p r im it iv e s o c i e t i e s c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y th e s t r e s s p la c e d on k in s h ip a s a fu n d a m e n ta l u n ify in g fa c t o r. T h is fo r m o f p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity s itu a tio n w o u ld g e n e r a lly e x i s t a m o n g o th e r p r im it iv e c o m m u n itie s w ith in a p o li t ic a l c o m m u n it y - s t a t e. H ow - e v e r, t e r r i t o r i a l c o n s id e r a t io n s a s a u n ify in g fa c to r w o u ld b e m in im a l. ^Ibid., pp. 1 3 2, 133. ^1 in c lu d e w ith in t h is te r m g e o g r a p h ic a lly d e lin e a te d and p o lit ic a lly o r g a n iz e d u n its s u c h a s c i t i e s, p r o v in c e s, e t c. It m u s t b e p o in te d ou t h e r e th a t th e e m p h a s is on k in sh ip h e r e i s o n ly in t e r m s o f i t s im p o r ta n c e r e la t iv e to th a t o f th e m o d e r n p o lit ic a l c o m m u n it y - s t a t e w ith in w h ic h t e r r i t o r i a l d e lin e a t io n s a r e fu n d a m e n ta l. I. S c h a p e r o, G o v e r n m e n t and P o l i t i c s in T r ib a l S o c ie t ie s (London: C. A. W atts and C o., L t d., 1 9 5 6 ), pp. 1 - 5. === [PDF page 16] === S im ila r ly, a la c k o f s t r e s s on t e r r i t o r i a l c o n s id e r a t io n s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f in t e r n a t io n a l p o li t ic a l c o m m u n it ie s. W ith in su c h a c o m m u n ity, th e fu n d a m en ta l u n ify in g fa c to r i s a b r o a d ly s h a r e d p o li t ic a l c u ltu r e. T he a r t if ic ia l s e p a r a t io n b e tw e e n th e f ie ld s o f " p o litic a l s c i e n c e, " w h ic h i s s u p p o se d to fo c u s on th e in t e g r a t e d p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity ( i. e., the p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity - s ta t e ) and " in te r n a tio n a l r e la t io n s, " w h ic h i s su p p o se d to fo c u s on th e u n in te g r a te d p o li t ic a l s y s t e m w ith in w h ic h p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity s t a t e s in t e r a c t w ith e a c h o th e r, ca n n o t b e s u s ta in e d w h en i t i s r e c o g n iz e d th a t f o r a le n g th y p e r io d o f tim e th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t w a s m o r e o f a p o l i t ic a l c o m m u n ity than a r e su c h n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s a s th e C on go and I n d o n e s ia. C h ap ter 1: T he F u n c tio n o f P o l i t ic a l L e g itim a c y T he k e y to an a n a ly s is o f p e a c e f u l a d ju s tm e n t i s th e c o n c e p t o f p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y an d th o s e f a c t o r s w h ic h a c c o u n t fo r i t. The con cep t o f p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y i s a r e l a t i v e l y a m o r p h o u s o n e. H ow ever its e s s e n c e h a s b e e n d e fin e d b y P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t A. D a h l a s " r ig h t n e s s. " T he k e y to t h is, o f c o u r s e, i s s im p le: i f d e c is i o n s m a d e by th e l e a d e r sh ip a r e a c c e p te d by th o s e a f f e c t e d w ith o u t th e n e e d o f th r e a te n in g th em w ith an e x te r n a l d e p r iv a tio n, th en th e d e c is i o n s a r e l e g it im a t e. S ta n le y H o ffm a n n, C o n te m p o r a r y T h e o r y in I n te r n a tio n a l R e la tio n s (E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c., I 9 6 0 ), p. 3. R o b e r t A. D a h l, M o d ern P o l i t i c a l A n a ly s is (E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c., 1 9 6 4 ), p. 19. === [PDF page 17] === 10 T h e o r e t ic a lly, th e t e s t o f p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y m u s t fo c u s on a p a r tic u la r d e c is io n and an a ff e c te d in d iv id u a l's r e a c tio n to i t. H ow ever, in p r a c t ic e, p o li t ic a l le g it im a c y i s s e ld o m t e s t e d a t th a t l e v e l. It is n o t the in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e th a t c h a r a c t e r iz e s a gro u p o f p e o p le a s c o m p o s in g a p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity. It i s a t th e l e v e l o f g ro u p r e s p o n s e th a t p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y i s t e s t e d. W e a r e th en, c o n c e r n e d w ith th e in d iv id u a l’ s r e la t io n s h ip to the p o li t ic a l le a d e r s h ip th ro u g h the g ro u p and th o s e f a c t o r s w h ic h a s s o c i a t e h im w ith th a t g r o u p. T h u s, o u r e m p h a s is m u s t b e up on th e c a u s e s o f g r o u p a c c e p ta n c e o f p o lit ic a l d e c i s i o n s. I n d iv id u a ls a c c e p t d e c is i o n s a s le g it im a t e i f th e y b e lie v e th o s e d e c is i o n s to be p r o p e r. T h u s, g r o u p s a c c e p t d e c is i o n s w h en th e ir m e m b e r s a g r e e on w h a t i s p r o p e r. It i s in th is w a y th a t a u th o r ity i s b e s to w e d, fo r a p o lit ic a l d e c is io n w h ic h i s le g it im a t e b e c o m e s a u th o r ita - 10 t iv e. W hat d e lin e a t e s p r o p r ie ty? T h is i s th e s a m e a s a sk in g: w h at d e t e r m in e s le g it im a c y? T h is b r in g s u s to th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e 11 p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip and th e m il ie u w ith in w h ic h th e y m u s t fu n c tio n. T o a s ig n if ic a n t e x te n t p r o p r ie ty i s d e te r m in e d b y the s h a r e d v a lu e s, F o r p u r p o s e s o f th is stu d y, th e fo llo w in g d e fin itio n s w ill be o p e r a tiv e: 1) P o l i t i c a l le a d e r s h ip: th o s e p e r s o n s m a k in g s p e c if ic and e n fo r c e a b le d e c is i o n s w h ic h c o n c e r n th e p o li t ic a l c o m m u n ity a s a w h o le. 2) P o l it ic a l e lit e: th o s e p e r s o n s to w h o m th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip i s r e s p o n s ib le and fr o m w h om i t s m e m b e r s a r e r e c r u it e d. 3) P o l it ic a l p u b lic: th o s e p e r s o n s w ho a r e c o n c e r n e d in any w a y w ith th e p o lit ic a l a f f a ir s o f the c o m m u n ity. === [PDF page 18] === 11 b e l i e f s and e m o tio n a l a ttitu d e s o f th e p o lit ic a l p u b lic. T h e s e p r e d is - 12 p o s it io n s h a v e b e e n t e r m e d th e " p o litic a l c u ltu r e. " C u ltu re can be d e fin e d a s th o s e v a lu e s, b e l i e f s, and e m o tio n a l a ttitu d e s th a t a r e p a s s e d on, w ith s o m e e v o lu tio n a r y m o d ific a tio n fr o m on e g e n e r a t io n to a n o th e r. R u lin g c l a s s e s do n o t ju s t if y t h e ir p o w e r e x c lu s i v e l y by de fa c to p o s s e s s i o n o f i t, b u t tr y to fin d a m o r a l and le g a l b a s i s fo r i t, r e p r e s e n t in g i t a s the l o g ic a l and n e c e s s a r y c o n s e q u e n c e o f d o c tr in e s and b e lie f s th a t a r e g e n e r a lly r e c o g n iz e d and a c c e p t e d.... T he m a j o r it y o f a p e o p le c o n s e n ts to a g iv e n g o v e r n m e n ta l s y s t e m s o le l y b e c a u s e the s y s t e m i s b a s e d upon r e lig io u s o r p h ilo s o p h ic a l b e l i e f s th a t a r e u n iv e r s a lly a c c e p t e d b y th e m. T he a m o u n t o f c o n s e n t d e p e n d s u p on the e x te n t b y w h ic h, and the a r d o r w ith w h ic h, th e c l a s s th at i s r u le d b e lie v e s in th e po£L |ical fo r m u la b y w h ic h th e r u lin g c l a s s j u s t i f ie s i t s r u le. P o l it ic a l c u ltu r e th e n, i s c o m p o s e d o f th o s e v a l u e s, b e lie f s and e m o tio n a l 15 a ttitu d e s th a t a r e p a s s e d on and p e r ta in to p o lit ic a l a c t iv it y. A con te m p o r a r y s c h o la r, P r o f e s s o r S a m u e l B e e r, h a s d iv id e d th e p o lit ic a l c u ltu r e in to th r e e in t e r r e la t e d p a r ts: 1) c o n c e p tio n s o f a u th o r ity, 2) c o n c e p tio n s o f p u r p o s e s and 3) b e l i e f s. ^ 12 E. g. S a m u e l B e e r, "T he A n a ly s is o f P o l it ic a l S y s te m s " in S a m u e l B e e r and A d am U la m, P a t te r n s o f G o v e r n m e n t (N ew Y ork: R andom H o u s e, 1 9 6 2 ). 13 H. L in to n, T he Study o f M an (N ew Y o rk: D. A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C o m p a n y, I n c., 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 7 8 - 9 0. ^ G a e t a n o M o s c a, R u lin g C la s s (N ew Y ork: M c G r a w -H ill, 1 9 3 9 ), p. 7. 15 S a m u e l B e e r, op. c it., p. 3 2. ^ I b i d., pp. 3 2 - 4 2. === [PDF page 19] === 12 C o n c e p tio n s o f a u th o r ity a r e th o s e g ro u p a ttitu d e s w h ic h d e fin e p r o p e r d e c is io n - m a k in g m e th o d s. T he fo c u s i s on h o w th in g s o u g h t to b e don e r a th e r th an on w h a t th in g s ou gh t to b e d o n e. T h e r e i s e v id e n c e th at m a n y p e r s o n s pu t m o r e e m p h a s is on p r o p e r p r o c e d u r e s th an on s u b s ta n tiv e i s s u e s. P r e s e n t ly, in th e U n ited S t a t e s, a s ig n ific a n t n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s c r i t i c i z e t h e ir c o u n tr y 's m il it a r y in v o lv e m e n t in V ie tn a m on th e g r o u n d s th a t i t i s i l l e g a l, i. e., th a t i t h a s n o t b e e n a c c o m p a n ie d by a d e c la r a t io n o f w a r a s th e C o n s titu tio n o f th e U n ited S ta te s r eq u ir e s and h e n c e th e d e c is i o n to in t e r v e n e m i l i t a r i l y i s n ot c o n s id e r e d b y th e s e p e o p le to b e le g it im a t e. T h is a r g u m e n t i s w h o lly p r o c e d u r a l and d o e s n ot c o n s id e r th e s u b s ta n tiv e q u e s tio n: S h ou ld th e U n ited S ta te s h a v e in t e r v e n e d m i l i t a r i l y in V ie tn a m? T he a n s w e r to th e s u b s ta n tiv e q u e s tio n r e f e r s to c o n c e p tio n s o f p u rp o se. T h e s e a r e th o s e g ro u p a ttitu d e s w h ic h d e te r m in e p r o p e r g o a ls to w a r d w h ic h th e c o m m u n ity 's e n e r g ie s sh o u ld be d ir e c t e d. I t m u s t be r e c o g n iz e d th at an y d ic h o to m o u s d is t in c t io n s b e tw e e n c o n c e p tio n s o f a u th o r ity and p u r p o se a r e a n a ly t ic a l and th a t in p r a c t ic e th e y a r e c l o s e l y in t e r r e la t e d. P r o p e r p r o c e d u r e s a r e e m p lo y e d to s e c u r e p r o p e r g o a ls. A c a u tio n i s in o r d e r at th is p o in t. One m u s t n o t o v e r e m p h a s iz e n o r m a tiv e f a c t o r s. M an l i v e s n o t o n ly in a w o r ld o f v a lu e s bu t in an e x is t e n t ia l w o r ld a s w e ll. A d is c u s s i o n o f th e s o - c a l l e d f a c t - v a lu e d ic h o to m y i s n o t w ith in the s c o p e o f t h is p a p er; s u f f ic e i t to s a y th at r a tio n a l m a n d o e s a tte m p t to d e v e lo p v a lu e s th a t c o r r e s p o n d to r e a lit y === [PDF page 20] === 13 a s h e p e r c e iv e s i t. B e e r t e r m s th is p e r c e p t io n o f r e a lit y " b e lie f. " T he r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n b e l i e f s and v a lu e s i s a v e r y c l o s e o n e. T h u s, m a n 's a ttitu d e to w a r d s th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip in an y s o c i e t y i s d e te r m in e d, to a s ig n if ic a n t e x te n t, b y h is c o n c e p tio n o f w h a t i s ( b e lie f), w h a t ou gh t (c o n c e p tio n s o f p u r p o se ) and th e p r o p e r w a y o f p r o c e e d in g fr o m th e p r e s e n t s itu a tio n to th e d e s ir a b le on e (c o n c e p tio n s o f a u th o r ity ). B e l i e f s y s t e m s th at h a v e a s p e c if ic b ia s d e r iv e d fr o m v a lu e -j u d g e m e n t s 17 ca n b e t e r m e d id e o lo g ie s. I d e o lo g ie s p u r p o r t to e x p la in a ll o f r e a li t y, and th u s to p r o v id e an e x p la n a tio n o f w h a t i u, th e d e te r m in a t io n o f w h a t ou gh t and a j u s t if ic a t io n fo r p r o c e d u r e s b e lie v e d n e c e s s a r y fo r th e tr a n s itio n. A s e x p r e s s e d b y a n o te d a n t h r o p o lo g is t, C liffo r d G e e r tz: S c ie n c e n a m e s th e s t r u c t u r e o f s itu a t io n s in su c h a w a y th a t th e a ttitu d e c o n ta in e d to w a r d th e m i s on e o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s.... B ut id e o lo g y n a m e s th e s tr u c tu r e o f s itu a t io n s in su c h a w a y th at the a ttitu d e c o n ta in e d to w a r d th em i s one of c o m m itm e n t.... B y o b je c tify in g m o r a l s e n tim e n t th ro u g h th e s a m e d e v ic e s th a t s c ie n c e s h u n s, i t s e e k s to m o tiv a te 44 n. 18 a c tio C h a p ter 2: T h e F u n c tio n o f D em a n d A s in d ic a te d a b o v e, it i s a m a x im o f p o l i t i c s th a t a p o li t ic a l le a d e r sh ip w h ic h r u le s b y th r e a t o f e x te r n a l d e p r iv a tio n a lo n e w ill n o t lo n g s u r v iv e. T h e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip m u s t b e s u p p o r te d and o b e y e d: s u p p o r te d 17Ib id., p. 4 1. 18 C liffo r d G e e r tz, " Id e o lo g y a s a C u ltu r a l S y s te m " in D a v id E, A p te r ( e d.), I d e o lo g y and D is c o n te n t (N ew Y ork: T h e F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 71. === [PDF page 21] === 14 i f i t i s to s u r v iv e and o b e y e d i f i t i s to b e r e le v a n t to th e s o c i e t y w ith in 19 w h ic h i t m u s t fu n c tio n. I t h a s b ecom e in c r e a s in g ly e v id e n t th a t th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e fu n c tio n s o f o b e d ie n c e and su p p o rt on th e on e h an d and p o li t ic a l 20 le a d e r s h ip on th e o th e r i s a v e r y c lo s e o n e. A sch em a h as b een d e v e lo p e d d iv id in g th e s e fu n c tio n s in to tw o g e n e r a l c a t e g o r ie s t e r m e d in p u t fu n c tio n s and output fu n c tio n s r e s p e c t i v e l y. ^ E N V IR O N M E N T D e c is io n s S ---------- \ 1 r T F e e d b a c lk E N V IR O N M E N T 19 W illia m W. H o llis t e r, G o v e r n m e n t and th e A r ts o f O b e d ie n c e (M o r n in g sid e H e ig h ts: K in g 's C row n P r e s s, 1 9 4 8 ), p a s s i m. 20 E. g., G a b r ie l A. A lm o n d, "A F u n c tio n a l A p p ro a c h to C o m p a r a tiv e P o lit ic s " in G a b r ie l A. A lm o n d and J a m e s C o le m a n ( e d s. ), T he P o l i t i c s o f th e D e v e lo p in g A r e a s (P r in c e to n: P r in c e t o n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, A s ad a p ted fr o m D a v id E a s to n, "An A p p ro a c h to the A n a ly s is o f P o l it ic a l S y s t e m s, " W orld P o l i t i c s IV (A p r il, 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 3 8 3 - 4 0 0. === [PDF page 22] === 15 In b r ie f, th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n in p u t and ou tp u t fu n c tio n s i s r e c ip r o c a l. M e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n ity h a v e c e r t a in n e e d s and d e s i r e s w h ic h a r e m a d e kn ow n to th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip. We a ll r e a l i z e th a t a m in im a l c a lo r i c in ta k e i s n e c e s s a r y fo r h u m a n s u r v iv a l. H o w e v e r, h u m an n e e d s and d e s i r e s c o n c e r n both m a t e r ia l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s. For e x a m p le, o n e h u m a n n e e d a p p e a r s to b e a p e r s o n a l id e n t if ic a t io n w ith a group. T h e su p p o se d t e n s io n b e tw e e n th e in d iv id u a l and th e g r o u p i s n o t and ca n n o t b e a b s o lu t e. One o f th e b a s ic d is t in c t io n s b e tw e e n a u th o r ita r ia n and d e m o c r a t ic c o m m u n itie s i s th e r e la t iv e im p o r ta n c e o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e g r o u p. T h e q u e s tio n i s n o t, I s m a n a s o c ia l b e in g? R a th e r, i t i s, T o w h a t e x te n t m u s t one su b o r d in a te h i s p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a lity in the i n t e r e s t s o f g ro u p a c c e p t a n c e? It sh o u ld a ls o b e r e c o g n iz e d th a t t h e s e g e n e r a l n e e d s and d e s i r e s m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o n s c io u s ly kn ow n a n d /o r a r t ic u la t e d. F o r e x a m p le, th e m e m b e r s o f a p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity m a y n o t k n ow w h a t i s n e c e s s a r y fo r th e c o n tin u e d p h y s ic a l p r e s e r v a t io n o f t h e ir g ro u p b e c a u s e th e y a r e not a w a r e of or do n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e lim it in g e n v ir o n m e n ta l c ir c u m s t a n c e s (i. e., f a c t s ). T h u s, m e m b e r s o f th e c o m m u n ity m a y s im p ly b e ig n o r a n t o f, or d is a g r e e c o n c e r n in g th e f a c t s. Chi the o th e r h an d, in d iv id u a ls w ith in a c o m m u n ity m a y h a v e a d is a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n in g v a lu e p r e f e r en ces. S a m u e l B e e r in d ic a t e s th a t c o n c e p tio n s o f f a c t s ( i. e., b e lie f s ) 22 a r e m o r e a m e n a b le to ch a n g e th an a r e v a lu e p r e f e r e n c e s. Thus 22 I b i d., pp. 3 9 - 4 1. === [PDF page 23] === c o n f lic t s c o n c e r n in g f a c t s a r e m o r e a m e n a b le to p e a c e f u l r e s o lu t io n than a r e thos e c o n c e r n in g v a lu e s. ^ C h a p ter 3: T h e F u n c tio n o f L e a d e r s h ip T he c o n s e q u e n c e o f d e m a n d s on th e p a r t o f th e p o p u la c e o r p a r ts t h e r e o f i s a r e a c t io n b y th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h i p. D e m a n d s r e c e iv e p o s it iv e r e s p o n s e w h en th e y a r e a r t ic u la t e d c le a r ly and a r e c o n s is t a n t w ith th e a ttitu d e s o f th e le a d e r s h ip o r th e le a d e r s h ip i s o p p o se d to the p e r c e iv e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f n o t a c tin g p o s it iv e ly to w a r d s th e m. H ow ever, i t s h o u ld be o b v io u s th a t th is r e a c t io n n e e d n o t b e p o s it iv e. D e m a n d s can b e ig n o r e d, m is u n d e r s t o o d o r th e y m a y be im p o s s ib l e to m e e t. T hey m ay be ig n o r e d b e c a u s e th e le a d e r s h i p i s o p p o s e d to th e p e r c e iv e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c tin g p o s it iv e ly to w a r d s th e m, m is u n d e r s to o d b e c a u s e th ey a r e n o t c o m m u n ic a te d c l e a r l y, a r e to o g e n e r a l, o r im p o s s ib l e to m e e t due to th e ig n o r a n c e o f th o s e w ho a d v a n c e th e m. A p o in t o fte n o v e r lo o k e d, h o w e v e r, i s th a t th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip i t s e l f i s a p a r t o f th e m o r e g e n e r a l p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity. T h is m e a n s th a t i t a ls o h a s a s e t o r s e t s o f n e e d s and d e s i r e s. T h e s e n e e d s and d e s i r e s m a y b e s im p ly r e f le c t iv e o f th o s e fou nd th ro u g h o u t th e w id e r p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ity o r th e y m a y b e p a r t ic u la r, i. e., th e b e lie f s and v a lu e s o f th e le a d e r s h ip m a y b e a t od d s w ith th o s e g e n e r a lly h e ld b y th e m e m b e r s o f th e c o m m u n ity e n m a s s e. A s in m o s t c a s e s in v o lv in g a n a ly t ic a l === [PDF page 24] === 17 c a t e g o r ie s, th e p o s itio n o f m o s t p o lit ic a l le a d e r s w o u ld f a ll s o m e w h e r e b e tw e e n th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d e x t r e m e s. In a n y e v e n t, g iv e n th e d is p a r it y in th e r a t e s o f ch a n g e b e tw e e n b e l i e f s an d v a lu e s, th e fu n c tio n o f p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip i s the a d a p ta tio n o f c o m m u n ity v a lu e s to the n e c e s s i t i e s o f th e ch a n g in g s itu a tio n. It b e c o m e s e v id e n t th a t a u th o r ity s u f f ic ie n t to w e ld to g e th e r a c o m m u n ity d e p e n d s u p on th e o r ig in s and v a lu e s w h ic h p r o v id e d th e m o tiv a tio n fo r 24 th e fo r m a tio n o f th a t c o m m u n ity. It f o llo w s th a t to a s ig n if ic a n t e x te n t, p o li t ic a l c u ltu r e i s b a s e d on tr a d itio n. H o w e v e r, i t i s a ls o n e c e s s a r y th a t i t a d a p t i t s e l f to c h a n g in g d e v e lo p m e n t s, i. e., th a t b e lie fs ch an ge. A s th e c u ltu r e c h a n g e s, a u th o r ity m u s t ch a n g e w ith i t. A u th o r ity w h ic h f a i l s to ad ap t i t s e l f to c h a n g e s w ith in th e c o m m u n ity th ro u g h t im e, l o s e s i t s le g it im a c y and th e r e s u lt i s o fte n th e c o m m u n ity 's d is in t e g r a t io n. In th o s e c a s e s w h e r e th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip s u b s ta n tia lly r e f l e c t s th e a ttitu d e s of th e g e n e r a l p o p u la c e, the a d a p ta tio n o f v a lu e s w ill b e m in im a l. H o w e v e r, in th o s e c a s e s w h e r e a s ig n if ic a n t d is p a r ity e x i s t s b e tw e e n th e v a lu e s h e ld b y the le a d e r s h ip and th o s e fou n d a m o n g the g e n e r a l m e m b e r s h ip, a s u b s ta n tia l a d a p ta tio n o f v a lu e s m u s t b e a c c o m p lis h e d. It i s o b v io u s th a t fo r su c h a d is p a r it y to e x i s t, s u b s ta n tia l s o c i a l 24 I am in d e b te d to M ic h a e l C o n g d en, "T he C o n cep t o f A u th o rity and th e R is e o f M a s s S o c ie ty in M o d e rn A m e r ic a, " a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d to s e m in a r, C o n te m p o r a r y P o l it ic a l T h e o r y 2 1 4, a t th e C la r e m o n t G rad u ate S c h o o l and U n iv e r s it y C e n te r, M ay 15, 1965 ( m im e o.). === [PDF page 25] === d is lo c a t io n w ith in a s o c ie t y w o u ld b e e x ta n t. A s a r e s u lt, th e r e i s a n e e d fo r a n e w " s y m b o lic fr a m e w o r k " b y w h ic h n e w ly c r e a t e d p o lit ic a l p r o b - 25 le m s c a n b e r e f o r m u la te d. T h is e x tr e m e fu n c tio n o f le a d e r s h ip i s o fte n p e r fo r m e d b y th e e m p lo y m e n t o f an id e o lo g y. In th is c o n te x t, th e n, id e o lo g ie s a r e d e v e lo p e d ou t o f an a tte m p t to r e o r ie n t a s y s t e m w h ic h h a s 26 b e e n s o c i a l l y p s y c h o lo g ic a lly a n d /o r c u ltu r a lly d is o r ie n t e d o r s tr a in e d, T h u s, i t i s: T he a tte m p t o f id e o l o g ie s to r e n d e r o th e r w is e in c o m p r e h e n s ib le s o c ia l s itu a tio n s m e a n in g fu l, to so c o n s tr u e th em a s to m a k e i t p o s s ib le to a c t p u r p o s e fu lly w ith in th e m, th a t a c c o u n ts b oth fo r th e id e o lo g ie s ' h ig h ly fig u r a t iv e n a tu r e and fo r th e in t e n s it y w ith w h ic h, o n c e a c c e p t e d, th e y a r e h e ld. ^ T h is i s done in an a tte m p t to j u s t if y a s u b s ta n tia l ch a n g e in c o m m u n ity v a lu e s b y d is c r e d it in g th e b e l i e f s up on w h ic h th o s e v a lu e s a r e b a s e d and s u b s titu tin g a n ew b e lie f s y s t e m w h ic h su p p o r ts th o s e v a lu e s h e ld b y th e le a d e r s h ip. If th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s a r e s u c c e s s f u l in th e ir a tte m p t to s u b s titu te a n ew s y s t e m o f b e l i e f s and v a lu e s, th e c o n s e q u e n c e w ill be th e su p p o rt o f th o s e e f f e c t e d b y p o li t ic a l d e c is i o n s. A s P r o fe sso r R oy M a c r id is in d ic a t e s: T he e f f ic ie n c y o f a p o lit ic a l s y s t e m c a n be g a u g e d in t e r m s o f i t s a b ility to m a k e d e c is i o n s th a t a r e w id e ly a c c e p te d. 25 C liffo r d G e e r tz, op. c i t., p. 65. 26 I b id., p. 6 4. S tr a in th e o r y i s d e s c r ib e d in F. X. S u tton, S. E. H a r r is, C. K a y s e n, and J. T o b in, T h e A m e r ic a n B u s in e s s C r e e d (C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s === [PDF page 26] === ... An e f f ic ie n t s y s t e m m a in ta in s a b a la n c e b e tw e e n 28 ch a n g e and s t a b ilit y. S u p p o rt s h o u ld be d is tin g u is h e d fr o m o b e d ie n c e. One m a y o b e y an o r d e r h e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t. O b e d ie n c e i s p o lit ic a lly p a s s iv e w h ile su p p o rt i s p o li t ic a lly a c t iv e. C h a p ter A: T he N a tio n a lis t M a n ife s ta tio n N a tio n a lis m i s e m o tio n a l r a th e r th an r a tio n a l, a b s tr a c t r a th e r th an c o n c r e te and t h e r e f o r e, d if fic u lt to d e fin e p r e c i s e l y. H ow ever, it is r e c o g n iz e d that n a t io n a lis m a tte m p ts to r e la t e m a n to h is n a tio n 's h is t o r ic p a s t and " id e n tifie s h im and h is d e s c e n d e n ts w ith the fu tu r e lif e 29 o f th e n a tio n. " I n h e r e n t in th is c o n c e p t i s an in t e n s e and a c u te d e v o tio n to a p a r t ic u la r n a tio n a l g r o u p. T h is id e n t ific a tio n n e e d n o t n e c e s - 30 s a r il y be b a s e d on b io lo g ic a l a ff in ity. T h e u s e o f a co m m o n la n g u a g e and id e n t if ic a t io n w ith a c o m m o n p a s t a r e am o n g th e m o s t e a s ily r e c o g n iz a b le in g r e d ie n t s; a lth o u g h th e a b s e n c e o f e ith e r d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r il y in v a lid a te th e e x is t e n c e o f n a t io n a lis m ( e. g., th e S w is s ). 28 R oy C. M a c r id is and B e r n a r d E. B r o w n, C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t ic s (H om ew ood: D o r s e y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 - 2. 29 J. H. H a y e s C a r lto n, N a tio n a lis m: A R e lig io n (N ew Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C o., I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 5 - 1 6. I b id., p. 2; B o y d C. S h a fe r, N a tio n a lis m: M yth and R e a lity (N ew Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B r a c e and C o., 1 9 5 5 ), p. 10; and R u p ert E m e r s o n, F r o m E m p ir e to N a tio n (C a m b rid g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0 ). === [PDF page 27] === 20 T he o n e c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m, fou nd in a ll id e n t ifia b le " n a tio n a lis t" m o v e m e n t s, i s i t s e x p r e s s id e n t if ic a t io n w ith 31 a p r o p o s e d o r e x is t in g n a t io n - s t a t e. T h is c h a r a c t e r is t ic i s th e o n ly th in g w h ic h d is t in g u is h e s c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m fr o m c o m m u n a lis m (i. e., s u b -n a tio n a lis m ) on th e on e h a n d o r in t e r n a t io n a lis m on th e o th e r. N a t io n a lis m, th en, i s a m a n if e s t a t io n o f c o m m u n ity. A s in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly, a s e n s e o f c o m m u n ity r e q u ir e s a d e g r e e o f " c o m m o n a lity " a s to b e l i e f s. F o r " w ith ou t a s e n s e o f c o m m u n ity w ith o n e ’ s o p p o n e n ts, 32 p o lit ic a l c o m p e titio n i s w a r. " H o w e v e r, th e d e g r e e o f " c o m m o n a lity " a m o n g p e o p le m u s t b e r e la t iv e to th e ir d e g r e e o f p e c u lia r it y w ith r e f e r e n c e to o t h e r s. " C o m m o n a lity " r e q u ir e s an e x te r n a l p o in t o f r e f e r e n c e. R e d u c e d to i t s b a r e b o n e s, n a t io n a lis m i s no m o r e than th e a s s e r t i o n o f a p a r tic u la r "w e" a r r a y e d a g a in s t the "they" of th e r e s t o f m a n k in d, b y i t s e l f g iv in g no c l ^ | a s to h o w the "w e" m a y c h o o s e to m a n a g e i t s ow n a f f a ir s. T h e r e f o r e, a w id e r a n g e o f v a lu e s c a n and a r e s u g g e s t e d a s b e in g e m b r a c e d w ith in th e n a tio n a l d e s tin y, in a d d itio n to w h ic h v a r io u s F r e d R. V on d e r M eh d en, R e lig io n and N a t io n a lis m in S o u th e a s t A s ia (M ad ison: T he U n iv e r s it y o f W is c o n s in P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 2 6 - 2 9, d is t in g u is h e s b e tw e e n tr a d itio n a l p r e - n a t io n a lis m w h ic h em p h a s iz e d an id e n t if ic a t io n b a s e d on r e lig io u s a n d /o r o th e r c u ltu r e v a lu e s and c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m w h ic h e m p h a s iz e s an id e n t ific a tio n w ith th e n a t io n - s t a t e. 32 H a r r y E c k s t e in and D a v id A p te r ( e d s. ), C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t ic s (G len co e: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 4 3 8. R u p e r t E m e r s o n, op. c it., p. 2 1 3. === [PDF page 28] === 21 o r g a n iz a tio n a l f o r m s f o r th e s ta te m a y b e s u g g e s t e d a s n e c e s s a r y to th e ir 34 fu lf illm e n t. H e n c e, n a t io n a lis m c a n e n c o m p a s s su c h v a r ie d c o n c e p ts a s t r a d it io n a lis m, l ib e r a l r e p u b lic a n is m, s o c i a l i s m, and M a r x is m - L e n in is m and i t s in s t it u t io n a l f o r m s c a n in c lu d e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e d e m o c r a c y, a u th o r ita r ia n o lig a r c h y and to t a lit a r ia n d ic ta t o r s h ip. T h a t the fo r e g o in g i s tr u e i s n o t a g e n e r a lly r e c o g n iz e d f a c t and a lth o u g h m o s t o f th e ir a r g u m e n ts a r e im p l i c i t r a th e r th an e x p lic it, th o s e w ho r e j e c t th e d iffu s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n a t io n a lis m u s u a lly a r g u e one o f th e fo llo w in g: 1) th a t n a t io n a lis m i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c o n tin u a tio n o f o r r e tu r n 35 to t r a d it io n a l v a lu e s o f 2) th a t " r ea l" n a t io n a lis m i s e q u iv a le n t to 36 lib e r a l d e m o c r a c y a s o p p o se d to t o t a lit a r ia n is m. A t th is p o in t, i t sh o u ld b e s u f f ic ie n t to in d ic a te th a t th e f i r s t a p p r o a c h ig n o r e s the e n o r m o u s v a lu e c h a n g e s w r o u g h t th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld d u rin g th e p a s t tw o 34 [Unreadable] 35 T he te r m tr a d itio n i s u s e d h e r e a s a fo r m o f " r a tio n a liz e d h a b it. " T h a t i s, a s a p p r o v e d a c tio n ta k e n w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f a g e n e r a lly s t a t ic b e lie f s y s t e m. E. g., H a r r y J. B e n d a, " D e m o c r a c y in In d o n e sia " /_a r e v ie w o f T he D e c lin e o f C o n s titu tio n a l G o v e r n m e n t in I n d o n e s ia by H e r b e r t FeitH 7, J o u r n a l o f A s ia n S tu d ie s XXII (M ay, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 4 4 9 - 4 5 6. 36 E. g., J oh n P. H a ith c o x, " N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n ism: T he I m p a c t o f th e 1927 C o m in te r n F a ilu r e in C h in a, " T h e J o u r n a l o f A s ia n S tu d ie s X X IV (M ay, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 4 5 9 - 4 7 3, s e e m s to im p ly t h is a p p ro a c h w h en h e w r i t e s, "we a r e n o t a r g u in g, a s s o m e s c h o la r s now d o, th a t to d a y C o m m u n ism i s h a r d ly d is tin g u is h a b le fr o m n a t io n a lis m. S u ch an a p p r o a c h b lu r s a b a s ic d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n c e r t a in ty p e s o f n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n ts and c o m m u n is m - - t h e d if f e r e n c e in p o li t ic a l a ttitu d e s b e tw e e n th e im p e r ic a l a p p r o a c h o f l i b e r a l i s m and th e to t a lit a r ia n, a b s o lu t is t o u t lo o k o f d e m o c r a t ic r a d ic a lis m, " p. 4 7 3. === [PDF page 29] === 22 c e n t u r ie s, e s p e c i a l l y am o n g th e e d u c a te d e lit e in th e n o n - in d u s t r ia l a r e a s and, th a t the s e c o n d ig n o r e s th e m a s s and a b s o lu t is t c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m. T h is i s an e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t p o in t due to th e a d m itte d ly " to ta lita r ia n, a b s o lu t is t o u tlo o k o f d e m o c r a t ic r a d ic a l- 37 is m " a s e m b o d ie d w ith in th e s e c u la r id e o lo g y o f I n d o n e s ia, a s w e ll a s th a t o f M a r x is t - L e n in is t th e o r y. T o ta lit a r ia n is m i s h e r e d e fin e d a s th e c o n c e r n w ith and u n ifo r m o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e t o t a lity o f a s o c ie t y. I t h a s b e e n in d ic a te d th a t n a t io n a lis m e m p h a s iz e s th e c o m m o n. S u b -n a tio n a l d e s i r e s, o f w h a t e v e r k in d, w h ic h th r e a te n th e g r o u p 's s o lid a r it y a r e, and m u s t b e, su b m erged. T h u s, i t i s n a t io n a lis m 's c o n c e r n w ith th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e g r o u p, h o w e v e r d e fin e d, w h ic h le n d s i t s e l f to t o t a lit a r ia n is m. T he p r o b le m im m e d ia t e ly a r i s e s a s to w h a t c o n s t it u t e s th e g ro u p w i ll, o r to b o r r o w fr o m R o u s s e a u, the g e n e r a l w i l l. A s R up ert E m e r so n p o in ts out: W hose v o ic e s p e a k s fo r th e n a tio n a l w il l? T h e s o u l o f the n a tio n m a y r e s id e in th e s im p le p e a s a n ts and w o r k e r s w ho c o n s titu te th e d e m o c r a t ic m a j o r it y, but th e ir ig n o r a n c e, and la c k o f e x p e r ie n c e r e n d e r th e m, i t i s lik e ly to b e c o n te n d e d, u n ab le to g iv e i t tr u e e x p r e s s io n. In th e ir s te a d, an e l i t e o r a c h a r is m a t ic le a d e r ta k e s o v e r a s th e e m a n a tio n o f th e n a tio n a l w ill w h ic h, in th e v o c a b u la r y o f R o u s s e a u, i s the r e a l w ill o f th e in d iv id u a ls a lth o u g h riot on e th e y ca n b e tr u s te d to d is c o v e r fo r t h e m s e l v e s. 38 R u p er t E m e r s o n, op. c i t., p. 2 9 1. R e fe r a ls o to H a r r y E c k s t e in and D a v id A p te r, op. c it., p. 43 6. === [PDF page 30] === 23 T he e l i t e s and th us th e f o r m a t e u r s o f c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m in t h e s e n o n - in d u s t r ia l c o lo n ia l a r e a s w e r e g e n e r a lly the " w e s t e r n - 39 e d u c a te d " i n t e l le c t u a ls. T h e s e in t e l le c t u a ls r e a c te d to th e ir e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e s in an e x t r e m e ly a m b iv a le n t m a n n e r. T h e y a d m ir e d th e t e c h n ic a l and m a t e r ia l a c c o m p lis h m e n t s o f in d u s t r ia liz a t io n a s w e ll a s th e e g a lit a r ia n is m o f W e s te r n p h ilo s o p h y. H o w e v e r, th e ir tr e a tm e n t a s s e c o n d - c l a s s c it iz e n s a t h o m e by a c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t i n c r e a s e d t h e ir b it t e r n e s s to w a r d s a s y s t e m w h ic h th e y f e l t in s t it u t io n a liz e d th e ir 40 in f e r io r it y. T h u s, i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g th a t th e n a t io n a lis m o f th e in t e l le c t u a ls in t h e s e a r e a s c o n ta in e d tw o d o m in a n t th e m e s; i n d u s t r ia liz a - 41 tio n and a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m. In t h e s e c o lo n ia l a r e a s, th e f i r s t m a n if e s t a t io n o f n a t io n a lis m w a s g e n e r a lly th e d e s ir e fo r in d e p e n d e n c e and th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f an in d e p e n d e n t n a t io n - s t a t e. S in c e h o s t il i t y i s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e c o lo n ia l pow er. N a tio n a lis m so d e fin e d u n ite s p e o p le o f d if fe r e n t la n g u a g e s, c u ltu r a l b a c k g r o u n d s, and e c o n o m ic and s o c i a l c l a s s e s. A n t i - c o lo n ia lis m 42 b e c o m e s the c o m m o n fa c to r; th e g e n e r a l w i l l. T h e e f f e c t o f t h is w a s 39 E m e r s o n, op. c it., p a s s i m; Joh n H. K a u tsk y, P o l it i c a l C hange in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: Joh n W ile y & S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 4 4 -4 9; H ugh S e to n -W a ts o n, N e ith e r W ar n o r P e a c e (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 6 1 -1 8 7. 40 Ib id., p. 28 and D o n a ld S. Z a g o r ia, " C o m m u n ism in A s i a, " C o m m e n ta r y X X XIX (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 5 7. 41 F o r a s c h e m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f the i n t e l l e c t u a l s 1 r e a c tio n, r e f e r to th e c h a r t on th e fo llo w in g p a g e. J oh n H. K a u tsk y, op. c i t., p. 39. === [PDF page 31] === SC H E M A T IC R E P R E S E N T A T IO N: T H E G E N E R A L R E A C T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E IN T E L L E C T U A L N A T IO N A L IST S FR O M T H E IM P A C T OF T H E "W EST" G e n e r a l I n te lle c t u a l S e n tim e n t P r o - I n d u s t r ia l P r o - I n d u s t r ia l A n ti-I n d u s tr ia l ’P r o g r e s s iv e " N a tio n a lis t T r a d itio n a lis t === [PDF page 32] === 25 an in c lin a t io n to s t r e s s th e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e in d ig e n o u s c u ltu r e and th a t o f the " W est, " r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r. H o w e v e r, a n t i- c o lo n ia li s t f e e lin g r a n c o u n te r to th e in t e l le c t u a ls ' d e s ir e fo r th e m o s t o b v io u s c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e " W est, " in d u s t r ia liz a tio n, w h ic h m a n y f e l t w a s a n e c e s s a r y c o n c o m m ita n t o f n a tio n a l e q u a lity. T h is a m b iv a le n c e w a s r e s o lv e d fo r m a n y b y L e n in 's th e o r y 43 of im p e r ia lis m, w h ic h lim it e d th e b la m e fo r c o lo n ia l and s e m i c o lo n ia l d e g r a d a tio n to c a p it a lis m and j u s t if ie d th e a c c e p ta n c e o f o th e r 44 c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f " W estern " c u ltu r e, e s p e c i a l l y in d u s t r ia liz a t io n b a s e d on th e s o c i a l i s t m o d e l. T h is, o f c o u r s e, r e in fo r c e d th e " W e ster n " e d u c a te d in t e l le c t u a ls ' r o le, s in c e th e y w e r e th e o n ly c l a s s tr a in e d to im p le m e n t th is la t t e r d e s i r e. A s L u c ia n P y e h a s in d ic a te d: T h e p r e s e n t s e c u la r id e o lo g ie s o f /S o u t h e a s t A s i a /... a r e la r g e l y p r e m is e d on the a s s u m p tio n th a t o n ly th o s e w ho h a v e to s o m e d e g r e e b e c o m e u r b a n iz e d, m o d e r n iz e d, o r w e s t e r n iz e d c a n f u lly a p p r e c ia te and u n d e r sta n d th e ir c o n te n t and th e g o a ls th e y s u g g e s t fo r th e s o c ie t y.... T h e v ie w s of t h o s e w ho a r e n o t a c c u ltu r a te d to th e e l i t e ' s w a y o f lif e a r e s t i l l s e e n a s r e p r e s e n t in g p a r o c h ia l and lo w ly i n t e r e s t s w h ic h a r e lik e ly to c o m p r o m is e and e v e n d is r u p t the p la n s fo r a n ew s o c ie t y. 43 V. I. L e n in, I m p e r ia lis m: T h e H ig h e s t S ta g e o f C a p ita lis m (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1939). 44 G io r g io B o r s a, "A H is t o r ic a l P e r s p e c t iv e fo r W e ste r n P o l ic y in A s i a, 11 C o n flu e n c e IV (J a n u a ry, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 416; E m e r s o n, op. c it., p p. 3 6 3 -3 7 7 p a s s i m; and Z a g o r ia, lo c. c i t. 45 L u c ie n W. P y e, "T he P o l i t i c s o f S o u th e a s t A s ia, " in G a b r ie l A lm o n d and J a m e s C o le m a n ( e d s. ), T he P o l i t i c s o f D e v e lo p in g A r e a s (P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0 ), p. 80. === [PDF page 33] === In a d d itio n, m a n y o f th e " W e ster n " e d u c a te d e li t e in t h e s e c o lo n ia l a r e a s a p p ea r to h a v e jo in e d th e ir r e s p e c t iv e C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s b e c a u s e th e y f e lt th a t an I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t p r o v id e d th em w ith e q u a lity o f s ta tu s w ith th e " W e st, " p a r t ic u la r ly w ith r e f e r e n c e to 46 " W e s te r n e r s " w ith in the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t i t s e l f. L u c ie n W. P y e, G u e r r illa C o m m u n ism in M a la y a (P r in c e to n: P r in c e t o n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 3 6 9. === [PDF page 34] === SECTION II T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L COM M UNIST COM M UNITY T h e o r e t ic a lly, th e t e r m N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism i s an o x y m o r o n, th a t i s, a t e r m h a v in g m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e c o m p o n e n ts. C o m m u n ist t h e o r e t ic ia n s, r e g a r d le s s o f th e ir in d iv id u a l d iv e r g e n c i e s, a g r e e th a t M a r x is t - L e n in is t th e o r y p o s it s C o m m u n ism u lt im a t e ly a s a w o r ld s y s t e m, w ith n a tio n a l d if f e r e n c e s no lo n g e r m a n if e s t. N a tio n a l C o m m u n is m s u g g e s t s a " b o u r g e o is" n a t io n a lis t d e v ia tio n and is o la t io n fr o m th e w o r ld c o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t, a s itu a tio n d e p lo r e d by a ll C o m m u n is ts. ^ H o w e v e r, i t i s o n ly th e " ch a u v in ist" c h a r a c t e r o f " b o u r g e o is" n a t io n a lis m w h ic h i s c o n s c io u s ly r e j e c t e d. T h at i s, C o m m u n is ts c o n s c io u s ly r e j e c t th e n a t io n a lis t s ' e x p a n s io n is t te n d e n c y to d o m in a te o th e r s a s a N a tio n, r a th e r th an to s p r e a d the tr u e id e o lo g ic a l g o s p e l (h o w e v e r id io s y n c r a t ic a lly d e fin ed ) and to a c c e p t a ll " c o n v e r ts " a s b r o t h e r s. B e r n a r d M o r r is, " S o v iet P o lic y T o w a r d s N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism: T he L im it s o f D iv e r s it y, " T he A m e r ic a n P o lit ic a l S c ie n c e R e v ie w LH (M a rch, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 128; F r e d W a rn er N e a l, " Y u g o sla v C o m m u n ist T h e o r y, " T he A m e r ic a n S la v ic and E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w XIX (F e b r u a r y, I 9 6 0 ), p. 46; T ito is m in A c tio n (B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 18; and w ith G e o r g e H o ffm a n n, Y u g o s la v ia and th e N ew C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: T w e n tie th C e n tu r y F u n d, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 5 7 -1 5 8. 2 C.f. D. N. A id it, S E T A F IR E T H E B A N T E N G S P IR IT! E v e r F o r w a r d, N o R e tr e a t / P o l it ic a l R e p o r t to the S e c o n d P le n u m o f the S e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (D ja k a r ta, D e c e m b e r 2 3 - 2 6, 1963)_/ (P ek in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 121 and "T he I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n I s an I n s e p a r a b le P a r t 27 === [PDF page 35] === 28 Joh n H. K a u tsk y p r e s e n t s a th o u g h t-p r o v o k in g a r g u m e n t su p p o rtin g th e p r o p o s itio n th a t n a t io n a lis m and C o m m u n ism in n o n -in d u s tr ia l n a t io n - s t a t e s h a s b e c o m e " v ir tu a lly in d is tin g u is h a b le. " ... I f... n a t io n a lis t s in u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a r e in t e l le c t u a ls a p p e a lin g to a ll s tr a ta o f th e p o p u la tio n in th e ir d e s ir e fo r in d u s t r ia liz a t io n and a g a in s t c o lo n ia lis m, and C o m m u n is ts in u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s a r e... in t e l le c t u a ls a p p e a lin g to a ll s t r a t a o f th e p o p u la tio n in th e ir d e s ir e fo r in d u s t r ia liz a t io n and a g a in s t c o lo n ia lis m, th en c o m m u n is ts a r e n a t io n a lis t s. A lth o u g h th is p a p e r s u p p o r ts th is c o n c lu s io n, i t s su p p o rt m u s t be q u a lifie d in th r e e r e s p e c t s: 1) A s h a s b e e n in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly, c o n te m p o r a r y n a t io n a lis m sh o u ld b e v ie w e d a s a n u ltim a te a tta c h m e n t to and id e n t if ic a t io n w ith a p r o p o s e d o r e x is t in g n a t io n - s t a t e. 2) T he p h e n o m e n a o f n a t io n a lis m and a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m a r e n ot sy n o n y m o u s. A n t i- c o lo n ia lis m i s s im p ly a m a n if e s t a t io n o f n a t io n a lis m, not n a tio n a l - is m p er s e. 3) In o r d e r f o r C o m m u n ism to b e a fo r m o f in d ig e n o u s n a t io n a lis m, i t w o u ld h a v e to id e n tify i t s i n t e r e s t s w ith th o s e o f the n a t io n - s t a t e w ith in w h ic h i t i s d o m ic ile d, th a t i s, i t w o u ld h a v e to be d ir e c t e d fr o m w ith in. o f th e W orld S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n " / r e p o r t d e liv e r e d a t th e P a r t y S c h o o l o f th e K w angtung P r o v in c ia l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty of C hin a on S e p te m b e r 2 5, 1 9 6 3 / in T he I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and the I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (P ek in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1 3 0. John H. K a u tsk y, P o l it ic a l C hange in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: J o h n W ile y and S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 7 8, 87. Ib id., p. 7 8. === [PDF page 36] === In e s s e n c e, th e fa c t th a t th e s a m e m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r s c a u s e d s o m e in t e l le c t u a ls in t h e s e s o c i e t i e s to jo in th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty and o th e r s to b e c o m e in d ig e n o u s n a t io n a lis ts d o e s n o t, b y i t s e l f, p r o v e th e n a t io n a lis t c h a r a c t e r o f a C o m m u n ist P a r ty. T h u s the e s s e n t i a l q u e s tio n c o n c e r n s th e id e n t if ic a t io n o f w h o s e i n t e r e s t s C o m m u n is t P a r ty a c t iv it y i s to s e r v e. T he s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s in c e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in c r e a s in g p o ly c e n t r is m i s th a t th e le a d e r s h ip o f in d ig e n o u s C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s h a v e " ca p tu red " c o n tr o l o v e r C o m m u n is t a c t iv it y in th e ir ow n c o u n tr ie s; th a t th e y h a v e, in e s s e n c e, g a in e d th e ir fr e e d o m fr o m e x t e r n a l c o n tr o l, w h ic h i s a n o th e r w a y o f s ta tin g th a t th e y h a v e b e c o m e " in d e p e n d e n t. " T h u s, "the s im p le e ffo r t to m a k e s o m e d o m e s t ic a d ju s tm e n ts w h ile a c c e p t in g th e p r in c ip le s o f b lo c u n ity and a b s o lu te S o v ie t ]_o r any o th e r e x t e r n a l/ le a d e r s h ip " w o u ld n o t b e c o n s id e r e d a s a m a n ife s t a tio n o f in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n is m, but r a th e r a s " d o m e s tic is m "; a s d e fin e d b y P r o f e s s o r Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i. P o ly c e n t r is m, a te r m c o in e d b y P a lm ir o T o g lia tti in Jun e o f 1 9 5 6,^ i s g e n e r a lly in t e r p r e t e d a s im p ly in g th e a d v e n t o f a m u lt ip lic it y o f Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i, "T he C h a lle n g e o f C han ge in th e S o v ie t B lo c, " F o r e ig n A ffa ir s X X X IX (A p r il, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 4 3 0. P a lm ir o T o g lia t t i, "9 D o m a n d e S u llo S t a lin is m o, " M uovi A r g o m e n ti, N o. 2 0, Jun e 16, 1 9 5 6. R e p r in te d in C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y, R u s s ia n I n s titu te, T he A n ti-S ta lin C a m p a ig n and I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 139. === [PDF page 37] === 30 c e n t e r s, e a c h v y in g fo r the l e a d e r s h ip o f the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t a s a w h o le, o r c e r t a in r e g io n a l g r o u p s t h e r e o f. G iv e n th is d e fin itio n, th e p r e s e n t s itu a tio n i s s o m e th in g b e y o n d p o ly c e n t r ic. T h at i s, C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s m a y n o w c l e a r l y a c t in a n in d e p e n d e n t m a n n e r. H o w e v e r, th is n e e d n o t m e a n th a t e a c h o f t h e s e h a s a s an o b j e c tiv e the a s s u m p tio n of le a d e r s h ip o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l M o v e m e n t. T h u s, in c r it ic iz in g th e c o n c e p t o f p o ly c e n t r is m, A id it h a s p o in te d out th at: T he q u e s tio n i s n o t on e o f " a u to n o m y, " b u t o f in d e p e n d e n c e and e q u a lity fo r a ll th e C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s. We do n o t liv e in a "kingdom " o r " r e p u b lic " c o m p o s e d of C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s, w h e r e th e p r e s s u r e o f th e c e n t r a l " g o v e rn m e n t" i s s o s tr o n g th a t th e q u e s tio n o f a u to n o m y a r i s e s. We do n o t a g r e e w ith th e th e o r y o f p o ly c e n t r is m, th e th e o r y o f m a n y c e n t e r s, b e c a u s e w e do n o t a g r e e w ith th e e x is t e n c e j^f a c e n t r a l s y s t e m in th e W orld C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. T he a p p r o a c h, th en, i s r e la t iv e l y n e g a tiv e w ith r e f e r e n c e to i n t e r p a r ty c o m m it m e n ts. T h is m il it a t e s a g a in s t the e s t a b lis h m e n t o r m a in te n a n c e o f d o m in a n t/s u b o r d in a te r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n p a r t ie s. T h e r e f o r e, fo r p u r p o s e s of c la r i t y, I s u g g e s t th a t th e te r m " in d ep en d en t" C o m m u n ism w ou ld be m o r e a p p r o p r ia te fo r o u r u s e. T h is i s n o t to d en y th e n a tu r a l p r o p e n s ity on th e p a r t o f an y t o t a lit a r ia n m o v e m e n t, in c lu d in g C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t s, to a tte m p t to im p o s e th e ir le a d e r s h ip H a r ia n R ak jat (J a n u a ry 2, 1 9 6 2 ): R e s o lu tio n o f th e T h ir d (D e c e m b e r, 1961) C e n tr a l C o m m itte e P le n u m. Q u o ted in R uth T. M c V e y, " In d o n esia: C o m m u n ism U n d er G u id e D e m o c r a c y " in A. D oak B a r n e tt ( e d.), C o m m u n ist S t r a t e g ie s in A s i a (N ew Y o rk: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 185. === [PDF page 38] === 31 on a m o v e m e n t w ith w h ic h th e y a r e a f f ilia t e d. J o s e p h S ta lin, a lth o u g h s p e a k in g in 1924 o n ly o f the C P S U in d ic a te d w h a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u c h in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s w o u ld h e: I t n e e d h a r d ly b e p r o v e d th a t th e e x is t e n c e o f fa c tio n s le a d s to th e e x is t e n c e o f a n u m b e r o f c e n t e r s, and the e x is t e n c e o f a n u m b e r o f c e n t e r s c o n n o te s th e a b s e n c e o f on e c o m m o n c e n te r in the P a r ty, th e b r e a k in g up o f th e u n ity o f w ill, th e w e a k e n in g and d is in t e g r a t io n o f th e d ic ta t o r s h ip. ® T he r e m a in d e r o f th is s e c t io n w ill c o n c e r n i t s e l f w ith j u s t su c h a d e v e lo p m e n t w ith in th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. N o th in g w r itte n a b o v e i s m e a n t to d e p r e c a t e th e r o le o f id e o lo g y a s ji d e te r m in in g fa c to r in C o m m u n ist P a r ty a c t iv it y. I d e o lo g y p r o v id e s m a n y, i f n ot a l l, m e n w ith the c r i t e r i a fo r d e te r m in in g th e ir s e n s e o f c o m m u n ity w ith o t h e r s. I t p r o v id e s th e m w ith a p a r tic u la r w o r ld v ie w; the a p r io r i a s s u m p tio n s upon w h ic h th e ir r e a s o n in g d e p e n d s. E v e r y s o c ie t y, e v e r y s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n, l i v e s fo r c e r t a in g o a ls w h ic h in c o n s id e r a b le m e a s u r e a r e d ic ta te d by i t s id e o lo g y. We know... th at m a n y in d iv id u a ls a c t q u ite J o s e p h S ta lin, F o u n d a tio n s o f L e n in is m (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 9 ), p. 121. F o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e r o le o f id e o lo g y in S o v ie t d e c is io n m a k in g, r e f e r to R. N. C a r ew -H u n t, "T he I m p o r ta n c e o f D o c tr in e, " S a m u e l L. S h a rp, " N a tio n a l I n te r e s t: K ey to S o v ie t P o l it ic s " and R ic h a r d L o w en th a l, "T he L o g ic of O n e -P a r ty R u le, " a ll in P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1958), pp. 1 - 2 0. W ith r e f e r e n c e to Y u g o s la v d e c is i o n m a k in g, r e f e r to F r e d W arn er N e a l, " Y u g o sla v C o m m u n is t T h e o r y, " p. 4 2, and w ith G e o r g e H offm a n n, Y u g o s la v ia and th e N e w C o m m u n is m, p. 1 5 6. W ith r e f e r e n c e to M ao T s e - t u n g 's c o m m itm e n t to M a r x is t - L e n in is t id e o lo g y, r e f e r to S. R. S c h r a m, T h e P o l it ic a l T h ou gh t o f M ao T s e - t u n g (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 6 2. === [PDF page 39] === 32 p r a g m a t ic a lly w h e n t h e ir d o c tr in a ir e id e o lo g ic a l g o a ls c o n f l i c t w ith th e o n g o in g r e a lit y and th e y c o m p r o m is e a c c o r d in g ly. Y e t, w h e n c a lle d up on to ta k e a sta n d on i s s u e s fa r r e m o v e d fr o m t h e ir im m e d ia t e e x p e r ie n c e, the o n ly v o c a b u la r y, th e o n ly r h e t o r ic, th e o n ly c a t e g o r ie s o f a n a ly s is o r e v e n s im p le fo r m u la e a v a ila b le to th e m, a r e th e o ld id e o lo g ic a l b a n n e r s. T h e y u s e th e m and b e c o m e tra p p ed; fo r id e o lo g y ig a h a r d e n in g o f c o m m it m e n t, a f r e e z in g o f o p in io n. M a r x is m, a s an e x p la n a tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l r e a li t y, a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f p r im a r ily to th o s e i s s u e s w h ic h a r e " far r e m o v e d fr o m t h e ir im m e d ia te e x p e r ie n c e s "; th a t i s, to s t r a t e g i c g o a l s. It w a s l e f t to L en in to p r o v id e th e id e o lo g ic a l f i l l e r d e a lin g w ith th e p r e s e n t and h o w to f u lf il l the p r o m is e o f th e fu tu r e. R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l h a s d iv id e d th e h is t o r y o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t in to fo u r s t a g e s: 1) a lo o s e a llia n c e o f e s s e n t i a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e v o lu tio n a r y p a r t i e s, p r e c e e d in g th e fo r m a tio n o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l (the C o m in te rn ) in 1919; 2) th e C e n t r a lis t s t a g e, b e g in n in g w ith th e S e c o n d W orld C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m in te r n, 1 9 2 0 -1 9 5 4; 3) th e a tte m p t by K h r u s h c h e v fo r a s in g le - c e n t e r e d, bu t v o lu n ta r y fo r m o f in t e r n a t io n a l c o o p e r a t io n, 1 9 5 4 -1 9 6 0; and 4) the 12 a tte m p t fo r u n ity b y c o m p r o m is e. It i s th e c e n t r a l is t s ta g e in the D a n ie l B e l l, T h e E nd o f I d e o lo g y (G le n c o e: T he F r e e P r e s s, I 9 6 0 ), p p. 3 3 1 - 3 3 2. C. f. H annah A r e n d t, T he O r ig in s o f T o t a lit a r ia n is m (N ew Y ork: T h e W orld P u b lis h in g C o., 1 9 5 8 ). ^ F r e d W a rn er N e a l and G e o r g e H o ffm a n n, lo c. c i t. R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, W o rld C o m m u n ism: T h e D is in t e g r a t io n o f a S e c u la r F a ith (N ew Y ork: O x fo rd U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 2 3 3. === [PDF page 40] === 33 h is t o r y of th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t w h ic h m it ig a te d a g a in s t 13 th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n o n -R u s s ia n n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m. T he f i r s t s ta g e w ill be d is c u s s e d a s C h a p ter 1, s ta g e tw o a s C h a p ter 2, and s t a g e s th r e e and fo u r a s C h ap ter 3. C h a p ter 1: T he D e v e lo p m e n t o f U n ity A s a M a r x is t r e v o lu tio n a r y a t th e tu rn o f th e c e n tu r y, L en in w a s fa c e d w ith a tw o -fo ld t h e o r e t ic a l p r o b le m: 1) H ow to a c c o u n t fo r th e a p p a r e n t fa ilu r e o f M a r x 's p r e d ic tio n th a t th e w o r ld -w id e p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n h ad b e e n im m in e n t a q u a r te r c e n tu r y b e fo r e and 2) h ow fin a lly to b r in g abou t th e in e v it a b le, th o u g h b e la te d, r e v o lu tio n. T h e c o r e o f th e L e n in is t e x t e n s io n o f M a r x is m ca n b e id e n t ifie d b y fo u r fu n d a m en ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s: 1) th e e lit e p r o le ta r ia n p a rty; 2) th e d ic ta to r s h ip of th e p r o le t a r ia t, th ro u g h th e p a rty; 3) the p e a s a n tp r o le t a r ia t a llia n c e; and 4) th e e x t e n s io n o f th e c l a s s c o n f lic t to the in te r n a tio n a l s p h e r e. L en in d is c o u n te d the r e v o lu tio n a r y z e a l o f th e p r o le t a r ia t en m a s s e. H e b e lie v e d th a t th e y w o u ld sto p s h o r t and b e s a t is f ie d w ith l e s s than th e c o m p le te f u lf illm e n t of th e r e v o lu tio n. A s w ith th e n a t io n a lis t s in th e c o lo n ia l a r e a s, L e n in c a m e to r e l y on h is ow n k in d, th e in t e l le c t u a ls. In h is p a m p h le t, e n tit le d W hat I s T o B e D one? and w r itte n in M a rch, 13 T he te r m " R u s s ia n, " a s u s e d in th is p a p e r, e n c o m p a s s e s a ll of th e c it iz e n s o f th e U nion o f S o v ie t S o c i a l i s t R e p u b lic s and h e n c e, i s n o t r e s t r ic t e d h e r e to o n ly th o s e w ho a r e e t h n ic a lly R u s s ia n. === [PDF page 41] === 34 1902, L en in w rote: We s a id th a t th e r e c o u ld n o t y e t b e S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic c o n s c io u s n e s s a m o n g th e w o r k e r s. T h is c o n s c io u s n e s s c o u ld o n ly b e b r o u g h t to th e m fr o m w ith o u t. T h e h is t o r y o f a ll c o u n t r ie s s h o w s th a t th e w o r k in g c l a s s, e x c lu s i v e l y b y i t s ow n e f f o r t, i s a b le to d e v e lo p o n ly tr a d e -u n io n c o n s c io u s n e s s, i. e., i t m a y i t s e l f r e a l i s e th e n e c e s s i t y fo r c o m b in in g in u n io n s, to fig h t a g a in s t th e e m p lo y e r s and to s t r iv e to c o m p e l th e g o v e r n m e n t to p a s s n e c e s s a r y la b o r le g is la t io n, e tc. T he th e o r y o f S o c ia lis m, h o w e v e r, g r e w out o f the p h ilo s o p h ic, h i s t o r i c a l and e c o n o m ic t h e o r ie s th a t w e r e e la b o r a te d b y th e e d u c a te d r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e p r o p e r tie d c l a s s e s, the in t e l le c t u a ls. ^ T he r o le o f th e p r o le t a r ia t p a r ty w a s to g u id e th e r e v o lu tio n fr o m the s ta g e o f c a p it a lis m to th a t o f f u ll c o m m u n is m, i. e., th e c l a s s l e s s s o c ie t y. On th is p o in t, L e n in w a s e x p lic it w h en h e w r o te, in A u g u st, 1917: T he d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t - - i. e., th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e v a n g u a r d o f the o p p r e s s e d a s the r u lin g c l a s s fo r th e p u r p o se o f c r u sh in g th e o p p r e s s o r s - - c a n n o t p r o d u ce m e r e l y an e x p a n s io n of d e m o c r a c y. T o g e th e r w ith an im m e n s e e x p a n s io n o f d e m o c r a c y fo r th e p o o r, d e m o c r a c y fo r th e p e o p le, and n ot d e m o c r a c y fo r th e r ic h fo lk, th e d ic ta to r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t p r o d u c e s a s e r i e s o f r e s t r ic t io n s o f lib e r t y in th e c a s e o f th e o p p r e s s o r s, th e e x p lo it e r s, the c a p it a l is t s. We m u s t c r u s h th em in o r d e r to fr e e h u m a n ity fr o m w a g e - s la v e r y; th e ir r e s is t a n c e m u s t b e b r o k e n b y fo r c e; i t i s c le a r th a t w h e r e th e r e i s s u p p r e s s io n th e r e i s a ls o v io le n c e, th e r e i s no lib e r t y, n o d e m o c r a c y. 14 V. I. L e n in, W hat I s T o B e D o n e? (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 2 9 ). pp. 3 2 -3 3. 15 V. I. L e n in, S ta te and R e v o lu tio n (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 2 ), p. 7 3. S ta lin w r o te in A p r il, 1 9 2 4, in F o u n d a tio n s === [PDF page 42] === 35 L e n in is m i s e s s e n t i a l l y an a d a p ta tio n o f M a r x is m to the u n d e r - 16 d e v e lo p e d c o n d itio n s o f R u s s ia a t th e tu rn o f the c e n tu r y. T h is i s m o s t r e a d ily a p p a r e n t in L e n in 's r e lia n c e on th e p e a s a n t - p r o le t a r ia n a llia n c e. In 1 9 0 5, h e w r o te in h is p a m p h le t, T w o T a c t ic s: T he p r o le t a r ia t m u s t c a r r y to c o m p le tio n th e d e m o c r a tic r e v o lu tio n, b y a lly in g i t s e l f w ith the m a s s o f the p e a s a n tr y in o r d e r to c r u s h b y f o r c e th e r e s is t a n c e o f th e a u to c r a c y and to p a r a ly s e th e in s t a b ilit y o f the b o u r g e o is ie. T he p r o le t a r ia t m u s t a c c o m p lis h th e s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n b y a lly in g to i t s e l f the m a s s of th e s e m i- p r o le t a r ia n e le m e n t s o f th e p o p u la tio n in o r d e r to c r u s h by f o r c e the r e s is t a n c e o f th e b o u r g e o is ie and to p a r a ly s e th e in s t a b ilit y o f th e p e a s a n tr y and the p e tty b o u r g e o is ie. ^ A s S ta lin put i t, " L e n in r e g a r d e d 'th e m a s s e s o f la b o u r in g p e a s a n ts a s 18 the r e s e r v e o f the p r o le t a r ia t '. " H o w e v e r, th e v a n g u a r d p a r ty o f th e p r o le t a r ia t w a s s t i l l to b e c o n s id e r e d th e le a d e r o f th e p e a s a n t m a s s e s in th e r e v o lu tio n. * ^ o f L e n in is m, p. 47, w ith r e f e r e n c e to th is p o in t: T he r e v o lu tio n can v a n q u is h th e b o u r g e o is ie, can o v e r th r o w i t s p o w e r, w ith o u t th e d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t. B u t th e r e v o lu tio n w ill b e u n a b le to c r u s h th e r e s i s t a n c e o f th e b o u r g e o is ie, to m a in ta in i t s v ic t o r y and to p u sh fo r w a r d to th e fin a l v ic t o r y o f s o c i a l i s m u n l e s s, a t a c e r t a in s ta g e in i t s d e v e lo p m e n t, i t c r e a t e s a s p e c ia l o r g a n in th e fo r m o f the d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t a s i t s p r in c ip a l m a in s t a y. [Unreadable] 17 V. I. L e n in, T w o T a c t ic s o f S o c ia l D e m o c r a c y in th e D e m o c r a tic R e v o lu tio n (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 5 ), p. 8 5. I t a la c iz e d in te x t. 18 S ta lin, op. c it., p. 7 5. 19 T h e r e i s s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y c o n c e r n in g the v ie w s o f M ao T s e -t u n g on th is p o in t w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e H unan R e p o r t w r itte n in 1 9 2 7. In th is === [PDF page 43] === 36 A s in d ic a te d e a r l i e r, L e n in ’ s th e o r y o f i m p e r ia l is m, p ro p o u n d ed in 1 9 1 6, lim it e d th e b la m e fo r c o lo n ia l and s e m i - c o lo n ia l d e g r a d a tio n, to th e c a p it a l is t 's s e a r c h fo r e x p a n d in g m a r k e ts and th e ir n e e d fo r n e w s o u r c e s o f r a w m a t e r ia ls. I m p e r ia lis m i s c a p it a lis m in th a t s ta g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t in w h ic h th e d o m in a tio n o f m o n o p o lie s and fin a n c e c a p ita l h a s b e e n e s t a b lis h e d, in w h ic h th e e x p o r t o f c a p ita l h a s a c q u ir e d o u tsta n d in g im p o r t a n c e, in w h ic h the d iv is io n o f th e w o r ld by th e in t e r n a t io n a l t r u s t s h a s s ta r te d, and in w h ic h th e p a r titio n o f a ll th e t e r r it o r y o f th e e a r th b y t ^ l a r g e s t c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s h a s b e e n c o m p le te d.... T h u s: T he W e s t-E u r o p e a n c a p it a l is t c o u n tr ie s a r e a c c o m p lis h in g th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t to w a r d s s o c i a l i s m n o t by th e e v e n " r ip e n in g " o f s o c i a l i s m, b u t b y th e e x p lo ita tio n o f s o m e c o u n t r ie s by o t h e r s, b y th e e x p lo ita tio n o f th e f i r s t o f th e c o u n t r ie s to b e v a n q u is h e d in th e i m p e r ia lis t w a r c o m b in e d w ith th e e x p lo ita tio n o f th e w h o le o f th e E a s t. On the o th e r h an d, p r e c i s e l y a s a r e s u lt o f th e f i r s t im p e r i a l i s t w a r, th e E a s t h a s b e e n fin a lly d ra w n in to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t, h a s b e e n d ra w n in to the c o m m o n m a e ls t r o m o f th e W orld r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t. r e p o r t, M ao im p lie d th at the C o m m u n is t P a r t y, a s th e r e v o lu tio n a r y v a n g u a r d, c o u ld i s s u e fr o m th e p e a s a n tr y, r a th e r th an fr o m the p r o le t a r ia t. S tu a r t S c h r a m p r e s e n t s a g o o d c a s e fo r th e in t e r p r e ta tio n th at th is w a s a m a n ife s t a tio n o f y o u th fu l e x u b e r a n c e c o u p le d w ith a d e g r e e of ig n o r a n c e c o n c e r n in g L e n in is m and th a t th is p o s itio n h a s s in c e b e e n r e t r e a t e d fr o m. S tu a r t S c h r a m, op. c i t., pp. 3 0 - 3 3. 20 V. I. L e n in, I m p e r ia lis m: T he H ig h e s t S ta g e o f C a p ita lis m. 2 1 V. I. L e n in, S e le c t e d W orks, V o l. IX, p. 3 9 9, q u o ted in S ta lin, op. c it., p. 3 7. === [PDF page 44] === T h e a b o v e t h e s is e x p la in e d th e la c k o f r e v o lu tio n a r y f e r v o r on th e p a r t o f th e " W e ster n " p r o le t a r ia t on th e g r o u n d s th a t th e in flu e n tia l s e g m e n t o f th e " W e ster n " p r o le t a r ia t w a s b e in g b r ib e d b y th e b o u r g e o is ie th ro u g h a s m a ll s h a r e o f th e s u p e r - p r o f it s e m a n a tin g fr o m 22 the c a p it a l is t ic e x p lo it a tio n s o f th e c o lo n ie s. S o m e C o m m u n is ts c a r r ie d th is t h e s i s to i t s lo g ic a l c o n c lu s io n, i. e., th a t " W estern " s o c ie t y en t o t o, in c lu d in g th e p r o le t a r ia t, had b e c o m e the e x p lo itin g c l a s s and the c o lo n ia l s o c ie t y e n t o t o, in c lu d in g th e b o u r g e o is ie, had b e c o m e the e x p lo it e d c l a s s, a lth o u g h th is w a s o b v io u s ly n ot L e n in 's in te n tio n. F o r e x a m p le, L i T a -c h a o, w ho a lo n g w ith C h 'en T u -h s iu, w a s on e o f th e tw o fo u n d e r s o f th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y, p r o p o s e d th e t h e s i s in J a n u a r y o f 1920 th at th e C h in e se p e o p le a s a w h o le c o n s titu te d a " p r o le ta r ia n n a tio n. " A s S tu a r t S c h r a m h a s in d ic a te d, b y p o s tu la tin g th a t th e w h o le o f th e C h in e s e p e o p le w a s a r e v o lu tio n a r y c l a s s, L i T a -c h a o, and la t e r M ao T s e - t u n g, b e c a m e s im u lt a n e o u s ly r e v o lu t io n a r ie s and 23 n a t io n a lis t s. A c o n te m p o r a r y m a n ife s t a tio n o f th is i s fou nd in th e c lo s in g p a r a g r a p h s o f th e r e c e n t a r t ic le b y C o m m u n ist C h in a 's D e fe n s e M in is te r L in P ia o, e n tit le d L ong L iv e th e V ic to r y o f th e P e o p l e ' s W ar, in w h ic h th e tr a d itio n a l e x h o r ta tio n o f " W o r k e rs o f th e W orld U n ite" h a s b e e n 22 Joh n H. K a u tsk y, o p. c i t., p. 6 7. C.f., A lfr e d G. M e y e r, L e n in is m (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 2 5 7 - 2 7 3. 23 S tu a r t S c h r a m, op. c it., pp. 2 5 - 2 6. === [PDF page 45] === 38 c h a n g e d to " A ll th o s e p e o p le s u ffe r in g fr o m U n ited S ta te s o p p r e s s io n, 24 s u p p r e s s io n and p lu n d e r, u n ite. " A m o r e e x p lic it fo r m u la tio n o f th is id e a h a s b e e n g iv e n b y D ip a N u sa n ta r a A id it w ho w a s the c h a ir m a n o f 25 the C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e PK I u n til th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, w h en h e w r o te in S e p te m b e r, 1963: T o m e, the n a t io n a lis t s w h o o p p o se im p e r ia lis m a r e fa r b e tt e r th an th o s e d o g m a tis ts and r e v i s i o n i s t s w ho e m b r a c e th e i m p e r i a l i s t s so a f f e c tio n a te ly. T he n a t io n a lis t s w ho o p p o se im p e r ia lis m m a k e th e ir c o n tr ib u tio n to w o r ld r e v o lu tio n. ^ A t th is p o in t, i t w o u ld b e w is e to r e c a l l th a t th e N o v e m b e r 1917 r e v o lu tio n in R u s s ia, c o n tr a r y to th e B o ls h e v ik 's e x p e c t a t io n s, r e s u lt e d in th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a c e n te r o f w o r ld -w id e r e v o lu tio n w h ic h c o n tr o lle d a s p e c if ic n a t io n - s t a t e. F o r L e n in and h is f o ll o w e r s, th e r e v o lu tio n w a s to b e th e p o r te n t o f im m e d ia te w o r ld -w id e r e v o lt. R u s s ia w a s c o n s id e r e d to b e p o o r s o i l fo r a s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n. T h u s i t w a s b e lie v e d th a t th e r e v o lu tio n c o u ld n o t s u r v iv e w ith o u t w o r ld -w id e M a r x is t su p p o rt. T he id e a o f a s in g le s o c i a l i s t s ta te w a s n o t c o n s id e r e d, the p a r tic ip a n ts w e r e t r u ly in t e r n a t io n a lis t s and a c t iv e ly a n t i- n a t io n a lis t. T h e B o ls h e v ik s b e lie v e d and d e s ir e d th a t the h e a d q u a r te r s o f th e in te r n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t 24 N ew Y o rk T im e s (S e p te m b e r 4, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1, 2. 25 "T he e v e n ts o f 1965" r e f e r to th e co u p, c o u n te r -c o u p o r c o u n te r c o u n te r -c o u p w h ic h to o k p la c e in I n d o n e s ia b e tw e e n S e p te m b e r 31 and th e la t t e r p a r t o f O c to b e r, 1 96 5. 26 D. N. A id it, "T he I n d o n e sia n R e v o lu tio n i s an I n s e p a r a b le P a r t o f th e W orld S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n, " T he I n d o n e sia n R e v o lu tio n and th e I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 13 1. === [PDF page 46] === 39 27 w o u ld b e m o v e d to th e W e st a t an e a r ly d a te. W ith th e a b s e n c e o f an y s u c c e s s f u l p r o le t a r ia t r e v o lt in the in d u s t r ia liz e d n a tio n s a ft e r th e N o v e m b e r r e v o lu tio n, th e n e c e s s i t y o f c o n s o lid a tin g th e r e v o lu tio n m th e S o v ie t U nion b e c a m e e v id e n t. By 1 9 2 2, tw o f a c t o r s had c o n v in c e d L en in th a t te m p o r a r y c o e x is t e n c e w ith c a p it a lis m in t e r n a t io n a lly w a s n e c e s s a r y. B o th th e fa ilu r e o f th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n and th e r e la t iv e w e a k n e s s o f th e S o v ie t U nion w e r e c o n v in c in g p r o o f of th e s h o r t ru n s t a b ilit y o f c a p it a lis m in the " W est. " In a d d itio n, S o v ie t f o r e ig n p o lic y w a s c o n d itio n e d b y th e f e a r th a t c a p it a l is t p o lit ic a l s y s t e m s w e r e in e v it a b ly h o s t ile to w a r d s c o m m u n is m - - n a t io n a lly o r 28 in t e r n a t io n a lly. T h is c o n c e p t w a s e x te n d e d to in c lu d e the p r e m is e o f " c a p it a lis t e n c ir c le m e n t " w h ic h r e f l e c t e d a fe a r o f an " im p e r ia lis t" a tta c k up on th e S o v ie t U n io n. S ta lin, r e c o g n iz in g the p o s s ib i lit y o f c o n f lic t b e tw e e n S o v ie t n a tio n a l and w o r ld r e v o lu tio n a r y i n t e r e s t s, m a in ta in e d th a t th e p o w e r i n t e r e s t s of th e S o v ie t s ta te s h o u ld be g iv e n 29 c le a r p r e f e r e n c e. 27 J a m e s W. H u ls e, T h e F o r m in g o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l (S tan ford: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 35. 28 F o r a d is c u s s io n o f S o v ie t f e a r s, r e f e r to F r e d W a rn er N e a l, U. S. F o r e ig n P o lic y and th e S o v ie t U n io n, pp. 1 1 -1 3, and P r o s p e c t s fo r P e a c e (San F r a n c is c o: C a lifo r n ia D e m o c r a t ic C o u n cil F o r e ig n P o lic y C o m m itte e, I 9 6 0 ). 29 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, " S c h ism A m o n g the F a ith fu l, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XI (J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 2. === [PDF page 47] === 40 T h e a p p a r e n t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is w a s th e s u b o r d in a tio n o f i n t e r n a tio n a l o r, to b e m o r e s p e c i f ic, o th e r n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s to th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e S o v ie t S ta te. H o w e v e r, a t n o tim e h a s S o v ie t fo r e ig n p o lic y b e e n b a s e d e x c lu s i v e ly on one a s p e c t o r th e o th e r. T h is i s n o t to s a y th a t in th e s h o r t ru n, th e S o v ie t U nion d id n ot a c t, on o c c a s io n, s o le l y on the b a s is of w h a t a n o n -C o m m u n is t o b s e r v e r w o u ld c l a s s i f y a s i t s ow n n a tio n a l in t e r e s t. H o w e v e r, th e p a r a m o u n t im p o r ta n c e a tta c h e d to the n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t o f th e S o v ie t U nion w a s id e o lo g ic a lly j u s t if ie d b y th e n e c e s s i t y o f p r o te c tin g i t a s th e o n ly e s t a b lis h e d t e r r i t o r i a l b a s e o f the C o m m u n ist w o r ld r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t. It w a s th is fe a tu r e w h ic h r e d e e m e d the S o v ie t p o s it io n fr o m th a t o f p u re n a t io n a lis m. T h is w a s fu r th e r r a t io n a liz e d by th e fo r m u la tio n o f th e th e o r y of the " F lo w and Ebb o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y T id e, " and the d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n 30 t a c t ic s and s t r a t e g y. H e n c e, S ta lin d is tin g u is h e d b e tw e e n t a c t ic a l and s t r a t e g i c g o a ls. A lth ou gh th e s t r a t e g ic g o a l r e m a in s c o n s ta n t ( e. g., th e s t r u g g le a g a in s t th e b o u r g e o is ie to i t s en d ), t a c t ic s ch a n g e a c c o r d in g to the flo w and eb b o f h is t o r y, a s d e te r m in e d b y th e o b j e c tiv e c o n d itio n s. T h is c o n c e p t c r e a t e d a b u ilt - in t a c t ic a l f le x ib i lit y, s in c e a n y m e a n s can be u s e d w h ic h w ill a d v a n c e th e s t r a t e g ic g o a l. T h u s, a t l e a s t in th e o r y, c o n f lic t s b e tw e e n C o m m u n ist c o n c e p tio n s o f a u th o r ity and p u r p o s e a r e 30 J o s e p h S ta lin, F o u n d a tio n s o f L e n in is m (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 9 2 -9 3. === [PDF page 48] === 42 C o m m u n is t p a r ty. One of th e m a j o r r e a s o n s fo r th e fo u n d in g o f th e C o m in te r n w a s the a tte m p t b y th e E u r o p e a n S o c ia l D e m o c r a t s and o t h e r s to r e v iv e th e o ld 32 S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l, w h ic h h a d e x is t e d d u r in g th e y e a r s 1 8 8 9 -1 9 1 4. L e n in 's d is s a t is f a c t io n w ith th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l w a s a p p a r e n t a s e a r ly a s N o v e m b e r 1, 1 9 1 4, w h e n h e w r o te: O v e r w h e lm e d b y o p p o r tu n is m, th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l h a s d ie d. D ow n w ith o p p o r tu n is m, and lo n g li v e th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l, p u r g e d n o t o n ly o f " d e s e r t e r s "... b u t a ls o o f o p p o r tu n is m! T he S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l d id i t s fu ll s h a r e o f u s e f u l p r e p a r a to r y w o r k in th e p r e lim in a r y o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e p r o le t a r ia n m a s s e js d u rin g th e lo n g " p e a c e fu l" e p o c h o f m o s t c r u e l c a p it a l is t s la v e r y and m o s t r a p id c a p i t a l is t p r o g r e s s in th e l a s t th ir d o f th e n in e te e n th and in th e b e g in n in g o f the tw e n tie th c e n tu r y. T h e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l i s c o n fr o n te d w ith th e t a s k o f o r g a n iz in g th e f o r c e s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t fo r a r e v o lu tio n a r y o n s la u g h t on the c a p i t a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t s, fo r c i v i l w a r a g a in s t th e b o u r g e o is ie o f a ll c o u n t r ie s, fo r p o li t ic a l p o w e r, fo r th e v ic t o r y o f S o c ia l is m. J a m e s W. H u ls e, o p. c i t., p. 9. J a n e D e g r a s, in h e r b o o k, T h e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, 1 9 1 9 -1 9 4 3: D o c u m e n ts (L ondon: O x fo rd U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6, 1960 and 1 9 6 5 ), V o l. 1, p. 1, w r it e s that: A n g e lic a B a la b a n o v a, th e f i r s t s e c r e t a r y o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, w r o te th a t i t w a s r e a li z e d a t th e tim e th a t a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e in t e r n a t io n a l c o n g r e s s c o u ld n o t p o s s ib ly b e h e ld in R u s s ia th en, but i t w a s c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t i a l to h a v e s o m e k in d o f g a th er in g ^ to o f f s e t th e m e e t in g to b e h e ld j(by th e D e m o c r a t i c - S o c i a l i s t s / in B e r n e. A c c o r d in g to G u n th er N o lla u, I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m and W o rld R e v o lu tio n: H is t o r y and M eth o d s (N ew Y o rk: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 1 ), th e b e g in n in g o f th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l c a n b e d a te d fr o m th e m e e t in g h e ld by M a r x is t S o c i a l i s t s in th e S a lle P e t r e l l e, P a r i s, i n 1889 (p. 20) an d i t s end w ith th e v o tin g o f w a r c r e d it s b y S o c ia l D e m o c r a t s in G e r m a n y, F r a n c e and A u s tr ia (p. 3 0 ). V. I. L e n in, T h e S o c ia l D e m o c r a t, N o. 33 r e p r in te d in C o lle c t e d W ork s (M o sc o w: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H o u s e ), V o l. 1 8, p. 89. === [PDF page 49] === 41 in c o n c e iv a b le. T h a t w h ic h fu r t h e r s th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n i s p r o p e r. R e ly in g on L e n in ’ s d ic tu m th a t r e v o lu tio n s w e r e n o t e x p o r ta b le (i. e., th a t th ey d ep en d up on o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s w ith in th e s p e c if ic c o u n t r ie s in v o lv e d ), i t w a s d e te r m in e d th a t the p u r p o se o f C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s in o th e r c o u n t r ie s w a s th e o b s e r v a t io n o f the in d ig e n o u s tid e s and th e p r o m p t r e p o r tin g o f t h e s e c o n d itio n s to th e C P S U. T here w as no r a tio n a le fo r a C o m m u n ist " a ctio n " p a r ty d u rin g th e eb b tid e o f r e v o lu tio n. S ta lin, o f n e c e s s i t y, v ie w e d th e p r e -W o r ld W ar II p e r io d 31 a s a p e r io d o f eb b tid e ( i. e., r e tr e n c h m e n t). T h u s, th e g e n e r a l in t e r p r e ta tio n o f th is p a p e r i s th a t S o v ie t fo r e ig n p o lic y d u rin g th e in t e r w a r p e r io d i s th a t i t w a s d e f e n s iv e. C o m m o n ly c ite d a s an e x c e p t io n to th is g e n e r a l in t e r p r e ta tio n i s the e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e C o m in te r n. T he C o m in te r n w a s o r g a n iz e d a s th e T h ir d I n t e r n a tio n a l o r C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. T he C o m in te r n i s o f s p e c ia l r e le v a n c e to th is stu d y, s in c e i t s e s t a b lis h m e n t in 1919 w a s th e f i r s t o r g a n iz a tio n a l s te p to w a r d s th e c r e a tio n of th e W orld C o m m u n ist c o m m u n ity. T he C o m in te r n w a s to e v e n tu a lly s e r v e a s the e x e c u t iv e and a d m in is tr a tiv e o r g a n o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t P a r ty. H o w e v e r, w h ile a t th e tim e o f i t s fou n d in g th e g o a l w a s s t i l l th e g e n e r a l one of w o r ld -w id e r e v o lu tio n, i t fu n c tio n e d a s s u b s ta n t ia lly l e s s th an the e x e c u t iv e and a d m in is tr a tiv e o r g a n o f an in te r n a tio n a l 31 R ic h a r d C. G rip p, P a t te r n s o f S o v ie t P o l i t i c s (H om ew ood; T he D o r s e y P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 25 6. === [PDF page 50] === 43 T he " o p p o rtu n ism " a g a in s t w h ic h L en in e n v e ig h e d w a s th e a b s e n c e o f a n y e f f e c t iv e s o c i a l i s t a c tiv ity a g a in s t th e ir r e s p e c t iv e g o v e r n m e n t's a c t iv it i e s p r io r to and d u rin g W orld W ar I. F o r L e n in, t h is a m o u n ted 34 to b o u r g e o is - p a t r io t is m and th u s t r e a s o n to th e in te r n a tio n a l p r o le t a r ia t. T he R u s s ia n B o ls h e v ik s h ad a d d itio n a l r e a s o n s to e x p e c t th at th e tim e w a s p r o p itio u s fo r the fou n d in g o f a r e v o lu tio n a r y in te r n a tio n a l. E u r o p e w a s s o c ia l ly and e c o n o m ic a lly d e v a s ta te d, th e r e w e r e r e v o lu tio n a r y u p r is in g s in C e n tr a l E u r o p e, th e A l lie s w e r e s t i l l in te r v e n in g in th e R u s s ia n C iv il W ar and e x te r n a l su p p o rt fo r th e B o ls h e v ik s w a s c o n s id e r e d d e s ir a b le, and f in a lly, v a r io u s C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s h a d b e e n fo r m e d th e p r e v io u s y e a r in L a tv ia, F in la n d, H u n g a ry, A u s tr ia, P o la n d 35 and, o f s p e c ia l im p o r t a n c e, in G e rm a n y. T he o n ly R u s s ia n s p o n s o r e d, g e n e r a l a d v a n ce p u b lic ity g iv e n to the fou n d in g o f th e C o m in te r n o c c u r r e d on J a n u a ry 2 4, 1 9 1 9, w ith a S o v ie t r a d io b r o a d c a s t c a llin g on t h ir t y -n in e r e v o lu tio n a r y g r o u p s th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld to se n d r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s to a c o n g r e s s fo r th e p u r p o se o f fo u n d - 36 in g a n ew C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. H o w e v e r, th e in v ita tio n fa ile d to 34 G u n th er N o lla u, o p. c i t., pp. 2 4 - 3 8, and J a m e s W. H u ls e, o p. c i t., p. 2. 35 G un ther N o lla u, op. c it., p. 4 0, and Jam e s W. H u ls e, op. c it., 36 " In v ita tio n to th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f the C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l" tr a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s ( e d.), op. c i t., pp. 1 - 5. T h e th ir t y -n in e " p a r tie s, g r o u p s, and tr e n d s" a r e l i s t e d in a p p en d ix 1 on p a g e 240. T he in v ita tio n a ls o a p p e a r e d in P r a v d a (M o sc o w, J a n u a ry 2 4, 1 9 1 9 ), I, pp. 6 - 7. === [PDF page 51] === 44 m e n tio n th e tim e o r th e p la c e fo r th e m e e tin g. O s te n s ib ly, th e in v ita tio n w a s e x te n d e d on b e h a lf o f e ig h t C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s or le f t - w in g s o c i a l i s t g r o u p s lo c a t e d in R u s s ia, P o la n d, H u n g a ry, G e rm a n A u s tr ia, L a tv ia, F in la n d, the B a lk a n s and th e 37 U n ited S t a te s. H o w e v e r, o f th e n in e m e n s ig n in g th e in v ita tio n, o n ly L e n in and T r o t s k y, r e p r e s e n t in g th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e R u s s ia n 38 C o m m u n ist P a r ty, w e r e fo r m a lly m a n d a te d to do s o. In an y e v e n t, th e in v ita tio n w a s n o t w id e ly d is tr ib u te d and s e r v e d to b r in g n o m o r e th an f iv e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s fr o m o u ts id e R u s s ia a t th e 39 tim e th e c o n fe r e n c e o p e n e d on M a r c h 2, 1 9 1 9. ^ I b i d., p. 5. 38 Ib id. In a d d itio n, the R u s s ia n s in v ite d a C o m m is s io n o f in q u ir y on " C o n d itio n s in R u s s ia, " e s t a b lis h e d b y th e B e r n e C o n g r e s s o f th e "new" S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l, to c o m e to R u s s ia. T h is in v ita tio n w a s i s s u e d on J a n u a r y 2 4, 1 9 1 9, and w a s s ig n e d by C h ic h e r in, w h o w a s th en P e o p le s C o m m is s a r fo r E x te r n a l A f f a ir s. J a m e s W. H u ls e, o p. c it., pp. 1 3 -1 4, and G un ther N o lla u, lo c. c it. 39 G u n th er N o lla u, op. c it., pp. 4 3, 14 0. J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 5, c o n te n d s th a t the m e e tin g w a s to h a v e b e g u n on F e b r u a r y 15, bu t th at i t w a s p o stp o n e d due to th e d if f ic u lt ie s o f t r a v e lin g to R u s s ia. T he fiv e d e le g a t e s fr o m o u ts id e R u s s ia w e r e H ugo E b e r le in ( a lia s " A lb ert" ) r e p r e s e n t in g the G e r m a n C o m m u n ist P a r ty (K P D ), S e b a ld J. R u tg e r s, w ho c a m e fr o m th e U n ited S ta te s a lth o u g h h e w a s a D u tch c it iz e n and la t e r a m e m b e r o f the D u tch C o m m u n is t P a r t y (Jan e D e g r a s, op. c i t. p. 6, l i s t s h im a s a D u tch r e p r e s e n t a t iv e ), O tto G r im lu n d r e p r e s e n tin g th e l e f t S o c ia l D e m o c r a tic P a r ty o f S w e d e n, E m il S ta n g e (H u lse s p e ll s th e s u r n a m e " S tr a n g e," p. 17) o f th e N o r w e g ia n S o c ia l D e m o c r a t s, and K a r l S te in h a r d t (a lia s "G ruber") o f the A u s tr ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty. I s a a c D e u t s c h e r 's c la im in T he P r o p h e t A r m ed: T r o ts k y: 1 8 7 9 -1 9 2 1 (N ew Y ork: V in ta g e B o o k s, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 4 5 1, th a t "abou t tw o s c o r e o f d e le g a t e s fr o m v a r io u s f o r e ig n L e f t - S o c i a l i s t g r o u p s" a tten d e d the C o n g r e s s i s p r o b a b ly an e x a g g e r a tio n. === [PDF page 52] === 45 A p p r o x im a te ly f if t y - t w o d e le g a t e s p a r tic ip a te d in th e p r o c e e d in g s, h o w e v e r, o n ly te n o f t h e s e w e r e m a n d a te d s p o k e s m e n fo r a c t iv e C o m m u n is t o r S o c i a l i s t G r o u p s - - o f t h e s e, e ig h t r e p r e s e n t e d the S o v ie t 40 R u s s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r ty. T w o o th e r s h a d d ir e c t c o n n e c tio n s w ith e x is t in g p a r t ie s bu t h ad l e f t fo r M o s c o w w ith o u t a n y s p e c if ic m a n d a te 41 to a c t on th e ir b e h a lf. T he c r e d e n t ia ls o f th e a p p r o x im a te ly tw e n ty - fiv e o th e r v o tin g m e m b e r s c o u ld h a r d ly b e c o n s id e r e d a d e q u a te to f u lf ill th e p r e v io u s ly d e te r m in e d r e q u ir e m e n t th a t th e y b e m a n d a te d o r a c c r e d it e d b y th e ir 42 ow n g r o u p s. A lth o u g h in s o m e c a s e s th is r u le sto o d fir m ( e.g., J. 43 S a d o u s sp o k e a s a " F r e n c h o f f ic e r in th e r a n k s o f the R ed A rm y" ) in m o s t c a s e s i t w a s c ir c u m v e n te d w ith im p u n ity ( e. g., H e n r i G u ilb e a u x, 40 J a m e s W. H u ls e, i b i d., s t a t e s th a t th e r e w e r e 52 d e le g a t e s, but d o e s n o t d iv id e th em a s to v o tin g s ta t u s. G unther N o lla u, op. c i t., p. 4 2, s t a t e s th a t o n ly 51 d e le g a t e s p a r tic ip a te d. J a n e D e g r a s, op. c it., p. 6, c la im s th a t 54 d e le g a t e s p a r tic ip a te d, 35 o f w h o m w e r e v o tin g d e le g a t e s, 19 o f w h om h a d a " c o n s u lta tiv e " v o i c e. S e v e n o f th e R u s s ia n r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s w e r e a s f o llo w s: L e n in, Z in o v ie v, L eo n T r o ts k y, N. I. B u k h a rin, C h ic h e r in, V. V. O b o le s k y -O r in s k y and V. V. V o r o v sk y; th e e ig h th r e p r e s e n t a t iv e m a y h a v e b e e n J o s e p h S ta lin. T he o th e r tw o m a n d a te d m e m b e r s w e r e H ugo E b e r le in o f the K P D and O tto G rim lu n d o f S w ed en (H u lse ). 41 J a m e s W. H u ls e, lo c. c i t. T h e y w e r e E m il S ta n g e, w ho h ad l e f t N o r w a y b e fo r e h is p a r ty h ad le a r n e d o f th e C o n g r e s s and K a r l S te in h a r d t w ho had p a r tic ip a te d in a c o n fe r e n c e o f th e A u s tr ia n C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f F e b r u a r y 9, j u s t b e fo r e h i s d e p a r tu r e. H o w e v e r, th e m in u te s o f th a t m e e tin g m a k e no m e n tio n o f th e M o sc o w C o n g r e s s. 42, J a n e D e g r a s, lo c. c i t. 43Ibid. === [PDF page 53] === 46 w ho r e p r e s e n t e d th e " F r e n c h Z im m e r w a ld L e ft, " w a s an e x ile d F r e n c h m a n liv in g in S w itz e r la n d and a r r iv e d in M o sc o w w h ile the C o n g r e s s w a s 44 in S e s s io n ). T h u s, m o s t of th e d e le g a t e s, v o tin g and n o n -v o tin g a lik e, had b e e n s e le c t e d b y th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty. In su p p o r t o f t h is a s s e r t i o n, i t n e e d o n ly be p o in te d out th a t of th e s e v e n t e e n d e le g a t e s s ig n in g th e " m a n ife sto o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l to th e P r o le t a r ia t o f th e E n tir e W orld" w h ic h h a d b e e n w r itte n b y T r o ts k y and u n a n im o u s ly a d o p ted by th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s on M a rch 6, 1 9 1 9, o n ly th r e e c a m e to M o sc o w fr o m o u ts id e o f R u s s ia s p e c i f i c a l ly 45 fo r th e p u r p o s e o f a tte n d in g th e m e e tin g. H o w e v e r, e v e n th ou gh th is w a s th e c a s e, the R u s s ia n in te n tio n o f tr a n s fo r m in g t h is m e e tin g in to th e f i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l, w a s a lm o s t th w a r te d b y o p p o s itio n fr o m E b e r le in o f th e K P D. 44 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 1 8. T he " Z im m e r w a ld L eft" r e f e r s to the le f t - w in g r a d ic a l g r o u p of s o c i a l i s t s o r g a n iz e d b y L en in a t th e S o c i a l i s t C o n fe r e n c e h e ld a t Z im m e r w a ld, S w itz e r la n d, d u rin g S e p te m b e r o f 1 9 1 5. 45 T h o s e s ig n in g th e M a n ife s to and th e c o u n tr ie s o r g r o u p s r e p r e s e n te d w e r e a s f o llo w s: H ugo E b e r le in a lia s M ax A lb e r t (G erm a n y ), N. L e n in ( R u s s ia ), K a r l S te in h a r d t a lia s "K. G ru b er" (G erm a n A u s tr ia ), A. R u d n ia n sk y (H u n gary), Otto G rim lu n d (S w ed en ), F r it z F la tte n (S w itz e r la n d ), B. R e in s te in (U n ited S t a te s ), C. R a k o v sk y (the B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n ), J. U n s c h lic h t (Y u ro v sk y ) (P o la n d ), Y rjo S ir o la (F in la n d ), S k ry p n ik (U k r a in e ), K. G a ilis (L a tv ia ), H a n s P o g e lm a n n (E s to n ia ), H aik uni (A r m e n ia ), G. K lin g e r (V o lg a G e rm a n c o l o n i s t s ), Z h a ly m o v (the E a s t e r n p e o p le s of R u s s ia ), and H e n r i G u ilb ea u x (the F r e n c h Z im m e r w a ld L e ft). J a n e D e g r a s, o p. c it., p. 4 7. === [PDF page 54] === 47 E b e r le in h ad b e e n s e n t b y R o s a L u x e m b u r g, a r e s p e c t e d G e r m a n p h ilo s o p h ic a l r e v o lu tio n a r y, w ho b e lie v e d th a t the c r e a tio n o f a r e v o lu tio n a r y in t e r n a t io n a l, w ith o u t th e w id e s p r e a d su p p o rt o f th e p r o le t a r ia t, 46 w ou ld be p r e m a tu r e and h e n c e h a r m fu l to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t. T h u s, h is in s t r u c t io n s w e r e to o p p o se th e c r e a t io n o f th e C o m in te r n. T h e K P D w a s h e ld in su c h h ig h e s t e e m th a t th e ir o b j e c tio n s to the im m e d ia te c r e a t io n o f the I n te r n a tio n a l c a u s e d Z in o v ie v to a n n o u n ce on the f i r s t day th a t th e m e e t in g s w o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d to b e a p r e li m - 47 in a r y c o n fe r e n c e r a th e r th an a fo u n d in g C o n g r e s s. L a te r, a t th e 8th P a r ty C o n g r e s s o f th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r ty, Z in o v ie v sa id: T he C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f our P a r ty, a fte r stu d y in g th e s itu a tio n, th o u g h t i t w a s o u t o f th e q u e s tio n th a t w e sh o u ld fou nd the T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l im m e d ia t e ly. We a ls o f e l t th a t a t a tim e w h en th e G e r m a n C o m m u n is ts w e r e o p p o se d to it, and pu t th e m a t t e r in the fo r m o f an u ltim a tu m, w e c o u ld n o t a llo w th e s lig h t e s t d is c o r d to e n te r in to o u r r e la t io n s w ith the G e r m a n S p a r t a k is t s. 46 R o s a L u x e m b u r g w a s k ille d in B e r lin on J a n u a ry 15, 1 9 1 9, and th u s p r io r to th e m e e tin g in M o s c o w and o n ly th r e e d a y s a fte r E b e r le in le f t B e r lin, a s a r e s u lt o f an a tte m p te d r e v o lu tio n w h ic h sh e h a d n e ith e r p la n n e d n o r e n d o r s e d (J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 8). F r a n z B o r k e n a u, T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l (L ondon: F a b e r and F a b e r L t d., 1 9 3 8 ), p. 1 6 2, c o n te n d s th a t L u x e m b u r g s e n t tw o d e le g a t e s fr o m the K PD; th e o th e r b e in g a m a n b y th e n a m e o f L e v in e. H o w e v e r, h e w a s sto p p e d a t the G e r m a n b o r d e r and d id n o t g e t th ro u g h. 47 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 19. 48 Q u oted in G unther N o lla u, o p. c i t., p. 4 3. N o lla u c i t e s B. L a z ic h, L e n in e e t la HI I n te r n a tio n a le ( P a r is, 1 9 5 1 ), p. 2 5. T h e te r m " s p a r t a k is t s," r e f e r r e d to by Z in o v ie v, w a s the n a m e u s e d by the m ilita n t r e v o lu tio n a r y fa c tio n o f the U SP D (U n a b h a n g ig e S o z ia ld e m o - k r a t is c h e P a r t e i D e u ts c h la n d s ), w h ic h w a s i t s e l f a p a c if i s t g r o u p w h ic h === [PDF page 55] === 48 T he e s t e e m o f th e K P D w a s du e in p a r t to th e f a c t th a t i t w a s the G e rm a n C o m m u n is t P a r ty. G e rm a n y w a s c o n s id e r e d by m o s t r e v o lu tio n a r y M a r x is t - S o c ia lis t s a s th e m o s t a d v a n c e d in d u s t r ia liz e d c o u n try and th u s th e l o g ic a l lo c u s fo r a p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n. T h u s, G e rm a n w a s th e 49 o f f ic ia l la n g u a g e o f th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s and L en in c h a r a c t e r iz e d G e r m a n y a s "the le a d in g E u r o p e a n S ta te,... i t ca n b e s a id w ith - 50 out e x a g g e r a tio n, th e le a d in g s ta te in th e w o r ld. " H o w e v e r, on M a rc h 4, th e d e le g a te fr o m G e rm a n A u s tr ia, K a r l S te in h a r d t, a r r iv e d in M o sc o w. S te in h a r d t h a d j u s t c o m p le te d a s e v e n t e e n day tr ip fr o m V ie n n a w h ic h had ta k e n h im th ro u g h th e w a r z o n e. H is a p p e a r a n c e h a d a d r a m a tic im p a c t on th e a s s e m b la g e and, w h en he p r e d ic te d im m e d ia te r e v o lu tio n in th e " W e st, " j u s t if ie d th e d is r e g a r d in g 51 o f th e G e rm a n p o s itio n. W ith th e a r r iv a l o f S te in h a r d t and h is e x t r e m e ly o p t im is t ic p r e d ic tio n o f im m e d ia te r e v o lu tio n in C e n tr a l E u r o p e, the R u s s ia n p o s itio n h a r d e n e d. Z in o v ie v, in a n s w e r in g E b e r l e in 's o b j e c t io n s, c o n te n d e d that: had b r o k e n a w a y fr o m th e S P D (S o z ia ld e m o k r a tis c h e P a r ti D e u ts c h la n d s) in 1 9 1 6. On D e c e m b e r 3 0, 1 9 1 8, th e S p a r ta k is ts b r o k e a w a y fr o m th e U SP D and c r e a t e d th e K P D. 49 J a n e D e g r a s, l o c. c it. 50 V. I. L e n in, " T h e s e s on B o u r g e o is D e m o c r a c y and P r o le t a r ia n D ic ta to r s h ip " (A dop ted b y th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m in te r n, M a rc h 4, 1 9 1 9 ), r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 11. 51 T he r e m a in in g fiv e v o t e s w e r e th o s e o f E b e r le in, w ho a b s ta in e d. J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c it., p. 19; G un ther N o lla u, op. c it. === [PDF page 56] === 49 We h a v e a v ic t o r io u s p r o le t a r ia n r e v o lu tio n in a g r e a t c o u n tr y. We h a v e a p o w e r fu l r e v o lu tio n m o v in g to w a r d s v ic t o r y in tw o c o u n t r ie s, and a r e w e s t i l l to sa y th a t w e a r e to o w e a k? Our d e v ic e i s th e in t e r n a t io n a l S o v ie t r e p u b lic, and n ob od y ca n c a ll th a t u to p ia n. We a r e c o n v in c e d th a t th is i s a q u e s tio n o f th e im m e d ia t e fu tu r e, and a r e w e to s h r in k fr o m c r e a tin g in th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l th e in s tr u m e n t fo r c r e a tin g an in t e r n a t io n a l S o v ie t r e p u b lic.... Y ou w a n t c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s to b e f i r s t e s t a b lis h e d o f f ic ia lly in a ll c o u n t r ie s? You h a v e a v ic t o r io u s r e v o lu tio n, and th a t i s m o r e th an an y fo r m a l fo u n d a tio n. Y ou h a v e in G e r m a n y a p a r ty m a r c h in g to p o w e r w h ic h in a fe w m o n th s w ill e s t a b li s h a p r o le t a r ia n g o v e r n m e ^ A nd a r e w e s t i l l to d e la y? N ob od y w o u ld u n d e r s ta n d i t. T h u s w h e n th e d e c is i v e v o te w a s ta k en, f o r t y - e ig h t o f th e f if t y - t h r e e 53 a u th o r iz e d v o t e s c a lle d fo r the c r e a t io n o f a T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. T h u s, th e m e e t in g o f f ic ia lly b e c a m e th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. T he a d o p tio n o f a d e fin itiv e c o n s titu tio n f o r th e n e w o r g a n iz a tio n w a s d e f e r r e d to th e s e c o n d c o n g r e s s, w h ic h w a s to b e h e ld the f o llo w in g y e a r, and i t s d r a ftin g w a s e n tr u s te d to th e C e n tr a l B u r e a u. H ow ever, th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l p r in c ip le up on w h ic h th e o r g a n iz a tio n w a s to be fo u n d ed w a s m a d e c le a r b y Z in o v ie v: T he o r g a n iz a tio n a l fo r m o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t b e d e te r m in e d a t th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. A s tr o n g g u id in g c e n t e r m u s t be e s t a b lis h e d, w h ic h w ill be Q u oted in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 16. 53 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 2 0. G un ther N o lla u, op. c i t., p. 4 4, in d ic a t e s th a t S te in h a r d t w a s s u p p o r te d in d eb a te b y the " r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s " o f th e H u n g a ria n C o m m u n is ts, th e S w e d is h le f t - w in g S o c ia l D e m o c r a ts and th e B a lk a n R e v o lu tio n a r y S o c ia l D e m o c r a t s. === [PDF page 57] === a b le to le a d, i ^ i d e a s and o r g a n iz a tio n, th e m o v e m e n ts in a ll c o u n t r ie s. T he C e n tr a l B u r e a u w a s to c o n s is t o f fiv e m e m b e r s, a p p o in te d b y th e n e w ly c r e a t e d E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l (E C C I). 55 T he EC C I w a s to c o n s is t o f a d e le g a te fr o m e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g c o u n t r ie s: R u s s ia, G e r m a n y, G e r m a n -A u s tr ia, H u n g a ry, th e B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n, S w itz e r la n d and S c a n d in a v ia and th o s e o th e r c o u n tr ie s w h ic h p r o c la im e d th e ir a d h e r e n c e to th e C o m in te r n p r io r to the S e c o n d 56 C o n g ress. H o w e v e r, due to th e d if f ic u lt ie s in v o lv e d in t r a v e lin g b e tw e e n R u s s ia and t h e s e o th e r c o u n t r ie s, i t w a s p r o v id e d that: U n til th e a r r iv a l o f t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s fr o m a b r o a d th e c o m r a d e s o f th e c o u n tr y w h e r e th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e h a s i t s s e a t s h a ll ta k e o v e r th e w o r k. ^ S p e c ific p e r s o n n e l w e r e n o t e le c t e d to e it h e r o f t h e s e a g e n c ie s d u rin g th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s. H o w e v e r, in th e p e r io d b e tw e e n th e F i r s t and S e c o n d C o n g r e s s e s, L en in (R u s s ia ), T r o ts k y ( R u s s ia ), Z in o v ie v (R u s s ia ), R a k o v sk y (the B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n ) and P la tte n (S w itz er la n d ) a s s u m e d the 54 P r a v d a (M arch 2, 1 9 1 9 ), 2: 1 - 7, 3: 1 - 3. Q u o ted in J a m e s W. H u ls e, o p. c it., p. 21. 55 " R e s o lu tio n o f th e F i r s t C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s on the O r g a n iz a tio n o f the E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e of th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l" (M a rch 6, 1 9 1 9 ), r e p r in te d in Jan e D e g r a s, op. c i t., pp. 3 7 - 3 8. === [PDF page 58] === 51 58 d u tie s o f th e C e n tr a l B u r e a u. O nly th e P o lis h, Y u g o s la v, F in n is h, and L a tv ia n p a r t ie s s e n t p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s to th e ECCI 59 fo llo w in g th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s. Z in o v ie v w a s e v e n tu a lly a p p o in te d a s 60 c h a ir m a n o f the E C C I and th u s b e c a m e h e a d o f the C o m in te r n. T h u s, R u s s ia n c o n tr o l o f th e n e w I n te r n a tio n a l w a s a s s u r e d. A t th is p o in t, th e im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n to be a s k e d i s: c o n tr o l fo r w hat p u rp o se? F r o m a r e a d in g o f th e d o c u m e n ts i s s u e d by th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s, i t i s o b v io u s th a t th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip w a n te d to a s s o c ia t e t h e m s e lv e s and th e ir r e v o lu tio n w ith w h a t th e y th o u g h t w a s the im m in e n t p r o le t a r ia n r e v o lu tio n in the in d u s t r ia liz e d c o u n t r ie s o f C e n tr a l and 61 W e ste r n E u r o p e. In o r d e r to a c c o m p lis h th is ta s k, th e y f e lt th a t i t 58 A s a lr e a d y in d ic a te d, R a k o v s k y 's and P la t t e n 's d e s ig n a tio n s a s th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n and S w itz e r la n d, r e s p e c t iv e ly, sh o u ld n o t be ta k en to o s e r i o u s l y. B y m id - J u ly, 1 9 2 0, a t the S e c o n d C o n g r e s s, C h r is tia n R a k o v sk y had b e c o m e a d e le g a te o f th e R u s s ia n P a r ty. F r it z F la tte n w a s on e o f the p e r s o n s w ho h a d a r r a n g e d fo r L e n in 's 1917 tr ip fr o m S w itz e r la n d to R u s s ia and h a d le f t fo r R u s s ia w ith L e n in in th e S p rin g o f 1917 and h a d n o t r e tu r n e d. F o llo w in g the F i r s t C o n g r e s s, h e a tte m p te d to r e tu r n to S w itz e r la n d in o r d e r to g u id e th e S w is s S o c ia lis t s to w a r d s a d h e r e n c e to th e C o m in te r n, b u t he d id not a r r iv e in tim e to do so (J a m e s W. H u ls e, o p. c i t., pp. 18, 2 0, 5 8 ). S w itz e r la n d w a s n o t r e p r e s e n t e d on th e EC C I fo llo w in g th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s (J u ly 1 9 - A u g u st 7, 1920) and at th e T h ir d C o n g r e s s (June 2 2 - J u ly 12, 1921) th e S w is s d e le g a te w a s n a m e d " A rn o ld '1 (Jan e D e g r a s, op. c it., 59 Jan e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 4 5 3. ^ J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 2 0. T h e s e d o c u m e n ts a r e r e p r in te d in w h o le o r in p a r t in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c it., pp. 7 - 4 7. === [PDF page 59] === 52 w a s n e c e s s a r y to d is c r e d i t th e a tte m p ts to r e - e s t a b l i s h a n e w S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l w h ic h h ad ta k en p la c e a t B e r n e, S w itz e r la n d, and to p r o v id e th e S o c ia lis t le a d e r s h ip w ith an o r g a n iz a tio n a l a lt e r n a t iv e. Z in o v ie v s u m m e d up the R u s s ia n a ttitu d e w h en h e w r o te: T he c o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l c o n s id e r s th e " In te r n a tio n a l" w h ic h th e B e r n e c o n fe r e n c e i s tr y in g to e s t a b lis h a y e llo w s t r ik e - b r e a k in g in t e r n a t io n a l, w h ic h i s and w ill r e m a in n o th in g but a to o l o f th e b o u r g e o is ie. T he c o n g r e s s c a l l s on th e w o r k e r s o f a ll c o u n t r ie s to s t a r t a r e s o lu t e fig h t a g a in s t th e y e llo w in te r n a tio n a l and to w a r n th e b r o a d m a s s e s of th e p r o le t a r ia t a g a in s t th is ly in g and fr a u d u le n t in t e r n a t io n a l. T h e r e i s no dou bt th a t th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip b e lie v e d th a t the P r o l e ta r ia n R e v o lu tio n w o u ld a s s u m e in t e r n a t io n a l p r o p o r tio n s a t an e a r ly d a te, th e h e a d q u a r te r s w o u ld be m o v e d " W est" (p ro b a b ly to B e r lin ) a t th at t im e, and th e R u s s ia n a s s u m p tio n o f the "w ork" o f th e in te r n a tio n a l w a s a n e c e s s a r y, but te m p o r a r y, e x p e d ie n t. A s in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly, th e su b o r d in a tio n o f in t e r n a t io n a l o r, to be m o r e s p e c if ic, o th e r n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s to th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e S o v ie t s ta te i s g e n e r a lly a s c r ib e d, b y n o n - M a r x is t s c h o l a r s, to S ta lin. It i s o fte n p o in te d out th a t i t w a s S ta lin w ho w r o te in 1927: A r e v o lu tio n a r y i s on e w ho i s r e a d y to p r o t e c t, to d e fe n d th e U. S. S. R. w ith o u t r e s e r v a t io n, w ith o u t q u a lific a tio n, o p e n ly and h o n e s t ly...; F o r th e U. S. S. R. i s th e f i r s t p r o le t a r ia n, r e v o lu tio n a r y s ta te in the w o r ld, a s ta te w h ic h i s b u ild in g s o c i a l i s m. An I n te r n a tio n a lis t i s one w ho i s r e a d y to d e fe n d "T he R e s o lu tio n o f th e F i r s t C o m in te r n C ongres_s on the B e r n e C o n fe r e n c e o f th e P a r t ie s o f th e S e c o n d In te r n a tio n a l" ^ a d o p te d M a r c h 5, 1 9 1 9 /. E x c e r p te d and r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 2 8. === [PDF page 60] === 53 the U. S. S.R. w ith o u t r e s e r v a t i o n, w ith o u t w a v e r in g, u n c o n d itio n a lly; fo r th e U. S. S, R. i s th e b a s e o f th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t, and th is r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t ca n n o t b e d e fe n d e d and p r o m o te d u n le s s th e U.S. S. R. i s d e fe n d e d. ^ H o w e v e r, th e n e c e s s i t y o f d e fe n d in g th e S o v ie t s ta te i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m w a s a p p a r e n t e v e n a t th is f i r s t " in te r n a tio n a lis t" m e e tin g o f th e C o m in te r n. On M a rch 5, 1 9 1 9, C h ic h e r in i s s u e d an " a p p ea l o f the F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l to th e W o r k e r s o f a ll C o u n tr ie s" in w h ic h h e l i s t e d te n p o in ts r e q u ir e d b y "the h o n o u r, in d e p e n d e n c e, and m o s t e le m e n t a r y i n t e r e s t s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t o f a ll c o u n t r ie s. " T h e s e te n p o in ts a p p e a le d to the w o r ld p r o le t a r ia t to su p p o r t b y " r e v o lu tio n a r y m e a n s " i f n e c e s s a r y, the a d o p tio n o f p o l i c i e s b y th e ir g o v e r n m e n ts r e q u ir in g th e d ip lo m a tic r e c o g n itio n of the S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t, n o n -in t e r v e n tio n in th e in t e r n a l a ff a ir s o f S o v ie t R u s s ia, th e im m e d ia te r e c a l l o f a ll A llie d tr o o p s fr o m R u s s ia 64 and th e c e s s a t io n o f th e e c o n o m ic b lo c k a d e o f R u s s ia. It i s tr u e th a t th is a p p e a l d id n o t h a v e th e b in d in g e f f e c t on n o n - R u s s ia n r e v o lu tio n a r y s o c i a l i s t s th a t la t e r e d ic t s b y the C o m in te r n a n d / o r S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t had on C o m m u n is ts d u rin g S t a lin 's le a d e r s h ip of 63 J o s e p h S ta lin, "T he I n te r n a tio n a l S itu a tio n and th e D e fe n s e o f th e U. S. S. R. " (A u g u st 1, 1 9 2 7 ), W orks, X A u g u s t- D e c e m b e r, 1927 (M o sco w: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 5 4 ), pp. 5 3 - 5 4. 64 "T he A p p ea l o f th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l T o T he W o r k e r s o f A ll C o u n tr ie s " (M a rch 5, 1 9 1 9 ), e x c e r p te d and r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c it., pp. 2 8 - 3 1. === [PDF page 61] === 54 th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. H o w e v e r, th e a ttitu d e e x p r e s s e d in th e a p p e a l i s th e s a m e: S o v ie t R u s s ia w a s, a t th a t tim e and d u rin g m o s t o f Stalin* s te n u r e, th e g e o g r a p h ic a l h e a r t o f th e m o v e m e n t. T h is w a s c o n s id e r e d to b e a v e r y te m p o r a r y c o n d itio n fo r th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n is t le a d e r s h ip in 1919. A s in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly, " S o c ia lis m in on e C ou n try" s ig n if ie d the r e c o g n it io n th a t th e d e f e n s e o f th e S o v ie t U n ion a s a p r im a r y ta s k w o u ld b e n e c e s s a r y fo r an e x te n d e d p e r io d o f t im e. D u rin g th e p e r io d p r io r to 1945 and th e e x t e n s io n o f th e g e o g r a p h ic a l h e a r t to a r e a s u n d er s e p a r a t e c o m m u n is t j u r is d ic t io n, th e r e co u ld b e no c o n f lic t b e tw e e n th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e S o v ie t U n ion and o f I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m. T h e a ttitu d in a l d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e " in te r n a tio n a lis t" and " n a tio n a list" o r ie n ta tio n s 65 w a s o n e o f d e g r e e r a th e r th an o f k in d. T he t a s k s s e t fo r th e C o m in te r n b y the F i r s t C o n g r e s s w e r e su m m e d up in th e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h o f th e M a n ife s to, w h ic h r e a d: Our ta s k i s to g e n e r a liz e th e r e v o lu tio n a r y e x p e r ie n c e o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s, to c le a n s e th e m o v e m e n t o f th e d i s in te g r a tin g a d m ix tu r e s o f o p p o r tu n is m and s o c ia l - p a t r i o t i s m, to m o b iliz e th e f o r c e s o f a ll g e n u in e ly r e v o lu tio n a r y p a r t ie s o f th e w o r ld p r o le t a r ia t and th e r e b y f a c ilit a t e and h a s te n tTgg v ic t o r y o f th e c o m m u n is t r e v o lu tio n th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld. T h e s e t a s k s n e c e s s i t a t e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f an e f f ic ie n t c o m m u n ic a tio n 65 C.f., R a y m o n d A ro n, "T he I m p a c t o f M a r x is m in th e T w e n tie th C e n tu r y, " in M ilo r a d P r a c h k o v itc h ( e d.), M a r x is m in th e M o d ern W orld (S tan ford: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 5 ). " M a n ife sto o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l to the P r o le t a r ia t of th e E n tir e W orld, " o p. c it., p. 3 8. === [PDF page 62] === 55 n e tw o r k o p e r a tin g b e tw e e n C o m in te rn h e a d q u a r te r s and th e " w o rld p r o le t a r ia t. " T he b u ild in g o f s u c h a s y s t e m b e c a m e th e f i r s t c o n c r e te 61 ta s k o f th e C o m in te r n. B y 1 920, the R u s s ia n B o ls h e v ik s w e r e fin a lly a b le to g e t a c l e a r e r p e r s p e c t iv e on c o n d itio n s in th e r e s t of E u r o p e, and t h is c a u s e d th e C o m in te r n le a d e r s h ip to r e a d ju s t th e ir a s s u m p tio n s and g o a ls. T h e p e r io d b e tw e e n th e f i r s t c o n g r e s s and s e c o n d c o n g r e s s w it n e s s e d a s e r i e s o f e v e n t s, s o m e o f w h ic h c o n fir m e d B o ls h e v ik e x p e c ta tio n s and s o m e o f w h ic h c o n tr a d ic te d th e m. In th o s e b r ie f e ig h t m o n th s, th r e e n o n -R u s s ia n S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n ts w e r e e s t a b lis h e d in E u r o p e (T he H u n g a ria n S o v ie t, M a rch 2 1 -A u g u s t 1, 1919; T he S lo v a k S o v ie t R e p u b lic, w h ic h w a s c r e a te d by the H u n g a ria n S o v ie t R e g im e, Jun e 1 6 -J u ly, 1919; and the B a v a r ia n S o v ie t R e p u b lic, A p r il 7 -M a y 1, 68 1919) and b y A u g u st 1, 1 9 1 9, a ll th r e e h a d c o lla p s e d. T he c o lla p s e of th e s e r e g im e s in d ic a te d to th e B o ls h e v ik s th at th e ir e x p e c t a tio n s fo r an im m e d ia te w o r ld -w id e p r o le t a r ia n r e v o lu tio n in C e n tr a l and W e ste r n E u r o p e w e r e p r o b a b ly o v e r ly o p t im is t ic. It is tr u e th a t in e a c h in s t a n c e, fo llo w in g th e ir r e s p e c t iv e c o lla p s e, th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip fou nd " e r r o r s " in the " r e v o lu tio n a r y " m e th o d s o f th e in d ig e n o u s C o m m u n ist le a d e r s. H o w e v e r, th e e x p e r ie n c e s in H u n g a ry J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c it., p. 23. 68 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., pp. 3 6 - 5 2 (fo r e v e n ts in H u n g a ry ), p. 78 f f (for e v e n ts in S lo v a k ia ), and pp. 8 4 -8 9 (for e v e n ts in B a v a r ia ). === [PDF page 63] === 56 and B a v a r ia, a s w e ll a s th e n e g a tiv e tr e n d s o f th e R u s s ia n C iv il W ar in the " W est, " te n d e d to c o o l th e R u s s ia n s ' e x p e c t a t io n s, e v e n i f i t d id n o t c o o l th e ir r e v o lu tio n a r y a r d o r. A s in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly, i t w a s th e C o m in te r n 's in te n tio n fo llo w in g th e f i r s t c o n g r e s s to fu n c tio n p r in c ip a lly a s a c o m m u n ic a tio n s (i. e., p rop agan d a) a g e n c y fo r the w o r ld 's r e v o lu tio n a r y s o c i a l i s t s. B y A p r il 2 7, 1 9 2 0, th a t fu n c tio n h ad c h a n g e d to th a t o f o r g a n iz a tio n and c o n tr o l. In a d d itio n to th e s e t b a c k s s u ffe r e d in H u n g a ry, B a v a r ia and S lo v a k ia, it w a s f e a r e d th a t th e r e v o lu tio n w a s b e in g d e la y e d b y f a c tio n a l d is p u te s am o n g c o m m u n is ts t h e m s e lv e s c o n c e r n in g th e a ttitu d e w h ic h sh o u ld be ta k e n to w a r d s p a r lia m e n ta r y a c t iv it y. In G e r m a n y, G r e a t B r ita in and 69 F r a n c e th e C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n ts w e r e b a d ly s p lit o v e r th is i s s u e. T h e p o s it io n s to w a r d p a r lia m e n ta r y a c t iv it y ta k en b y the v a r io u s f a c tio n s a m o n g C o m m u n is ts n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s h e r e, s in c e th ro u g h o u t th e h is t o r y o f th e C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t, p o lic y h a s c h a n g e d m a n y t im e s a s i t a p p e a r e d th a t c ir c u m s t a n c e s w a r r a n te d i t. W hat n e e d c o n c e r n u s a t t h is p o in t, i s th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip 's r e a c tio n s to w a r d s t h e s e d is p u t e s. A s in d ic a te d a b o v e, th e in te n tio n o f th e B o ls h e v ik s a t the F i r s t C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s w a s th e c r e a t io n o f " s tr o n g g u id in g c e n te r " w ith in 70 th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. H o w e v e r, th e s itu a tio n w h ic h 69 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., pp. 7 9 - 1 0 8 (for e v e n ts in G e r m a n y ), pp. 1 0 9 -1 2 8 (for e v e n ts in G r e a t B r ita in ), pp. 1 2 9 -1 5 0 (fo r e v e n ts in F r a n c e ). ^ S u p r a, p. 56. === [PDF page 64] === 57 e x is t e d d u rin g 1919 m it ig a te d a g a in s t th is d e s ir e d c o o r d in a tio n. T he R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip p la y e d no d ir e c t r o le in th e m a jo r r e v o lu tio n a r y a c t iv it i e s c a r r ie d out in E u r o p e a t th a t tim e and in m a n y c a s e s w e r e ig n o r a n t o f the e v e n ts s u r r o u n d in g th e m. T h is f a c t, c o m b in e d w ith the r e v o lu tio n a r y o p t im is m o f th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip a t th a t t im e, m a d e i t o n ly n a tu r a l fo r L e n in to a d v o c a te th a t th e in d ig e n o u s r e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r s h ip in th e r e s t o f E u r o p e ad op t th o s e p o li c i e s w h ic h a p p e a r e d to 71 m e e t l o c a l c o n d itio n s. C h a p ter 2: T he M a in te n a n c e o f U nity T he d is a r r a y w ith in th e C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s o f E u r o p e and th e U n ited S t a t e s, w h ic h w e r e a p p a r e n t by e a r ly 1 9 2 0, c a u s e d L e n in to r e a s s e r t th e n e c e s s i t y fo r u n ity and to a s s e r t, fo r the f i r s t t im e, th a t the t a c t ic s and o r g a n iz a tio n o f the R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty d u rin g and a ft e r th e O c to b e r R e v o lu tio n sh o u ld s e r v e a s a m o d e l fo r fo r e ig n c o m m u n is t s. In " L e ft-W in g " C o m m u n ism: An I n fa n tile D i s o r d e r, he w r o te: th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e v ic t o r io u s d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t in R u s s ia c le a r ly h a s sh ow n th o s e w h o a r e n o t c a p a b le of th in k in g, o r w ho h a v e h a d no o p p o rtu n ity to r e f l e c t on the q u e s tio n, th a t a b s o lu te c e n tr a liz a t io n and th e s t r i c t e s t d i s c ip lin e o f th e p r o le t a r ia t a r e a m o n g the p r in c ip a l c o n d itio n s fo r th e v ic t o r y o v e r th e b o u r g e o i s i e. ^ 71 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c it., p. 16 1. 72 V. I. L e n in, " L e ft-W in g " C o m m u n ism: A n In fa n tile D is o r d e r (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 4 0 ), p. 10. === [PDF page 65] === 58 In th is e s s a y, L e n in a s s o c ia t e d h im s e lf w ith th o s e g r o u p s w h ic h a d v o c a te d C o m m u n is t p a r tic ip a tio n in p a r lia m e n ta r y and tr a d e u n io n a c t iv it y and he r e q u ir e d th o se g r o u p s d e s ir i n g to a f f ilia t e w ith th e C o m in te r n to c o n fo r m to h i s in t e r p r e ta tio n o f w h a t w a s " n e c e s s a r y. " In t h is w a y, th e e s s a y s ig n if ie d tw o e x t r e m e ly im p o r ta n t c h a n g e s in R u s s ia n a tt itu d e s. F i r s t l y, r e c o g n it io n th a t the E u r o p e a n r e v o lu tio n w a s n o t im m in e n t and t h e r e f o r e, th a t C o m m u n is t P a r t ie s m u s t ad ap t t h e m s e lv e s so m e w h a t to th e p r e v a ilin g g o v e r n m e n ta l s y s t e m s in E u r o p e, e v e n i f o n ly to p o in t ou t th e in a d e q u a c ie s o f su c h s y s t e m s. S e c o n d ly, th at th e " r u le -m a k in g " a u th o r ity w a s v e s t e d in M o sco w; th at a u th o r ity b e in g c o n fe r r e d by th e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n R u s s ia n s u c c e s s and n o n - R u s s ia n f a i l u r e s. F r o m th e p u b lic a tio n o f th is e s s a y, C o m in te r n c o m m u n iq u e s w ith n o n -R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s b e c a m e d i r e c t i v e s. D u r in g Jun e o f 1 920, an EC C I w a s c ir c u la t e d e x te n d in g an in v i t a tio n to " A ll c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s, g r o u p s, and tr a d e u n io n s w h ic h h a v e o f f ic ia l ly a f f ilia t e d to th e C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l" to a tten d the S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, to be c o n v e n e d in M o sc o w, on 73 J u ly 15, 1 9 2 0. In r e c o g n iz in g the s p lit s w h ic h h a d o c c u r r e d w ith in the r e v o lu tio n a r y s o c i a l i s t m o v e m e n ts d u rin g the p r e v io u s y e a r, th e in v it a tio n w a s a ls o e x te n d e d to " th o se g r o u p s and o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ic h a c c e p t th e p la tfo r m o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, b u t w h ich a r e in o p p o sitio n 73 "ECCI C ir c u la r C o n v en in g th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l" (Ju n e, 1 9 2 0 ), e x c e r p te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c it., pp. 1 0 3 - 104. === [PDF page 66] === 59 to the o f f ic ia l ly a f f ilia t e d c o m m u n is t p a r t i e s. " E a c h p a r ty w a s u r g e d to s e n d a s la r g e a d e le g a tio n a s p o s s ib l e. E a ch d e le g a tio n w a s r e q u ir e d b y the E C C I in v ita tio n to n o m in a te on e o f i t s m e m b e r s a s a p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t iv e to th e E C C I. I t w a s a ls o p o in te d o u t th a t "the c o m r a d e s e le c t e d m u s t b e in a p o s it io n to sp en d a c o n s id e r a b le tim e in R u s s ia. " In th o s e c a s e s w h e r e m o r e th a n one g ro u p d e s ir e d to r e p r e s e n t a p a r tic u la r c o u n tr y, the C o n g r e s s i t s e l f w o u ld d e c id e h o w v o tin g p o w e r s w e r e to b e a p p o r tio n e d. In a d d itio n to the a b o v e -m e n tio n e d i n v i t e e s, th e in v ita tio n w a s e x te n d e d to in c lu d e " a ll g r o u p s o f r e v o lu tio n a r y s y n d i c a l i s t s, " th e a f f ilia t e d u n io n s o f th e IW W, and o th e r g r o u p s w h ic h had e n te r e d in to r e la t io n s w ith th e E C C I. T h e r e i s no dou bt th a t th e ECCI and th u s th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n is t le a d e r s h ip d e s ir e d th a t th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s w o u ld b e m u c h m o r e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e th an th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s had b e e n. T h is w a s n e c e s s a r y i f c e n t r a liz e d c o n tr o l w a s to be e x te n d e d o v e r th e m o v e m e n t a s a w h o le. C o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n the c o o r d in a tin g c e n te r and i t s b r a n c h e s d u rin g th e i n i t ia l p e r io d w e r e m in im a l, s p o r a d ic and c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y the ig n o r a n c e sh o w n b y th e s e n d e r s and r e c ip ie n t s o f e a c h o t h e r 's a c t iv it i e s and p o l i c i e s. B y h a v in g tr u ly r e p r e s e n t a t iv e d e le g a t e s a t the s e c o n d c o n - f e r e n c e, i t w a s h o p ed th a t m a n y o f th e s e p r o b le m s w o u ld be a m e lio r a t e d. T h e s h o r t p e r io d o f tim e w h ic h e la p s e d b e tw e e n th e c ir c u la tio n o f th e ECCI in v ita tio n and th e c o n v e n in g o f th e s e c o n d c o n g r e s s w it n e s s e d an im p o r ta n t, a lth o u g h o n ly te m p o r a r y, ch a n g e in th e R u s s ia n p o s itio n === [PDF page 67] === 60 v i s - a - v i s th e ir p r in c ip a l m ilit a r y a n ta g o n is t a t th e t im e, P o la n d. L a te in A p r il of 1 9 2 0, th e P o l e s a tta c k e d R u s s ia m i l i t a r i l y a s a r e s u lt o f th e d isp u te o v e r th e R u s s i a n - P o lis h b o r d e r. In th e e a r ly w e e k s o f th e w a r, P o la n d h ad c a p tu r e d K ie v and th u s th e B o ls h e v ik 's p e s s im is m c o n c e r n in g r e v o lu tio n a r y a c t iv it y w a s r e in f o r c e d. H ow ever, by J u ly 4, T r o t s k y 's R u s s ia n A r m y had s te m m e d the P o l is h a d v a n c e and b e g a n th e m a r c h to W a r sa w. T he d e c is io n to in v a d e P o la n d i t s e l f w a s s im ila r to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y a s s u m p tio n s o f e a r ly 1917 and w a s b a s e d on the b e l i e f th a t th e p e a s a n ts and p r o le t a r ia t o f P o la n d d e s ir e d c o m m u n is m and w o u ld su p p o r t the in v a d in g R u s s ia n A r m y w h ic h h ad s u p p o s e d ly c o m e 74 to " lib e r a te " th e m. H o w e v e r, i t m u s t b e e m p h a s iz e d th a t a n e w c o m p o n e n t w a s a d d ed to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y a s s u m p tio n s o f 1 9 1 9. N o w, a le a d in g r o le w a s to b e p la y e d b y d ir e c t R u s s ia n a id, in th e fo r m o f the R u s s ia n A r m y, in the e x p e c t e d P o l is h p r o le t a r ia t 's r e b e llio n a g a in s t th e P o l is h b o u r g e o is ie. T he a s s u m p tio n th a t S o v ie t a id w o u ld be n e c e s s a r y fo r th e s u c c e s s o f n o n -R u s s ia n p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n s and n a tio n a l w a r s o f lib e r a t io n w a s, d u rin g th e S t a lin is t p e r io d, to b e c o m e an im p o r ta n t p a r t o f R u s s ia n a ttitu d e s to w a r d s n o n -R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist a c t iv it y. H e n c e, the a s s u m p tio n s up on w h ic h th e n ew h o p e s fo r th e r e v o lu tio n, e n g e n d e r e d b y R u s s ia n 74 J a m e s W H u ls e, op. c i t., pp. 1 8 8 -1 8 9; G un ther N o lla u, op. c i t., p. 49 and "ECCI M a n ife s to on th e P o l is h A tta c k on R u s s ia " (M ay 18, 1920) e x c e r p te d in Jan e D e g r a s, op. c i t., pp. 9 0 - 9 2. === [PDF page 68] === 61 s u c c e s s e s in th e R u s s o - P o l i s h W ar, w e r e n o t s im p ly a r e v e r s io n to th e 75 B o ls h e v ik a s s u m p tio n s o f 1 9 1 9, a s i s a r g u e d b y H u ls e. T he s e c o n d c o n g r e s s m e t fo r one d a y, J u ly 1 9, 1 9 2 0, in P e tr o g r a d and th e n r e c o n v e n e d in M o s c o w o n J u ly 2 3, w h e r e i t r e m a in e d in s e s s i o n u n til A u g u st 7. A lth o u g h i t i s n o t p o s s ib le to d e te r m in e th e e x a c t n u m b e r of d e le g a t e s a tte n d in g, th e y e x c e e d e d tw o h u n d red. M o st o f th e n o n - R u s s ia n s in a tte n d a n c e w e r e the le g it im a t e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f r e v o lu tio n a r y - 76 s o c i a l i s t g r o u p s fr o m a p p r o x im a te ly t h ir t y - f iv e c o u n t r ie s. H ow ever, th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty r e p r e s e n t e d a p p r o x im a te ly f o r ty p e r c e n t 77 o f th o s e h a v in g v o tin g r ig h t s. T h is f a c t, c o m b in e d w ith th e i n c r e a s e d 75 J a m e s W, H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 1 8 9. 76 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., pp. 1 9 2 -1 9 3. J a n e D e g r a s, l o c. c it., c la im s th a t 41 c o u n t r ie s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d. N in e te e n o f th e d e le g a t e s w ho h ad a tte n d e d th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s a ls o a tte n d e d the S e c o n d C o n g r e s s. T e n o f t h e s e w e r e m e m b e r s o f th e R u s s ia n d e le g a tio n a t th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s, in c lu d in g S k ry p n ik, w ho h ad r e p r e s e n t e d th e U k r a in e a t th e F i r s t C o n g r e s s, K lin g e r, w ho h a d r e p r e s e n t e d th e G e rm a n c o lo n ie s in R u s s ia and R a k o v sk y, w ho h ad r e p r e s e n t e d R u m a n ia and B u lg a r ia. In a d d itio n to th e m, R u d n ia n sk y s t i l l sp o k e and v o te d fo r th e H u n g a ria n C o m m u n is ts, M ilk ic h fo r th e Y u g o s la v s and G u ilb e a u x and S a d o u l fo r th e F r e n c h S o c i a l i s t s, e v e n th ou gh th ey h a d n o t im p r o v e d th e ir c o n n e c tio n s w ith t h e s e g r o u p s d u rin g th e p e r io d b e tw e e n the F i r s t and S e c o n d C o n g r e s s e s. (J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 1 9 3.) 77 Jan e D e g r a s, op. c i t., p. 1 0 9, s t a t e s th a t 217 d e le g a t e s a tte n d e d, o f w h o m 169 h a d v o tin g p o w e r s. J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 19 3, c itin g the o f f ic ia l G e r m a n -la n g u a g e P r o to k o ll o f th e C o n g r e s s and G un ther N o lla u, op. c it., p. 4 9, c itin g T he L ib r a r y o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, V o l. 2 2, p. 7 8 8, a g r e e th a t o n ly 167 d e le g a t e s had v o tin g r ig h t s. J a n e D e g r a s c la im s th a t 136 r e p r e s e n t e d C o m m u n ist P a r t i e s and 33 r e p r e s e n t e d n o n -C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. G un ther N o lla u c la im s th a t 124 r e p r e s e n t e d C o m m u n ist P a r t i e s, 31 r e p r e s e n t e d n o n -C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s, and 12 r e p r e s e n t e d you th g r o u p s. J a n e D e g r a s c la im s th a t th e r e w e r e 4 8 d e le g a t e s === [PDF page 69] === 62 s ta tu r e o f th e R u s s ia n P a r t y, th e d e c r e a s e d s ta tu r e o f th e G e r m a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y, th e i n c r e a s e d r e s p e c t a c c o r d e d L e n in, th e R u s s ia n lo c a t io n o f th e C o n g r e s s and th e p r e d o m in a n tly R u s s ia n n a tu r e o f th e 78 E C C I, e n s u r e d o v e r w h e lm in g R u s s ia n in flu e n c e a t th e C o n g r e s s. T he p r in c ip a l R u s s ia n o b je c tiv e a t th e C o n g r e s s w a s to c o n s o lid a te and u n ify th e m o v e m e n t a c c o r d in g to L e n in 1s c o n c e p t o f D e m o c r a tic C e n tr a lis m. In th e o r y, th e u n ify in g f a c t o r w ith in th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t i s, a s d e fin e d by th e o f f ic ia l h an d b ook o f th e C PSU: P r o le t a r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m i s, in the f i r s t p la c e, th e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y c o n fir m e d id e o lo g y o f th e c o m m u n ity of i n t e r e s t s o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s o f a l l c o u n tr ie s and n a t io n s. S e c o n d ly, i t i s th e f e e lin g o f s o lid a r it y o f th e w o r k in g p e o p le o f a ll c o u n t r ie s, o f th e b r o th e r h o o d o f th e w o r k in g p e o p le. T h ir d ly, i t i s a d e fin ite fo r m ta k e n b y th e r e la t io n s b e tw e e n th e n a tio n a l d e ta c h m e n ts o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s. T h e s e r e l a t io n s a r e b a s e d on u n ity and c o n c e r t e d a c tio n, m u tu a l a id and su p p o r t. 79 T h is c o n c e p t a s s u m e s th a t th e n a tio n a l and p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s o f a p a r t ic u la r n a tio n a l c o m m u n is t p a r ty ’ s le a d e r s h ip w ill b e s u b o r d in a te d to the s u p e r io r i n t e r e s t s o f the m o v e m e n t a s a w h o le. T h u s, i t m u s t a s s u m e w ith o u t v o tin g p o w e r s w h ile J a m e s W. H u ls e c la im s th a t th e r e w e r e 5L d e le g a t e s w ith o u t v o tin g p o w e r s. T h e s e d is c r e p a n c ie s a r e due to the f a c t th a t the l i s t s o f d e le g a t e s in th e o f f ic ia l r e c o r d s o f th e C o n g r e s s do n o t c o n ta in th e n a m e s o f a ll p e r s o n s w ho sp o k e and v o te d. In a d d itio n, th e o f f ic ia l G e r m a n, R u s s ia n, and E n g lis h " tr a n s c r ip ts " o f th e C o n g r e s s do n o t a lw a y s a g r e e on th is and o th e r p o in ts (J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 2 4 6 ff). 78 J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 1 9 3, and G unther N o lla u, o p. c i t., 79 F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m (M o sco w: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 3 0 5 -3 0 6. === [PDF page 70] === 63 th a t a g e n e r a l c o n c e n s u s e x i s t s a m o n g t h e s e v a r io u s l e a d e r s a s to w h a t c o n s t it u t e s th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e w h o le m o v e m e n t. H o w e v e r, w h at i f the le a d e r s o f th e v a r io u s n a tio n a l s e c t io n s d is a g r e e a s to th e d e fin itio n o f t h is s u p e r io r i n t e r e s t? T h is i s a fu n d a m e n ta l q u e s tio n, s in c e d is a g r e e m e n t a m o n g in d iv id u a ls w ith in a g r o u p " u n ified " b y a " g e n e r a liz e d " id e o lo g y a r e in e v it a b le. A fte r a ll, the C o m m u n is ts a r e h u m a n too; th is i s n ot m e a n t to b e a s e n tim e n ta l s t a t e m e n t, b u t r a th e r, to s im p ly in d ic a te th at th e y a r e s u b je c t to th e s a m e b e h a v io r a l lim it a t io n s a s th e r e s t o f u s. W hat w a s c a lle d f o r b y th e c o n c e p t o f D e m o c r a tic C e n tr a lis m w a s a h ie r a r c h i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e w h e r e in th e p e r s o n s o c c u p y in g h ig h e r d e c is io n - m a k in g o f f ic e s w o u ld d e p e n d on the a d v ic e and o p in io n s o f th o s e b e lo w, w h ile th o s e b e lo w w o u ld o b e y th e d e c i s i o n s, o n c e ta k e n, o f th o s e a b o v e. In t h is w a y, th e r e c o u ld b e d i s c u s s io n and d is a g r e e m e n t w ith in th e s tr u c tu r e u n til a d e c is i o n a t an u p p er l e v e l had b e e n m a d e. T h u s, the o r g a n iz a tio n w o u ld b e b o th d e m o c r a t ic and h ig h ly c e n t r a liz e d. In p r in c ip le, D e m o c r a t ic C e n tr a lis m w o u ld p r o v id e a m e th o d o f s tr u c tu r in g a u th o r ity so th a t c o n f lic t s a r is i n g b e tw e e n in d iv id u a ls o r g r o u p s w ith in th e s y s t e m c o u ld b e n o n - c o e r c iv e ly r e s o lv e d. It h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t b y o th e r s th a t th e w a y in w h ic h a u th o r ity i s s tr u c tu r e d i s a c r u c ia l f a c to r in r e s o lv in g c o n f lic t s w h ic h o c c u r w hen: 1) th e s o u r c e o f a u th o r ity i s c h a lle n g e d; 2) the b e a r e r o f a u th o r ity i s c h a lle n g e d; 3) a u th o r ity i s s h a r e d e q u a lly o f 4) r u le s ( i. e., c o n c e p tio n o f a u th o r ity ), === [PDF page 71] === 64 o b j e c t iv e s ( i. e., c o n c e p tio n s o f p u r p o s e ), o r s im ila r m a t t e r s a r e in t e r - 80 p r e te d d if f e r e n t ly. T he im p o r ta n c e o f th e m a n n e r in w h ic h a u th o r ity i s s tr u c tu r e d i s e m p h a s iz e d b y B r u c e S ie v e r s: T he ty p e o f a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e w h ic h p r e v a ils in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a t d if fe r e n t l e v e l s w ill d e te r m in e th e m e th o d o f r e s o lv in g a c o n f lic t. F o r e x a m p le, i f th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e at on e l e v e l w e r e r ig id and h ie r a r c h i c a l, a c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n tw o m e m b e r s o f e q u a l a u th o r ity w o u ld b e r e m o v e d to a h ig h e r l e v e l fo r i t s s o lu tio n. On th e o th e r h a n d, i f th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e w e r e m o r e in d e fin ite (i. e., l e s s " le g itim iz e d " ), th e c o n f lic t w o u ld p r o b a b ly b e r e s o lv e d th rou gh p e r s u a s io n. T h u s, i f th e B o ls h e v ik s w e r e s u c c e s s f u l in e s t a b lis h in g a " r ig id and h ie r a r c h ia l" a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e w ith in th e C o m in te r n, i t w o u ld o n ly be n e c e s s a r y to c o n tr o l th e u p p e r m o s t l e v e l o f th e s t r u c tu r e. T he p r o c e e d in g s o f th e f i r s t d ay in P e t r o g r a d w e r e d e v o te d to s p e e c h e s b y Z in o v ie v and L e n in and o th e r o f f ic ia l g r e e t in g s. T he o n ly s u b s ta n tiv e a c tio n ta k en w a s th e e le c t io n o f a p r e s id iu m fo r th e C o n g r e s s, c o n s is t in g o f L en in ( R u s s ia ), Z in o v ie v (R u s s ia ), R o s m e r (F r a n c e ), 82 S e r r a t i (Ita ly ), and L e v i (G e r m a n y ). H o w e v e r, on r e c o n v e n in g in M o sco w, i t w a s c le a r ly in d ic a te d th a t a u th o r ity w ith in th e C o m in te r n w a s n o t y e t s tr u c tu r e d a c c o r d in g to D e m o c r a t ic C e n tr a lis m and th a t the s u c c e s s o f an R ic h a r d S n y d e r, H. W. B r u c k, and B u r to n S a p in, F o r e ig n P o l ic y D e c is io n - M a k in g (N ew Y ork: F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 117. 81 B r u c e S i e v e r s, A D e c is io n - M a k in g A p p ro a c h to th e Study o f the C o m m u n ist S y s te m (S tan ford: S ta n fo rd S tu d ie s o f th e C o m m u n ist S y s te m, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 40 (m im e o ). J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c it., p. 195. === [PDF page 72] === 65 a tte m p t to s tr u c tu r e i t th a t w a y w a s n o t a fo r e g o n e c o n c lu s io n. At P e t r o g r a d L e n in h ad r e - e m p h a s iz e d th e th e m e o f " le ft-w in g " C o m m u n is m, and c a lle d on th e C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n ts in E u r o p e to e n g a g e in 83 P a r lia m e n t a r y a c t iv it y, d en o u n cin g th e B r i t is h a n t i- p a r lia m e n t a r ia n s in the p r o c e s s. A t th e s a m e t im e, he c h id e d th e m a s s p a r t ie s o f F r a n c e (F r e n c h S o c ia lis t P a r t y ), G e r m a n y (U S P D ), and A m e r ic a (T he A m e r ic a n S o c i a l i s t P a r ty ) fo r n o t h a v in g e x p e lle d th e ir c e n t r is t and r ig h t- w in g s fo llo w in g th e ir d e c is i o n to b r e a k a w a y fr o m th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l. T h e r e w a s n o th in g in h e r e n tly in c o m p a tib le in t h e s e tw o p o s itio n s; o n e c a llin g f o r C o m m u n is ts to e n g a g e in p a r lia m e n ta r y a c t iv it y and th e o th e r c a llin g f o r C o m m u n is ts to e x p e ll th e D e m o c r a tic S o c i a lis t s w ith in th e ir r a n k s. C o m m u n is ts w e r e n o t b e in g c a lle d upon to p a r tic ip a te in P a r lia m e n t in o r d e r to c a r r y out n e e d e d s o c ia l r e f o r m s b y p e a c e fu l m ean s. T he B o ls h e v ik s h ad e x p e r ie n c e d th e f u t ilit y o f th is in H u n g a ry. R a th e r, th e C o m m u n is ts w e r e in s t r u c t e d to e n g a g e in P a r lia m e n ta r y a c t iv it y in o r d e r to r e a c h th e m a s s e s, w h ile a t th e s a m e tim e d is c r e d it in g and s u b v e r tin g th e P a r lia m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s o f th e b o u r g e o is ie. T h u s, w h ile th e r e m ig h t b e s h o r t - t e r m a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n C o m m u n is ts fa v o r in g P a r lia m e n t a r y a c t iv it y and S o c ia l - D e m o c r a t s, c o n c e r n in g p a r tic ip a tio n in P a r lia m e n t, th e r e w a s no a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n in g th e p u r p o s e w h ic h s u c h a c t iv it y sh o u ld s e r v e. 83 " T h e s e s on th e B a s ic T a s k s... A d o p ted b y T he S e c o n d C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s, 11 lo c. c i t. === [PDF page 73] === 66 In a n y ^ v e n t, L e n in 's s p e e c h c o m b in e d w ith Z in o v ie v 's s p e e c h o f J u ly 2 3, c r e a t e d p r o b le m s, e s p e c i a l l y w ith s o m e m e m b e r s o f th e B r it is h d e le g a tio n on th e on e han d and th e F r e n c h and I ta lia n d e le g a tio n s 84 on th e o th e r. T h e f a c t th a t m e m b e r s o f t h e s e d e le g a tio n s d is a g r e e d w ith th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip o v e r s u b s ta n tiv e p o lic y d ir e c t ly c o n c e r n in g th e ir l o c a l g r o u p s c a u s e d th e m to ta k e e x c e p t io n to Z in o v ie v 's s t a t e m e n t s: 1) a d v o c a tin g r e la t io n s b e tw e e n c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s and " y e llo w " tr a d e u n io n s; 2) th e p a r tic ip a tio n in p a r lia m e n t and 3) e m p h a s iz in g th e c e n tr a liz in g n a tu r e o f th e C o m in te r n 's o r g a n iz a tio n a l fr a m e w o r k. In r e f e r r in g to th e d e s ir e d fo r m o f o r g a n iz a tio n, Z in o v ie v sta te d: T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l i s o f th e o p in io n th a t, p a r t ic u la r ly in th e p e r io d o f th e p r o le t a r ia n d ic ta t o r s h ip, th e c o m m u n is t p a r ty m u s t b e b u ilt on fo u n d a tio n s o f ir o n p r o le t a r ia n c e n t r a lis m. In o r d e r to le a d th e w o r k in g c l a s s s u c c e s s f u l l y in th e d if fic u lt and p r o lo n g e d c i v i l w a r the c o m m u n is t p a r ty m u s t e s t a b l is h ir o n m il it a r y d is c ip lin e in i t s ow n r a n k s. T he e x p e r ie n c e o f th e c o m m u n is t p a r ty w h ic h fo r th r e e y e a r s h a s le d th e w o r k in g c l a s s in th e R u s s ia n c i v i l w a r h a s sh o w n th a t w ith o u t the s t r i c t e s t d is c ip lin e, w ith o u t c o m p le te c e n t r a liz a t io n, and w ith o u t the f u l l e s t c o m r a d e ly c o n fid e n c e o f a ll p a r ty o r g a n iz a tio n in th e p a r ty c e n t r e, the v ic t o r y o f th e w o r k e r s i s im p o s s ib l e. T he c o m m u n is t p a r ty m u s t be b u ilt on th e b a s i s o f d e m o c r a t ic c e n t r a lis m. T he B a s i c p r in c ip le s o f d e m o c r a tic c e n t r a lis m a r e th a t the h ig h e r p a r ty b o d ie s a r e c a t e g o r ic a lly and n e c e s s a r i l y b in d in g on th e lo w e r; and th a t th e r e s h a ll b e a s tr o n g p a r ty c e n tr e w h o s e a u th o r ity i s u n iv e r s a lly and u n q u e s tio n in g ly r e c o g n iz e d fo r a ll le a d in g p a r ty c o m r a d e s in th e p e r io d b e tw e e n c o n g r e s s e s. 84 Z in o v ie v, " T h e s e s on th e R o le o f T he C o m m u n is t P a r ty in the P r o le t a r ia n R e v o lu tio n A d o p ted b y th e S e c o n d C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s " (Ju ly 2 4, 1 9 2 0 ), r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c it., pp. 1 2 8 -1 3 5. 85 Ibid., pp. 1 3 3 -1 3 4. === [PDF page 74] === 67 J a c k T a n n e r o f th e B r i t is h sh o p s te w a r d ’ s m o v e m e n t, w ho w a s s tr o n g ly o p p o s e d to any k in d o f r e la t io n s w ith th e B r i t is h L a b o u r P a r ty, b it t e r ly r e s p o n d e d to Z in o v ie v 's r e m a r k s and, in so d o in g, c h a lle n g e d th e b a s ic o r g a n iz a tio n a l a s s u m p tio n s o f th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip. In p a r t, h e sta te d: O nly w h en Z in o v ie v h a s b e e n in,E n g la n d and o th e r W e ste r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s and h a s s tu d ie d th e c o n d itio n s and th e n ew o u tlo o k o f th e w o r k e r s and c o m p a r e d th e m w ith th e c o n d itio n s in R u s s ia, o n ly th en ca n h e p a s s p r o p e r ju d g e m e n t on p o li t ic s and th e ir r e la t io n to th e R e v o lu tio n. L e t m e a s k th e R u s s ia n and o th e r c o m r a d e s i f th e r e i s n o th in g m o r e f o r th em to le a r n fr o m th e s t r u g g le s, m o v e m e n t s, and r e v o lu tio n o f o th e r c o u n t r ie s. H a v e th e y c o m e h e r e n o t to le a r n b u t o n ly to te a c h? We h a v e to m a k e th e R e v o lu tio n in E n glan d; o u r R u s s ia n c o m r a d e s ca n n o t do th a t. T h e y ca n h e lp, but w e m u s t do th e a c t and w e a r e le a r n in g and p r e p a r in g fo r th a t en d.... T he T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t b e fo u n d ed upon su c h a b a s i s th a t th e d if fe r e n t p a r t ie s c o u ld fin d c o m m o n g ro u n d on th e m o s t im p o r ta n t p r in c ip le s and m e th o d s. Eveg^rthing e l s e m u s t be le f t to th e v a r io u s p a r t ie s t h e m s e l v e s. T he R u s s ia n s c o u ld n ot h op e to h a v e th e ir p r in c ip le s a d o p ted i f T a n n e r ’ s a tta c k w a s l e f t u n a n s w e r e d. T h u s, fo llo w in g T a n n e r ’ s a tta c k on th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip, an a tte m p te d d e fe n s e of th e o f f ic ia l B o ls h e v ik p o s itio n b y M a ty a s R a k o s i (H ungary) and th e e n d o r s e m e n t o f T a n n e r ’ s p o s itio n b y D a v id W ijnkoop (H o lla n d ), L e n in and T r o ts k y jo in e d the u n e x p e c te d d e b a te. E m p h a s iz in g th e a tta c k upon d is c ip lin e d c e n t r a liz a t io n, L en in a n s w e r e d: C o m r a d e T a n n e r n o w c o m e s and s a y s n o t to b e too d o g m a tic. T h is e x p r e s s io n i s out o f p la c e h e r e. C o m ra d e R a m s a y s a y s: Q u oted in J a m e s W. H u ls e, op. c i t., p. 1 97. === [PDF page 75] === 68 L e t th e E n g lis h C o m m u n is ts d e c id e on t h is p o in t f o r th e m s e l v e s. W hat k in d o f an I n te r n a tio n a l w o u ld it b e, i f a s m a ll p a r t c o m e s and s a y s: S o m e o f u s a r e in fa v o r and s o m e o f u s a r e a g a in s t; l e t u s d e c id e th e q u e s tio n o u r s e l v e s. W hat n e e d w o u ld th e r e b e th en f o r an I n te r n a tio n a l and a C o n g r e s s and a d is c u s s i o n? 87 T h e " B r it is h r e b e llio n " w a s q u e lle d b y d iv e r tin g i t to a s p e c ia l c o m m it te e c h a ir e d by L e n in. A lth o u g h i t i s d iffic u lt to d e te r m in e w h a t o c c u r r e d d u rin g the c o m m it t e e 's d e lib e r a t io n s, i t a p p e a r s th a t T a n n e r 's a tte n tio n w a s d iv e r te d fr o m C o m in te r n o r g a n iz a tio n to c o n s id e r a t io n o f 88 th e tr a d e u n io n p r o b le m p e r s e. H o w e v e r, th e p r o b le m o f o r g a n iz a tio n w a s s t i l l to b e d e c id e d. T he S e c o n d C o n g r e s s h a d b e e n m a n d a te d by th e f i r s t to a d op t a " d e fin itiv e " c o n s titu tio n fo r th e C o m in te r n. T he " C o n stitu tio n " w a s e m b o d ie d in tw o d o c u m e n ts: 1) " S ta tu tes o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l a d o p te d a t th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s " (A u g u st 4, 1920) and 2) " C o n d itio n s o f A d m is s io n to th e C o m m u n is t In te r n a tio n a l" (A u g u st 6, 1 9 2 0 ), b oth o f 89 w h ic h s t r e s s e d d is c ip lin e d d e m o c r a t ic c e n t r a lis m. T he c o n d itio n s w e r e m e t w ith c r i t i c i s m b y m e m b e r s o f th e P S F and U S P D. B oth p a r t ie s h a d w ith in th e m r ig h t-w in g and c e n t r is t e l e m e n t s and th e ir d e le g a t e s d id n o t w a n t to c a u s e a s p lit. T he R u s s ia n s 87 Q u oted in ib id., p. 1 9 8. I b i d., p. 199. T h e " S ta tu tes" a r e r e p r in te d in A p p en d ix II, p. 243 o f th is p a p e r. T he " C o n d itio n s fo r A d m is s io n " a r e r e p r in te d in A p p en d ix III, p. 252 o f t h is p a p e r. === [PDF page 76] === 69 90 f i r s t r e a c t io n to th e c r i t i c i s m a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n c o n c ilia t o r y. H ow e v e r, w h en fin a lly a d o p ted, th e n in e te e n c o n d itio n s w e r e s tr e n g th e n e d by th e a d d itio n o f tw o m o r e c o n d itio n s. T he a d o p tio n o f th e tw e n ty -o n e c o n d itio n s, o v e r tw o n e g a tiv e v o t e s, im p lie d th a t a p a r ty ’ s r e v o lu tio n a r y p u r ity, in c lu d in g th a t o f th e C o m in te r n i t s e l f, c o u ld b e a s s u r e d b y in s tit u tio n a l m e a n s. H ow ever, r e lia n c e on o r g a n iz a tio n a l d is c ip lin e a s a d e fe n s e a g a in s t d e v ia tio n p r e s u p p o s e s th a t th e le a d e r s h ip p o s s e s s e s th e " c o r r e c t" s c i e n t i f ic u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h a t c o n s t it u t e s th e e s s e n c e o f th e fa ith. T h e r e s u lt w a s th a t, a lth o u g h the n e w S ta tu te s and th e C o n d itio n s fo r A d m is s io n h ad c r e a t e d th e s tr u c tu r e o f a c e n t r a liz e d I n te r n a tio n a l p a r ty, th e f a c t s o f p o w e r in s u r e d th a t i t w o u ld b e R u s s ia n - d ir e c t e d. T h u s, th e n o n - R u s s ia n C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s w e r e r e d u c e d to w h a t 91 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l h a s te r m e d " d e r iv a tiv e to t a lita r ia n p a r t ie s. " As e x p r e s s e d b y E d w a rd H a lle tt C a r r: T he R u s s ia n s w e r e s i n c e r e l y and e a g e r ly s e e k in g to d e s t r o y th e ir ow n e x c lu s iv e p r e d o m in a n c e in th e r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t b y s p r e a d in g r e v o lu tio n a ll o v e r E u r o p e and th e w o r ld. Y e t, w h en th e y f a ile d, w h en th e r e v o lu tio n o b s tin a te ly sto o d s t i l l a t th e R u s s ia n f r o n t ie r, e v e r y th in g done a t the s e c o n d c o n g r e s s h a d th e u n lo o k e d fo r c o n s e q u e n c e o f c o n fir m in g 90 J a m e s W H u ls e, op. c i t., pp. 2 0 7 - 2 1 4. 91 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, W orld C o m m u n ism: T h e D is in te g r a tio n o f a S e c u la r F a i t h, p. 240; c. f., U n ited S t a t e s, H o u se o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s, C o m m itte e on F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, S u b c o m m itte e on th e F a r E a s t and th e P a c if i c S in o -S o v ie t C o n flic t: R e p o r t on S in o -S o v ie t C o n flic t and i t s I m p lic a tio n s (W a sh in g to n, D. C.: M ic h a e ls, M a rch 10, 1 9 6 5 ). === [PDF page 77] === 70 and c o d ify in g R u s s ia n p r e d o m in a n c e, s o th a t m a n y c a m e to a ttr ib u te to s o m e s i n i s t e r and d e e p - la id p la n w h a t w a s the in e v it a b le r e s u lt o f th e c o n d itio n s in w h ic h th e c o n g r e s s had to w o r k. ^ T he d e r iv a tiv e a s p e c t o f lo c a l C o m m u n is t a c t iv it y w a s r e j e c t e d b y m a n y h ig h ly n a t io n a lis t ic a n d /o r d e m o c r a t ic s o c i a l i s t s. T he p e r io d b e tw e e n th e a d o p tio n o f th e tw e n ty -o n e c o n d itio n s and th e d is s o lu t io n o f th e C o m in fo r m in 1 9 5 6, w it n e s s e d a c o n tin u o u s p r o c e s s o f s e le c t io n and c o n s o lid a tio n w ith in the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. T h ose w ho d id n o t c o n fo r m to th e n e c e s s i t i e s o f p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m w e r e e x p e lle d, liq u id a te d (if im p o r ta n t enough) o r q u it. H ow ever, th o s e w ho c o n tin u e d to id e n t ify t h e m s e lv e s a s C o m m u n is ts d id (w ith fe w e x c e p tio n s ) c o n fo r m to th e in s t r u c t io n s o f th e a u th o r ita tiv e le a d e r s h ip o f th e m o v e m e n t, h e a d q u a r te r e d in M o sc o w. T he b a s is upon w h ic h R u s s ia n a u th o r ity e x is t e d w ith in the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t, u n d e r w e n t a d r a s t ic c h a n g e f o llo w in g W orld W ar II. T h e a d v e n t o f tw e lv e n e w C o m m u n is t s t a t e s c o n s t i tu te d a fu n d a m e n ta l c h a n g e fr o m th e p r e - w a r p e r io d o f lo c a l C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s o u t - o f - p o w e r r e v o lv in g a ro u n d th e o n ly C o m m u n is t p o w e r b a s e, th e S o v ie t U n ion. G iv e n S t a lin 's i n s i s t e n c e ' f o r lo y a l and d is c ip lin e d p a r t ie s, th e c a p tu re o f p o w e r by th e s e p a r t ie s w ith i t s c o n c o m ita n t r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s p r e s e n t e d th e S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip w ith a q u a lita tiv e ly n ew 93 p r o b le m. 92 E d w a rd H a lle tt C a r r, op. c i t., p. 197. 93 B e r n a r d M o r r is, o p. c it., p. 13 2. === [PDF page 78] === 71 T h e C o m m u n is ts, once in p o w e r in tr a d it io n a l n a t io n - s t a t e s, w e r e no lo n g e r th e o ld id e o l o g i s t s. T h e y h a d b e g u n to a s s o c ia t e C o m m u n ism w ith th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e ir ow n c o u n tr y. T h is d id n o t m e a n th a t th e ir " lo v e " f o r th e S o v ie t U n ion h ad r e c e d e d. H o w e v e r, th e y h ad p r a c t ic a l p r o b le m s w ith w h ic h th e y h a d to d e a l. T h e s e p r o b le m s w e r e s im il a r to th o s e e x p e r ie n c e d b y the B o ls h e v ik s o n c e th e y had r e a liz e d th a t th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n w a s n ot g o in g to m a t e r i a liz e im m e d ia t e ly. In su c h a s itu a tio n, i t i s im p o s s ib l e fo r a C o m m u n ist to e s c a p e s o m e a s p e c t s o f n a t io n a lis m c o m p le te ly. T h u s, t h e s e C o m m u n is ts a c q u ir e d tw o c o o r d in a te lo y a lt ie s: to both th e S o v ie t U nion and th e ir ow n c o u n tr y. S ta lin d id n o t r e c o g n iz e th a t a fu n d a m e n ta l ch a n g e in th e r e la t io n s b e tw e e n C o m m u n is t P a r t ie s h a d in f a c t o c c u r r e d. A lth ou gh the 94 C o m in te r n w a s o f f ic ia lly d isb a n d e d on Jun e 8, 1943 in th e i n t e r e s t s o f w a r tim e c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e A l l i e s, th e r e w e r e no s u b s ta n tia l c h a n g e s in in t e r - p a r t y r e la t io n s h ip s. F o r e ig n C o m m u n ist p a r t i e s, w h e th e r c o n tr o llin g n a t io n - s t a t e s o r n o t, w e r e tr e a t e d b y M o s c o w in th e s a m e m a n n e r (i. e., in a su b o r d in a te r e la tio n s h ip ) and d is in t e g r a tio n fo llo w e d. T he op en b r e a k b e tw e e n th e U SSR and Y u g o s la v ia w a s f i r s t, fo llo w e d by th e S in o - S o v ie t d is p u te. 94 " S ta te m e n t o f th e P r e s id iu m o f th e E C C I on the D is s o lu t io n o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, " r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, o p. c it., III, === [PDF page 79] === 73 G iv e n th e S o v ie t a s s u m p tio n th a t th e r e v o lu tio n a r y " tid e" w a s s t i l l in th e "ebb" s t a g e, S t a lin c o n tin u e d to a s s o c i a t e th e s t r a t e g i c g o a l o f th e w o r ld - w id e C o m m u n is t v ic t o r y w ith th e t a c t ic a l n e c e s s i t y o f p r e s e r v in g th e s e c u r it y o f th e S o v ie t U n io n. H e n c e, i t w a s S ta lin 1s b e l i e f th a t C o m m u n is t r e v o lu tio n s c o u ld n o t s u c c e e d u n le s s lo y a l to and s u p p o r te d (i. e., d o m in a te d ) b y th e S o v ie t U n io n. F o r e ig n c o m m u n is t p a r t i e s, w h e th e r c o n tr o llin g n a t io n - s t a t e s o r n o t, w e r e t r e a t e d in th e s a m e m a n n er by M o sco w. H o w e v e r, b e tw e e n 1945 and 1 9 4 7, th e E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s w e r e g iv e n r e l a t i v e l y w id e la titu d e to d e v e lo p th e ir ow n d o m e s t ic p la n s. B y 1 9 4 7, th e S o v ie t U n ion w a s w e l l a w a r e th a t th e r e r e m a in e d a g r e a t d e a l o f d i v e r s i t y in th e c o u n t r ie s o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e. T h u s, new C om m u n is t l e a d e r s w e r e in tr o d u c e d to b o th th e b e n e f it s and o b lig a tio n s o f p o li t ic a l r u le and b e c a m e s lig h t ly in t o x ic a t e d b y th is n e w p o li t ic a l f r e e d o m. 97 O pen a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f a n e e d to c o o r d in a te t h e s e c o u n t r ie s 1 a f f a ir s c a m e in S e p t e m b e r, 1 9 4 7. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s o f th e U SSR, Y u g o s la v ia, P o la n d, H u n g a ry, R u m a n ia, B u lg a r ia, C z e c h o s lo v a k ia, I t a ly and F r a n c e m e t n e a r W a r sa w to fo r m th e C o m m u n is t I n fo r m a tio n B u r e a u (i. e., th e C o m in fo r m o r In fo r m b u r e a u ). A d am B. U la m, T it o is m and th e C o m in fo r m (C a m b rid g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 2 ), p. 4 6. === [PDF page 80] === S ta lin, s t i l l b e lie v in g in c a p it a lis t s t a b ilit y and h o s t ili t y and p o s s ib ly e x p e c tin g n a t io n a lis t ic p r e s s u r e s, e a r ly c o n c lu d e d th a t C o m m u n is t r e v o lu tio n s in E a s t e r n E u r o p e c o u ld n o t s u c c e e d w ith o u t S o v ie t su p p o r t and th at i t w a s o n ly due to s p e c ia l c o n d itio n s th a t C o m m u n ist r e v o lu tio n a r y tr a n s fo r m a tio n s w e r e a c c o m p lis h e d th e r e. T h ese s p e c ia l c o n d itio n s w e r e c o n s id e r e d to b e th e to ta l d e fe a t o f H it le r 's G e r m a n y, th e S o v ie t U n io n 's r o le in th is d e fe a t and c o n s e q u e n tly, i t s e n h a n c e d in t e r n a t io n a l p o s itio n, th e c o m p r o m is in g o f the lo c a l b o u r g e o is ie and th e ir p o lit ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s a s c o lla b o r a t o r s w ith th e e n e m y and th e lib e r a t in g, d e m o c r a t ic, a n t i - f a s c i s t c h a r a c t e r o f th e 95 w ar. T h e s e "new" s t a t e s w e r e n o t c o n s id e r e d to h a v e c o m p le te d the s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n. R a th e r, th e y h a d p a s s e d th ro u g h a n a tio n a l and d e m o c r a t ic r e v o lu tio n, un iq u e in h is t o r y, w h ic h w o u ld e n a b le th em to fo llo w a s p e c i f i c, p e a c e f u l, path to s o c i a l i s m. In r e s p e c t to t h is n ew s y s t e m, th e g o v e r n m e n ts o f w h ic h w e r e la b e le d " p e o p le 's d e m o c r a c ie s, th e USSR w a s n ot r e g a r d e d a s a m o d e l, a lth o u g h i t w a s c r e d it e d a s the s ta te w h o s e m ilit a r y p o w e r h a d m a d e p o s s i b le th e r e v o lu tio n a r y t r a n s fo r m a tio n and w o u ld th u s g u a r a n te e th e ir s e c u r it y fr o m fo r e ig n in t e r - ven taon. 96 95 H. G ordon S k illin g, " P e o p le 's D e m o c r a c y, th e P r o le t a r ia n D ic ta to r s h ip and th e C z e c h o s lo v a k P a th to S o c ia lis m, " T he A m e r ic a n S la v ic and E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w, X (A p r il, 1 9 5 1 ), p. 102. === [PDF page 81] === 74 T h e r e w e r e tw o b a s ic m o t iv a tio n s fo r th e c r e a tio n o f t h is o r g a n iz a tio n: 1) the C o m in fo r m w a s to s e r v e a s an o r g a n fo r e d u c a tio n a l and 98 a g ita tio n a l e ffo r ts; and 2) i t w a s to s e r v e a s a r e - in s t it u t io n o f th e 99 o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n ity of in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism. T h is w a s e s s e n t ia l ly th e g e n e r a l p o lic y o r ie n ta tio n o f th e USSR in the im m e d ia te p o s t w ar y e a rs. T h e e x c e p t io n to S o v ie t h e g e m o n y in E a s t e r n E u r o p e w a s Y u g o s la v ia. G iv en S ta lin * s o r ie n ta tio n, M o sc o w d id n o t d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia and th e o th e r "new " C o m m u n ist s t a t e s o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e. N e v er th e l e s s, Y u g o s la v ia w a s d iffe r e n t fr o m the r e s t o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e and i t w a s S t a lin 's e r r o r th at h e d id n o t r e c o g n iz e t h is. T h e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist r e g im e, le a d b y J o s e p h B r o z T ito, h ad b r o u g h t i t s e l f to p o w e r b y i t s ow n e f f o r t s w ith o u t s u b s ta n tia l a id by th e S o v ie t a r m y. T h is w a s, o f c o u r s e, n o t th e c a s e in any o th e r E a s t e r n 100 E u r o p e a n c o u n try, w ith th e p o s s ib le e x c e p t io n o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia. By v ir tu e o f h is s ta y in Y u g o s la v ia and h is s u c c e s s f u l d e fe n s e o f h is c o u n tr y b y p a r tis a n w a r fa r e, T ito w a s a un iqu e C o m m u n ist p e r s o n a g e in E a s t e r n E urope. F u r t h e r m o r e, T ito e m e r g e d fr o m th e w a r w ith both a t e s t e d 98_ Ib id., p. 4 7. 99 A lv in Z. R u b in s te in, T h e F o r e ig n P o l ic y o f th e S o v ie t U nion (N ew Y ork: R and om H o u s e, I 9 6 0 ), p. 2 1 5. ^9 9 T he e x te n t to w h ic h th e 1948 C z e c h cou p w a s in s t ig a t e d a n d /o r su p p o r te d by th e U SSR i s op en to q u e s tio n. === [PDF page 82] === 75 a r m y, p r im a r ily lo y a l to h im, and c o m p le te c o n tr o l o f th e C P Y, w h ic h m tu rn c o n tr o lle d p o s t - w a r Y u g o s,la v.ia. 101 S ta lin h a d n o t e x p e c t e d p o s t - w a r C PY c o n tr o l o f Y u g o s la v ia. A lth o u g h T ito h a d b e c o m e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l o f th e o u tla w e d C P Y in 1937 a f t e r a th o ro u g h " p u rge" o f th a t p a r ty, h e w a s s t i l l c o n s id e r e d, by S ta lin, a s a C o m in te r n s u b o r d in a te. H o w e v e r, w ith th e w a r, T ito e x p e r ie n c e d e x t e n s iv e a u to n o m y. D is a g r e e m e n t s betw e e n T ito and S ta lin o c c u r r e d e a r ly in th e w a r a s T ito to o k to th e h i l l s in s t e a d o f o r g a n iz in g p r o le t a r ia n r e s i s t a n c e in th e c i t i e s, a s S ta lin h a d r e c o m m e n d e d. T ito c o r r e c t l y ju d g e d th at r e s i s t a n c e h a d i t s g r e a t e s t c h a n c e s fo r s u c c e s s in r u r a l Y u g o s la v ia. A t f i r s t Y u g o s la v ia h ad b e e n d a z e d by th e su d d en n e s s o f th e G e r m a n a tta c k. H o w e v e r, a fte r th e in i t ia l s u r p r is e had d is s ip a t e d, a f i e r c e s p ir it o f r e s i s t a n c e a r o s e. T he u p r is in g w h ic h o c c u r r e d w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a d is p la y o f n a t io n a lis m w h ic h w a s s u c c e s s f u lly e x p lo it e d by the C P Y. T h u s, b e c a u s e o f t h e ir b r o a d id e n t ific a tio n w ith Y u g o s la v n a t io n a lis m and th e ir a c t iv e e n g a g e m e n t in c o n f lic t w ith th e A x is in v a d e r s, th e p a r t is a n s le d b y th e C P Y s tr u c k a r e s p o n s iv e 102 n o te a m o n g la r g e s e g m e n t s o f th e Y u g o s la v p o p u la c e. T h u s, T ito ’ s im p o r ta n c e w a s b a s e d upon h is a b ility to le a d th e p a r tis a n s tr u g g le * ^ * F r e d W arn er N e a l, T it o is m in A c tio n (B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2. 102 G e o r g e W. H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, Y u g o s la v ia and _the _ N e w C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: T w e n tie th C e n tu r y F u n d, 1 9 6 2 ), p. === [PDF page 83] === 76 in d e p e n d e n tly. S ta lin n e v e r q u ite a d a p te d h is v ie w s to n o r u n d e r s to o d th e r e a l i t i e s o f th e r e v o lu tio n in Y u g o s la v ia. W hile th e p a r tis a n s w e r e fig h tin g the A x is o c c u p a tio n f o r c e s th e y w e r e a ls o s e c u r in g th e ir p r e d o m in a n c e in th e d o m e s t ic p o lit ic a l f ie ld. S ta lin o b je c te d to T ito ’ s a c tio n s b a s e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e " S e r b ia n b o u r g e o is ie " w a s to o s tr o n g and the f e a r th a t h is a l l i e s, e s p e c i a l l y G r e a t B r ita in, w o u ld r e s e n t su c h a c tio n. ^ In 1 9 4 4, S ta lin i s r e p o r te d to h a v e w a r n e d T ito: " W a lter j_ T it o / b e c a r e fu l, th e b o u r g e o is ie in S e r b ia i s v e r y s tr o n g. " T ito i s s u p p o se d to h a v e r e p lie d: " C o m ra d e S ta lin, I do n o t a g r e e w ith y o u r v ie w. T he b o u r - 104 g e o i s i e in S e r b ia i s v e r y w e a k. " In S t a lin 's v ie w, Y u g o s la v ia w a s a s m a ll c o u n tr y in an e x p o s e d p o s it io n. S ta lin b e lie v e d th a t a r e v o lu tio n c o u ld n o t s u c c e e d th e r e in th e f i r s t p la c e. I f on e ad d ed to th is th e fa c t th a t th e C P Y w a s u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f a " B a lk a n u p s ta r t, " a s it u a tio n w a s c r e a t e d th a t m u s t h a v e b e e n g r e e t e d b y S ta lin w ith p e r p le x e d anger. T it o 's g e n e r a l a ttitu d e w a s, th ro u g h o u t th is p e r io d, o n e o f c o m p le te lo y a lt y to th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist le a d e r s h ip. H ow ever, he o n c e a n g r ily r a d io e d the K r e m lin, "If y o u ca n n o t sen d u s a s s i s t a n c e, 105 th en a t l e a s t do n o t h a m p e r u s. 103 M ilo v a n D j ila s, C o n v e r s a tio n s w ith S ta lin (N ew Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B r a c e and W orld, I n c., 1 9 6 2 ), p. 8. 104 V la d im e r D e d ije r, T ito (N ew Y ork: S im o n & S c h u s t e r, 1 9 5 3 ), p. 233. [Unreadable] === [PDF page 84] === 77 Q u ite n a tu r a lly, th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n is ts e x p e c t e d th a t a p o s t - w a r C o m m u n is t-le d Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld b e h e ld in h ig h r e p u te a s a f r a t e r n a l a lly o f th e S o v ie t U nion at th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e w a r. T h e y w e r e u n a w a re th a t in O c to b e r, 1 9 4 4, S ta lin h ad a g r e e d to a b a r g a in w ith C h u r c h ill o v e r s p h e r e s o f in f lu e n c e in E a s t e r n E u r o p e. A c c o r d in g to C h u r c h ill, h e m a d e th e fo llo w in g p r o p o s a l to S ta lin and S ta lin a c c e p t e d it: I s a id, " L e t u s s e t t le ou r a f f a ir s in th e B a lk a n s. Y our a r m ie s a r e in R u m a n ia and B u lg a r ia. We h a v e i n t e r e s t s, m i s s i o n s, and a g e n ts t h e r e. D o n 't l e t u s g e t a t c r o s s - p u r p o s e s in s m a ll w a y s. So fa r a s B r ita in and R u s s ia a r e c o n c e r n e d, h ow w o u ld i t do fo r you to h a v e a n in e ty p e r c e n t p r e d o m in a n c e in R u m a n ia, fo r u s to h a v e n in e ty p e r c e n t p r e d o m in a n c e in G r e e c e, and go f i f t y - f i f t y a b o u t Y u g o s la v ia? " T h u s, i t can b e s e e n th a t to S ta lin, Y u g o s la v ia m e a n t no m o r e th an any o th e r E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n tr y. In fa c t, i t m e a n t l e s s th an s o m e. T h is, th en, i s th e g e n e r a l fr a m e w o r k fr o m w h ic h e n s u e d th e m o r e s e r io u s S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v d if f ic u lt ie s o f th e p e r io d b e tw e e n 1944 and 1 9 4 8. A lth ou gh th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n is ts w e r e d e v o te d to th e S o v ie t U nion a s th e c e n t e r o f in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m, th e y w e r e q u ite a b le to sta n d in d e p e n d e n tly due to th e ir u n q u e s tio n a b le m il it a r y v ic t o r y o v e r th e G e r m a n s and th e ir r e s u lt a n t d o m in a n c e w ith in th e d o m e s t ic Y u g o s la v p o lit ic a l a p p a r a tu s. ^ ^ A d a m B. U la m, op. c it., p. 70. 107 W in ston S. C h u r c h ill, T riu m p h and T r a g e d y, V o l. VI o f T he S e c o n d W orld W ar (B o sto n: H ough ton M ifflin C o., 1 9 5 3 ), pp. 2 2 7 -2 2 8. === [PDF page 85] === 78 T he S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v d is p u te w a s v e r y c o m p le x and d o e s n o t le n d i t s e l f to a b r ie f tr e a tm e n t. In s u m m a r y, th e d is p u te in v o lv e d fo u r s p e c if ic a r e a s: 1) th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e Y u g o s la v p a r tis a n s tr u g g le and th e S o v ie t U n ion d u rin g th e w a r; 2) S o v ie t p o lic y to w a r d s th e p r o p o s e d B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia and B u lg a r ia, e v e n tu a lly in c lu d in g Y u g o s la v ia ’ s in te n tio n o f a b s o r b in g A lb a n ia; 3) S t a lin 's a tte m p ts to d o m in a te T ito and th e C P Y le a d e r s h ip o r d e s t r o y th e m i f d o m in a tio n p r o v e d to b e im p o s s ib le; and 4) S o v ie t e c o n o m ic p o l i c i e s, e s p e c i a l l y 108 in v o lv in g jo in t S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v s to c k c o m p a n ie s and c u s to m u n io n s. C o n c o m ita n t w ith t h e s e c o n c r e te fo c i fo r th e d is p u te w a s th e S o v ie ts id e o lo g ic a l c r i t i c i s m o v e r th e r o le o f th e C P Y in th e Y u g o s la v U n ited F r o n t, th e r o le o f th e p r o le t a r ia t v i s - a - v i s th e p e a s a n t s, and th e c o r r e c t r o a d to w a r d s e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e d is p u te w a s d ir e c t ly m e t on F e b r u a r y 10, 1 9 4 8, w h en S ta lin c a lle d th e Y u g o s la v s and B u lg a r s to M o sc o w. A c c u s in g th e Y u g o s la v s o f a c tin g in d e p e n d e n tly and n o t c o n s u ltin g w ith M o sc o w, S ta lin i s r e p o r te d to h a v e sta te d: You do n o t c o n s u lt w ith u s a t a ll on an y q u e s tio n. T h e r e e x i s t d if f e r e n c e s and d e e p o n e s. W hat w o u ld y o u s a y ab ou t A lb a n ia?... T h e r e r e m a in s th e f a c t th a t y o u d id n 't c o n s u lt 109 u s ab ou t se n d in g th e tw o d iv is io n s to A lb a n ia. 108 A dam B. U la m, op. c i t., p. 4 1. 109 V la d im e r D e d ije r, op. c i t., p. 3 1 9. T h is i s h ig h ly in c o n s is t e n t w ith th e r e m a r k th at S ta lin w a s r e p o r te d to h a v e s a id j u s t th a t p r e v io u s J a n u a r y, "that the Y u g o s la v s w e r e f r e e to s w a llo w A lb a n ia, " ib id., p. 311. === [PDF page 86] === 79 M any th in g s w e r e d is c u s s e d a t th is m e e tin g b e s i d e s th e A lb a n ia n p r o b le m. S ta lin b lu n tly w a r n e d the Y u g o s la v s th a t th e y m u s t c o n s u lt w ith th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t p r io r to any fo r e ig n p o lic y m o v e s. As a r e s u lt o f th is m e e t in g, M ilo v a n D j ila s c o n te n d s th a t th e Y u g o s la v s r e a li z e d th at: T he S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t w a s c a r r y in g on i t s ow n p o lic y o f s u b o r d in a tio n, tr y in g to f o r c e Y ugosla^ija^dow n to th e l e v e l o f th e o c c u p ie d E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s. W ith t h is in m in d, r e n e w e d su p p o rt b y S ta lin f o r th e B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n w a s v ie w e d w ith in c r e a s in g s u s p ic io n b y th e Y u g o s la v s and a ll p la n s in th at d ir e c t io n w e r e c a n c e lle d. E v e n th ou gh th e a n ta g o n is m b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n io n and Y u g o s la v ia w a s in c r e a s in g in in t e n s it y in e a r ly 1 9 4 8, th e Y u g o s la v s w e r e o n ly p a s s iv e in th e ir r e s i s t a n c e. S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f th e p a r t is a n s, th e B a lk a n F e d e r a tio n q u e s tio n, and S o v ie t a tte m p ts to p e n e tr a te th e C PY and Y u g o s la v A r m y o b v io u s ly d is tu r b e d T ito. H o w e v e r, th e Y u g o s la v s w e r e n o t y e t w illin g to c o n s c io u s ly d is c a r d th e ir r e la t io n s h ip w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n. T he p r o b le m w a s a p tly s u m m e d up by T ito w h en h e w r o te: N o m a t te r h o w m u ch e a c h o f u s l o v e s th e la n d o f s o c i a l i s m, th e U SSR, h e c a n, in no c a s e, lo v e h is c o u n tr y l e s s, w h ic h a ls o i s d e v e lo p in g s o c i a l i s m - - i n th is c o n c r e te c a s e th e F P R Y, f o r w h ic h s o m a n y th o u sa n d s o f i t s m o s t p r o g r e s s i v e p e o p le f e l l, w e kn ow v e r y w e ll th a t th is i s a ls o s im ila r l y u n d e r s to o d in the * ^ G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, op. c i t., p. 1 2 5. [Unreadable] === [PDF page 87] === 80 S o v ie t U n ion. T h is w a s th e e s s e n c e o f th e c o n flic t. T he Y u g o s la v C o m m u n is ts w e r e in a p o s itio n w h e r e b y th e y c o u ld not r u le w ith o u t p o p u la r su p p o rt and th e y c o u ld n o t m a in ta in p o p u la r su p p o r t i f th ey d id w h a t S ta lin w a n te d th e m to do. T he F e b r u a r y 10th Y u g o s la v - S o v ie t m e e tin g en d ed a ll r e a l c o o p e r a tio n b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia and th e U SSR. On M a r c h 1, 1 9 4 8, th e Y u g o s la v C e n tr a l C o m m itte e d is c u s s e d th e c o n f lic t o f i n t e r e s t s p r o d u c e d b y th e F e b r u a r y 10th m e e t in g s p e c if i c a l ly and S o v ie t p o lic y g e n e r a lly. T he C e n tr a l C o m m itte e w a s u n ite d in i t s d e te r m in a tio n to 113 r e s i s t S o v ie t p r e s s u r e. T he p u r g e s o f th e 1 9 3 0 's w e r e v iv id in th e m e m o r ie s o f th e top e c h e lo n Y u g o s la v s. T h e y k n ew v e r y w e ll th a t th e ir p a s t r e s i s t a n c e to th e m a n y S o v ie t d e s i r e s w a s e n o u g h to in s u r e th a t in th e e v e n t o f a S o v ie t s u c c e s s, m o s t o f th e m w o u ld b e r e m o v e d fr o m th e ir p o s it io n s o f p o w e r and th a t p r is o n o r " e lim in a tio n " w o u ld be th e fa te o f o t h e r s. T h e r e f o r e, r e s is t a n c e to S o v ie t p r e s s u r e c a r r ie d a p e r s o n a l and r e a l m e a n in g to th e Y u g o s la v le a d e r s h ip. D e s p it e a ll t h is, a ll th a t th e Y u g o s la v s did w a s d e m u r; th e y d id n o t r a i s e any n a t io n a lis t ic p r o t e s t. H o w e v e r, e v e n t h is w a s c o n s id e r e d a 112 " C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f Y u g o s la v ia to C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f S o v ie t U n io n, 13 A p r il 1 9 4 8, " T he S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v D isp u te (L ondon: R o y a l I n s titu te o f I n te r n a tio n a l A f f a ir s, 1 9 4 8 ), p. 19. 113 R o b e r t L e e W olff, T h e B a lk a n s in ou r T im e (C a m b rid g e; H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 3 5 6. === [PDF page 88] === 81 b r e a c h o f p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m. S ta lin s t i l l e x p e c t e d a b s o lu te lo y a lt y to h im fr o m a ll C o m m u n is ts. T h e r e s im p ly w e r e n o t s u p p o se d to be a n y C o m m u n is ts l e f t w ho w e r e n o t c o m p le t e ly lo y a l to S ta lin and th e S o v ie t U n ion. T he p e r io d b e tw e e n M a rc h and M ay, 1 9 4 8, w it n e s s e d an e x c h a n g e 114 o f c h a r g e s and c o u n t e r c h a r g e s b e tw e e n th e tw o p a r t i e s. T he Y u g o s la v s c o n s id e r e d th is d is p u te to b e o v e r c o n c r e te i s s u e s. H o w e v e r, th e 115 S o v ie t c h a r g e s e m p h a s iz e d id e o lo g ic a l d e v ia tio n s. S t a lin 's e m p h a s is on id e o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s w a s c o n s is t e n t w ith h i s v ie w o f p a r ty d is c ip lin e, w h ic h r e q u ir e d o b e d ie n c e b a s e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t S o v ie t d e c is io n s w e r e b a s e d on a c le a r e r p e r c e p t io n of w o r ld r e a l i t i e s. D u r in g th is p e r io d th e S o v ie t U n ion r e c a ll e d a ll o f h e r m il it a r y, c iv ilia n and te c h n ic a l p e r s o n n e l fr o m Y u g o s la v ia and p r o c e e d e d to c a n c e l a la r g e lo a n th a t th e y h a d p r o m is e d to th e Y u g o s la v g o v e r n m e n t. T he S o v ie t U nion n e x t p r o v e d to w h a t e x te n t the C o m in fo r m w a s tr u ly an in t e r n a t io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n w ith " eq u a lity " o f m e m b e r s h ip. On June 2 8, 1 9 4 8, th e C o m in fo r m d e n o u n c ed th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist P a r t y 's C e n tr a l C o m m itte e. It w a s c h a r g e d th a t th e C PY w a s h o s t ile to th e U SSR and th a t i t h ad e n g a g e d in "an u n d ig n ifie d p o lic y o f d e fa m in g 114 F o r th e c o m p le te p u b lis h e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e, r e f e r to T he S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v D is p u te. 115 G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W. N e a l, op. c i t., p. 3 5 6. === [PDF page 89] === 82 S o v ie t m ilit a r y e x p e r t s and d is c r e d it in g th e S o v ie t U n io n. " T he C o m in fo r m, b y u n a n im o u s a c tio n (the d e le g a te fr o m Y u g o s la v ia w a s n o t p r e s e n t ), c o n d e m n e d th e C P Y and ju d g e d th a t "the 117 Y u g o s la v p a r ty w a s o u ts id e th e r a n k s o f th e in fo r m a tio n b u r e a u. " T h u s, th e S o v ie t U nion le v i e d th e e x tr e m e p e n a lty, e x c o m m u n ic a tio n; a c tin g on an e x t r e m e p o n tific a l c e r ta in ty th a t i t w o u ld w o r k. T h e S o v ie t U n ion s im p ly b e lie v e d th a t Y u g o s la v ia co u ld n o t sta n d b y i t s e l f, e r g o i t m u s t c o lla p s e. A p p e a ls fr o m the S o v ie t U n ion to th e C P Y m e m b e r s h ip, u r g in g th em to r e v o lt a g a in s t th e ir le a d e r s h ip, w e r e n o t e v e n s u b tle. In th e C o m in fo r m r e s o lu t io n, fo r e x a m p le, th e fo llo w in g w a s in c lu d e d: T h e in fo r m a tio n b u r e a u d o e s n o t doubt th a t in s id e th e c o m m u n is t p a r ty o f Y u g o s la v ia th e r e a r e s u f f ic ie n t h e a lth y e le m e n t s, lo y a l to M a r x is m - L e n in is m, to th e in t e r n a t io n a l tr a d itio n s o f th e Y u g o s la v c o m m u n is t p a r ty and to th e U n ited S o c ia lis t F r o n t. T h e ir t a s k i s to c o m p e l th e ir p r e s e n t le a d e r s to r e c o g n iz e th e ir m is t a k e s o p e n ly and h o n e s tly and to r e c t if y th em; to b r e a k w ith n a t io n a lis m, r e tu r n to in t e r n a t io n a lis m; and in e v e r y w a y to c o n s o lid a te th e u n ite d s o c i a l i s t fr o n t a g a in s t i m p e r ia lis m. S h ou ld the p r e s e n t le a d e r s o f th e Y u g o s la v c o m m u n is t p a r ty p r o v e in c a p a b le o f d oin g t h is, th e ir jo b i s to r e p la c e th e m ap^igto a d v a n ce a n e w in t e r n a t io n a lis t le a d e r s h ip of the p a r ty. 116 W hite B ook on A g g r e s s i v e A c t iv it ie s b y th e G o v e r n m e n ts of th e USSR, P o la n d, C z e c h o s lo v a k ia, H u n g a ry, R u m a n ia, B u lg a r ia and A lb a n ia T o w a r d s Y u g o s la v ia (B e o g r a d: M in is tr y o f F o r e ig n A ffa ir s o f the F e d e r a l P e o p le 's R e p u b lic o f Y u g o s la v ia, 1 9 5 1 ), pp. 7 2 - 7 5. 1 1 7 -r-r • j Ib id. 118 " C om m u n iq u e: M e e tin g o f I n fo r m a tio n B u x e a u o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r t i e s, " T h e S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v D is p u te, p. 7 0. === [PDF page 90] === 83 W ith th is in m in d, on e sh o u ld r e m e m b e r th a t an in t e r n a t io n a lis t w a s d e fin e d e a r l i e r b y S ta lin a s on e w ho s u p p o r ts and d e fe n d s th e U SSR. H ow e v e r, T ito m a in ta in e d th e su p p o r t o f h i s s u b o r d in a te s v e r y w e ll. O nly a fe w to p m e n d e s e r t e d h im o n c e th e d is p u te b e g a n. T h e Y u g o s la v s, o f c o u r s e, d e n ie d th e c h a r g e s o f th e C o m in fo r m p o in t b y p o in t. T h e d is p u te b o ile d dow n to the c o n s c io u s, y e t n o n v e r b a liz e d, q u e s tio n o f w ho w o u ld c o n tr o l Y u g o s la v ia: th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e C P Y o r o f th e C P S U. T h e Y u g o s la v s r e j e c t e d the S o v ie t 's c h a r g e th a t th e y w e r e b e h a v in g n a t io n a lis t ic a lly, c la im in g th at: T h e C. C. o f th e C P Y d o e s n o t c o n s id e r th a t by r e fu s in g to d i s c u s s th e m is t a k e s o f w h ic h i t i s n o t g u ilty, i t h a s in any w a y in ju r e d th e u n ity of t h is fr o n t. T h e u n ity o f th is fr o n t i s... b a s e d on... th e f a c t o f whpjj^er o r n o t th e p o lic y o f a p a r ty i s a c tu a lly in t e r n a t io n a lis t. E v e n tu a lly, th e Y u g o s la v 's w e r e to h u r l th e c h a r g e o f n a t io n a lis m and r e v is io n is m b a c k at th e S o v ie t U n io n. S ta lin w a s a c c u s e d of r e c a s t in g and f a ls if y in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m in o r d e r to u s e i t to j u s t if y S o v ie t p o w e r p o li t ic s. In c o n t r a s t, th e Y u g o s la v 's s e t fo r th th e th e o r y th a t e a c h C o m m u n is t p a r ty h a d the r ig h t to i t s ow n r e v o lu tio n, n o t d o m in a te d 120 b y th e S o v ie t U n ion and th e S o v ie t a r m y. T he c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is i s, 119 " S ta te m e n t o f C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f Y u g o s la v ia on the R e s o lu tio n o f th e I n fo r m a tio n B u r e a u o f C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s on th e S itu a tio n o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f Y u g o s la v ia, 29 J u n e, 1 9 4 8, " T he S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v D is p u te, p. 7 8. 120 E r n s t H a lp e r in, " R e v is io n is m and Y u g o s la v ia " in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z ( e d s. ), P o ly c e n t r is m (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 4 9, and G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, op. c it., p. 1 5 0. === [PDF page 91] === 84 P r o f e s s o r F r e d W arn er N e a l w r it e s: T he Y u g o s la v s d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n the s itu a tio n to d a y, w h en s e v e r a l s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s e x i s t, and th e s itu a tio n b e tw e e n th e w a r s, w h en th e USSR w a s the s o le s o c i a l i s t s t a t e. D u rin g th e e a r l i e r p e r io d i t m a y h a v e b e e n th e duty o f a ll c o m m u n is ts to w o r k fo r the U SSR and e v e n fo llo w S o v ie t o r d e r s. B ut S t a lin 's e f f o r t s to c a r r y th e s itu a tio n o v e r in to th e p e r io d o f s e v e r a l s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s i s c o n s id e r e d a d e v ia tio n fr o m L e n in is m and r e t a r d e d s o c i a l i s t d e v e lo p m e n t g e n e r a lly. It m u s t h a v e b e e n a s t a r t lin g e x p e r ie n c e fo r S ta lin to s e e T ito s u c c e s s f u l l y d e fy h is t ir a d e s and d e n u n c ia tio n s. C le a r ly o th e r m e a n s o f in d u c in g th e o v e r th r o w o f th e r e c a lc it r a n t Y u g o s la v s h ad to be fou nd. V ie w in g th e o v e r - a l l p ic tu r e o f th e r e m a in in g y e a r s o f S ta lin 's l i f e, on e ca n g e n e r a liz e h is a c tio n s to w a r d Y u g o s la v ia. T he USSR e a s i l y in flu e n c e d th e r e m a in in g E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n tr ie s to fo llo w i t s le a d in d e n o u n cin g a ll e c o n o m ic, m i l i t a r y and p o lit ic a l ( i. e., C o m in fo rm ) t i e s e x is t in g b e tw e e n th e ir n a tio n s and T it o 's. In e f f e c t, th e y r e s o r t e d to a v ir t u a lly c o m p le te b lo c k a d e. In a d d itio n, T ito w a s k e p t b u s y w ith b o r d e r in f r a c tio n s and r a d io and n e w s p a p e r a tta c k s; a ll o f w h ic h so u g h t to pu t p r e s s u r e on Y u g o s la v ia. T h e s e t a c t ic s w e r e n e a r ly s u c c e s s f u l. T he U S S R 's a b ility to b u ild s o c i a l i s m in on e c o u n tr y w a s b a s e d on i t s s i z e and th e e x te n t o f i t s n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s. S ta lin h a d e q u a te d the 122 USSR w ith a w o r ld in m ic r o c o s m. Y u g o s la v ia i s a s m a ll c o u n tr y and w a s u n a b le to su p p o r t i t s e l f. T h u s, c o n d itio n s in Y u g o s la v ia w e n t fr o m * ^ * F r e d W arn er N e a l, " Y u g o sla v C o m m u n ist T h e o r y," p. 4 7. 122 G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, o p. c i t., p. 1 59. === [PDF page 92] === 85 b a d to w o r s e. B y 1949 T ito w a s i s o l a t e d and fa c e d w ith a s e r io u s d ile m m a. H is c o u n tr y w a s in d e e d in n e e d o f e c o n o m ic a id. One m u s t k e e p in m in d th a t a lth o u g h T ito w a s an a m b itio u s, p r a g m a t ic p o lit ic a l le a d e r, h e w a s a ls o a C o m m u n ist. T h e r e f o r e, by d e fin itio n h e w a s ir r e v o c a b ly a n t i- c a p it a l is t. N e v e r t h e le s s, T ito a s k e d fo r and r e c e iv e d both m il it a r y and e c o n o m ic a id fr o m the U n ited S t a te s, a s w e ll a s fr o m o th e r " W estern " n a tio n s. H o w e v e r, T ito o n ly a g r e e d to a c c e p t w e s t e r n a id i f he w a s a s s u r r e d o f th e m a in te n a n c e of c o m p le te in d e p e n d e n c e. B y c o o p e r a tin g w ith th e " W estern " c a p it a l is t s, the Y u g o s la v s h a d "p roven " to th e s a t is f a c t io n of n o n -Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ists th a t th e y w e r e in d e e d th e " h ir e lin g s o f th e i m p e r i a l i s t s, " a " c liq u e of h ir e d m u r d e r e r s and s p ie s " and " Y u g o sla v F a s c i s t s, " a s th ey had b e e n 123 c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y th e C o m in fo r m r e s o lu t io n o f N o v e m b e r, 1 9 4 9. Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ism p o s it s th a t in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism i s n o t an o r g a n iz e d f o r c e, s p e c if ic a l ly r e j e c tin g th e th e o r y o f w o r ld r e v o lu tio n. H o w e v e r, w o r ld C o m m u n is m i s in e v it a b le s in c e a ll c o u n t r ie s, c o n s c io u s ly o r u n c o n s c io u s ly, g r a v ita te c o n s ta n tly and in e x o r a b ly to w a r d s it. T h u s, s in c e e a c h s ta te c o n ta in s w ith in i t e le m e n t s o f s o c i a l i s m, th e r e i s no in h e r e n t c o n f lic t b e tw e e n S o c i a l is t and C a p it a lis t n a tio n s and th e L e n in is t - S t a lin is t t h e o r ie s on th e in e v it a b ilit y o f c a p it a lis t h o s t ilit y r j. 124 a r e n o t v a lid 123 E r n s t H a lp e r in, op. c it., p. 4 8. 124 F r e d W a rn er N e a l, T it o is m in A c tio n, pp. 1 6 -1 7. === [PDF page 93] === 86 T h e S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v d is p u te and the r e s u lt a n t a d v e n t o f a f u l l b lo w n p a r t ic u l a r is t ic C o m m u n ism e s p o u s e d b y an in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ist P a r ty in Y u g o s la v ia c r e a t e d a to t a lly n e w and u n e x p e c te d p h en o m e n o n in in t e r n a t io n a l a f f a ir s. S t a lin 's r e s p o n s e w a s to e x c o m m u n ic a te th e o ffe n d e r a s a n o n - s o c i a l i s t and th e n s e a l o ff tne r e s t o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e fr o m a n y c o n ta c t w ith the h e r e t i c. S ta lin, o f c o u r s e, d id n o t e x p e c t T it o 's s u c c e s s f u l r e s i s t a n c e. H o w e v e r, w h a t h is p o lic y m ig h t h a v e b e e n i f h e had i s a m o o t p o in t. In an y e v e n t, th e Y u g o s la v e x p e r ie n c e w a s o n ly th e f i r s t s ig n a l th a t an in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist s y s t e m c o m p o s e d of n a t io n - s t a t e s w o u ld n o t fu n c tio n e f f e c t iv e l y u n d e r th e p r e v io u s s y s t e m o f a b s o lu te o b e d ie n c e to the S o v ie t U nion. B y 1 9 5 2, S ta lin r e c o g n iz e d th e n ew o ff e n s iv e p o te n tia l of th e p o lic y h e had b e e n p u r s u in g d e f e n s iv e ly. He b e lie v e d th a t, a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e S e c o n d W orld W ar, the a ll e m b r a c in g c a p it a lis t w o r ld m a r k e t h ad c o lla p s e d and th e c a p it a lis t s y s t e m h ad e n te r e d a s ta g e o f d e e p e n in g 125 gen eral c r is is. C o n tr a d ic tio n s b e tw e e n th e c a p it a l is t s t a t e s h ad r e a c h e d su c h a p o in t th at w a r b e tw e e n th e m w a s n ow m o r e lik e ly th an b e tw e e n th e c a p it a lis t s t a t e s and the S o v ie t U n io n. T h u s, th e t h e s is o f c a p it a lis t s t a b ilit y w a s no lo n g e r v a lid; th e s h iftin g b a la n c e o f p o w e r w o u ld im p r o v e th e S o v ie t U n io n 's p o s itio n. In 1 9 5 2, a t th e N in e te e n th P a r ty C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U, th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n is ts d e p a r te d fr o m p r e v io u s S o v ie t f o r e ig n p o lic y in tw o n o ta b le 125 M a r sh a ll D. Shulm an, op. cit., p. 243. === [PDF page 94] === 87 w a y s. F i r s t, i t w a s a c k n o w le d g e d th a t th e tid e o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m en t had changed. T he w e a k e n e d c h a r a c t e r o f th e c a p it a l is t s t a t e s in e f f e c t h ad m a d e p o s s ib le a n o n - m ilit a r y C o m m u n ist o f f e n s iv e. T h u s, the w e a k e n e d c o n d itio n o f th e c a p it a lis t s t a t e s and th e c o n tr a d ic tio n s b e tw e e n th em m a d e p o s s ib le a p o lic y o f t a c t ic a l c o e x is t e n c e b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n ion and th o s e c a p it a lis t s t a t e s. S e c o n d ly, a n o n - m ilit a r y c o m p e tit iv e o ff e n s iv e co u ld be b a s e d on th e e m e r g in g f o r c e s o f n a t io n a lis m in th e u n d e r d e v e lo p e d a r e a s o f th e w o r ld. T h is p o s itio n w a s b a s e d on 126 L e n in 's t h e s i s o f th e tw o s t a g e s o f r e v o lu tio n. In th e f i r s t s t a g e, in d ig e n o u s n a t io n a lis t s, a s in h e r e n t b e l i e v e r s in a sta te s u p e r s t r u c t u r e, m a y a tte m p t to ch a n g e th e sub o r i n f r a s t r u c tu r e. T he m a jo r p u r p o s e, h o w e v e r, i s to im p r o v e th e s ta te b y d e s tr o y in g a p e r c e iv e d e v i l, e. g., c o lo n ia lis m and c a p it a lis m. T h is f i r s t s ta g e m a y g iv e th e lo c a l C o m m u n ist p a r ty an o p p o r tu n ity to p a r t ic i p a te and a d v a n c e, i f n e c e s s a r y, fr o m i l l e g a l to le g a l s ta t u s. H ow ever, th is s ta g e of th e r e v o lu tio n d o e s n o t r e s o lv e a n y th in g, i t s im p ly i n c r e a s e s the o p p o r tu n itie s fo r the S o v ie t U n io n. It i s th e s e c o n d s ta g e w h ic h c o m p r i s e s th e tr u e s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n. G iv en th e ab o v e th e o r y, i t w a s b e lie v e d th a t, a t b e s t, n a t io n a lis m m ig h t tak e on a s o c i a l i s t c o lo r a t io n and, a t w o r s t, i t s d e v e lo p m e n t w o u ld 126 F o r a s im ila r c o n te m p o r a r y e x p la n a tio n o f th e S o v ie t U n ion ’ s p o s itio n on th is s u b je c t, r e f e r to V. L. T y a g u n e n k o, ’’P r e s e n t N a tio n a l L ib e r a tio n R e v o lu t io n s,11 P r a v d a (M a rch 18, 1 9 6 5 ). T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts III (A p r il 5, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 2 0 - 2 4. === [PDF page 95] === 88 fu r th e r w e a k e n the c a p it a l is t b a s e, th u s e n h a n c in g th e S o v ie t U n io n ’ s position. 1 2 7 H e n c e, M a le n k o v, a s S t a lin 's s p o k e s m a n, w a s a b le to s ta te: T h e S o v ie t p o lic y o f p e a c e and s e c u r it y fo r n a tio n s i s b a s e d on th e p r e m is e th a t th e p e a c e fu l c o - e x i s t e n c e o f c a p it a lis m and C o m m u n ism and c o o p e r a tio n a r e q u ite p o s s ib le, g iv e n a m u tu a l d e s ir e to c o o p e r a t e, r e a d in e s s to c a r r y out c o m m itm e n ts u n d e r ta k e n, and o b s e r v a n c e o f th e p r in c ip le o f e q u a lity and n o n - in t e r f e r e n c e in th e in t e r n a l a f f a ir s o f o th e r s t a t e s. * 2 ® A s fo r p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e, th e in e v it a b ilit y o f c a p it a lis t h o s t i l it y and i n t e r - c a p it a l is t w a r g a v e i t a te m p o r a r y c h a r a c t e r. It c e r t a in ly 12 d id n o t im p ly c o n c ilia t io n, s e t t le m e n t, n o r " s o ft w o r d s fo r th e w e s t. " T he c h a n g e r e g a r d in g n a t io n a lis m w a s a ls o c o n c e iv e d a s a t e m p o r a r y t a c t ic, s in c e M a r x is t th e o r y p o s it s th a t w ith th e a d v e n t o f c o m m u n is t s o c ie t y, th e s ta te w il l w ith e r a w a y and n a tio n a l b o u n d a r ie s w ith th e ir r e s u lt a n t d if fe r e n t ia tio n s w ill w ith e r a w a y w ith it. H o w e v e r, non e o f t h is m e a n t th e a p p r o v a l o f any m a n ife s t a tio n of p a r t ic u l a r is t ic n a t io n a lis m on th e p a r t of th o s e s t a t e s w ith C o m m u n ist g o v e r n m e n ts. S ta lin fou nd it n e c e s s a r y, a t in t e r v a ls, to e x p la in to h is fe llo w C o m m u n is ts th e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m 127 M a r s h a ll D. S h u lm a n, op. c i t., p. 9. 128 M a le n k o v, " R e p o r t o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e " q u o ted in L eo G r u lio w ( e d.), C u r r e n t S o v ie t P o l i c i e s: T he N in e te e n th P a r ty C o n g r e s s (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 5 3 ), p. 10 1. 129 M a r s h a ll S h u lm a n, op. c i t., p. 2 5 2, and R ic h a r d C. G ripp, op. c it., pp. 2 6 4 - 2 6 5. === [PDF page 96] === 89 (i. e., lo y a lt y to th e S o v ie t Union) and n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e (i. e., in d e p e n d e n c e fr o m W e s te r n im p e r ia l is m ). T h e p r o b le m s c r e a t e d by th e a d v e n t o f S o c ia lis m in m o r e th an one c o u n tr y h a d n o t a s y e t b e e n s o lv e d, n o r had th e y a c tu a lly b e e n fa c e d. H o w e v e r, w ith th e C h in e se C o m m u n ists* s u c c e s s o f 1 9 4 9, th e n e c e s s i t y o f r e - e v a lu a t in g th e S o v ie t U n ion ’ s p o lic y to w a r d o th e r C o m m u n is t r e g im e s sh o u ld h a v e b e c o m e o b v io u s. W ith th is e v e n t, th e S o v ie t U n ion e n te r e d in to a n ew p h a se o f in t e r - C o m m u n is t r e la t io n s. The f ir s t p h a se w a s c h a r a c t e r iz e d by th e e x is t e n c e o f S o c ia lis m o n ly w ith in th e S o v ie t U n ion i t s e l f. T he s e c o n d p h a se w it n e s s e d th e a d v e n t o f " S a te llite " s t a t e s su b o r d in a te to th e S o v ie t U n io n. H o w e v e r, th is n e w p h a s e w a s n ow c h a r a c t e r iz e d by th e a r r iv a l o f C o m m u n ist C h in a, n o t s u b o r d in a te to th e S o v ie t U nion. T he a d v e n t o f th e C h in e se C o m m u n ist s ta te c r e a t e d a s itu a tio n m u ch d if fe r e n t fr o m th at o f Y u g o s la v ia. H o w e v e r, th e r e w e r e s o m e s tr ik in g s im ila r itie s. T h e C h in e s e, in s p ir e d b y M a r x is t - L e n in is t i d e a l s, had fo u g h t a s u s ta in e d w a r fo r tw en ty y e a r s a g a in s t th e n a t io n a lis t G o v e r n m e n t o f C hin a. T h ey to o h ad b e e n s u b je c t to S ta lin * s a p p e a ls f o r ca u tio n b a s e d on th e c o n c e p t o f th e eb b tid e o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t. T h ey to o h ad r e li e d on g u e r r illa w a r fa r e c o n d u c te d in th e r u r a l a r e a s o f C hina, in s t e a d o f w o r k in g th ro u g h the u rb a n p r o le t a r ia t. T h e y to o w e r e p r e s e n te d w ith a t a s k o f o p p o sin g a l e g a lly s o v e r e ig n g o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r te d === [PDF page 97] === 90 b y the C o m m u n is ts in M o sc o w. H o w e v e r, Y u g o s la v ia w a s s m a ll and w a s, fo r a t im e, su b o r d in a te to S o v ie t in f lu e n c e. C hina b y c o n tr a s t, w a s a la r g e c o u n tr y o f f ic ia lly 131 d e s ig n a te d a s one o f th e " B ig F iv e P o w e r s " in th e w o r ld. A fte r th e ir s u c c e s s, S ta lin e x c e e d e d h im s e lf in e f f o r t s to t r e a t C hina a s an e q u a l, i f n o t in id e o lo g ic a l t e r m s, th en in t e r m s o f r e la t iv e p o w e r. T h e C h in e s e o w ed th e ir id e o lo g ic a l fr a m e w o r k to th e S o v ie t C o m m u n is t s, b u t th a t w a s a ll. I t i s tr u e th a t in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e " R u s s ific a tio n " o f C h in a, th e r e w a s g e n u in e e m o tio n a l e n th u s ia s m fo r th e S o v ie t U nion a s th e b ir th p la c e o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m. H ow ever, as G e o ffr e y H u d son m a in ta in s: I t g o e s v e r y m u c h a g a in s t th e g r a in fo r th e C h in e s e to d r a w t h e ir id e o lo g y fr o m a fo r e ig n c o u n tr y a t a l l... In the lo n g run a c c e p ta n c e b o th o f a f o r e ig n d o c tr in e and of a fo r e ig n a u th o r ity to in t e r p r e t i t w e r e in c o m p a ta b le w ith th e s p i r i t o f th e in t e n s e n a t io n a lis m w h ic h so u g h t to r e s t o r e th e 130 F o r S o v ie t p o lic y to w a r d s C hina p r io r to 1949 r e f e r to: M ax B e lo ff, S o v ie t P o lic y in th e F a r E a s t 1 9 4 4 -1 9 5 1 (L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1953); C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, S o v ie t P o lic y and th e C h in e se C o m m u n is ts 1 9 3 1 -1 9 4 6 (N ew Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1958); K la u s M e h n e r t, P e k in g and M o sc o w (N ew Y ork: G. P. P u tn a m 's S o n s, 1963); G e o r g e P a lo o z e - H o r v a t h, M ao T s e -T u n g: E m p e r o r o f th e B lu e A n ts (G a rd en C ity: D o u b led a y and C o., I n c., 1963); E d g a r Sn ow, R ed S ta r O v er C hina (N ew Y o rk: G ro v e P r e s s, I n c., 1938); and T h e O th er S id e o f th e R iv e r: R ed C h in a T o d a y (N ew Y ork: R an d om H o u s e, 1 9 6 1 ). 131 'T his s ta tu s b e lo n g s to C hina a s s u c h, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e th e r th e J_U. N._/ s e a t i s h e ld by a d e le g a te fr o m P e k in g o r fr o m T a ip e h. " G e o ffr e y H u d so n, " R u s s ia and C hina" in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z, P o ly c e n t r is m (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 3 9. === [PDF page 98] === 91 132 p a s t g r e a t n e s s and c r e a t i v e n e s s o f C h in a 's c iv iliz a t io n. In r e b u ild in g th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty in C h in a, M ao T s e - T u n g b e c a m e d is illu s i o n e d w ith th e u r b a n p r o le t a r ia t. O nce a g a in, h e tu r n e d h is a tte n tio n to th e p e a s a n tr y, s u b s ta n tia lly a lte r in g th e C o m m u n is t c o n c e p t o f r e v o lu tio n. M ao ad d ed a d is t in c t iv e fla v o r to C o m m u n ist r e v o lu tio n, s t r e s s i n g p r o tr a c te d g u e r illa w a r f a r e, th e g r a d u a l a c q u is i tio n o f la n d b a s e s, and th e s u b s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t o f a r e v o lu tio n a r y arm y. I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d th a t w h a t the B o ls h e v ik s a c c o m p lis h e d in a r e la t iv e l y s h o r t tim e in R u s s i a, to o k M ao and th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t s m o r e th an tw o d e c a d e s. S e v e r a l p a s s a g e s fr o m M a o 's a r t i c le e n tit le d, "Our G e n e r a l P r o g r a m, " w r it t e n in 1 9 4 5, h e lp to illu m in a t e th e d if fe r e n t ia te d e x te n t o f th e C h in e s e e x p e r ie n c e. In th is a r t i c l e, M ao s u b s ta n tia lly b r o a d e n s the c o n c e p t o f b o u r g e o is r e v o lu tio n. H e w r o te: W hat th en do w e p r o p o s e? We p r o p o s e th e e s t a b lis h m e n t, a f t e r th e th o ro u g h d e fe a t o f th e J a p a n e s e a g g r e s s o r s, o f a s ta te s y s t e m w h ic h w e c a ll N e w D e m o c r a c y, n a m e ly, a u n ite d -fr o n t d e m o c r a t ic a llia n c e b a s e d on th e o v e r w h e lm in g m a^ g^ ity o f the p e o p le, u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s. M ao g o e s on to q u ote n o t M a r x, bu t D r. Sun Y a t - s e n, th e C h in e se n a tio n a l i s t h e r o, to th e e f f e c t that: 132 G e o ffr e y H u d so n, op. c it., p. 4 1. 133 M ao T s e - T u n g, "Our G e n e r a l P r o g r a m " (p a rt o f a p o lit ic a l r e p o r t d e liv e r e d to the S e v e n th N a tio n a l C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty of C h in a, A p r il 2 4, 1 9 4 5 ). R e p r in te d in S e le c t e d W ork s o f M ao T s e -T u n g III (P e k in g: P e o p le 's P u b lis h in g H o u s e, I 9 6 0 ), p. 2 7 9. === [PDF page 99] === 92 T he s o - c a l l e d d e m o c r a tic s y s t e m in m o d e r n s t a t e s i s u s u a lly m o n o p o liz e d by the b o u r g e o is ie and h a s b e c o m e s im p ly an in s tr u m e n t fo r o p p r e s s in g tn e c o m m o n p e o p le. On th e o th e r h a n d, th e K u o m in ta n g 's P r in c ip le o f D e m o c r a c y m e a n s a d e m o c r a t ic s y s t e m s h a r e d by a ll th e c o m m o n p e o p le and n o t p r iv a t e ly ow n ed b y th e fe w. A g a in r e f e r r in g to D r. Sun, M ao c a lls fo r a d e m o c r a tic r e v o lu tio n p r io r to th e s o c i a l i s t and C o m m u n is t s t a g e s o f L en in: On jo in in g tn e P a r t y, e v e r y C o m m u n ist h a s tw o c le a r ly - d e fin e d o b j e c t iv e s a t h e a r t, th e n e w - d e m o c r a t ic r e v o lu tio n now and s o c i a l i s m and c o m m u n is m in th e fu tu r e... ^ In tw o c o n c lu d in g p a s s a g e s, M ao e x p lic it ly d e a ls w ith h is v a r ia n c e fr o m th e R u s s ia n m o d e l. He sta te s: S o m e p e o p le a r e s u s p ic io u s and th in k th a t o n c e in p o w e r, th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty w i l l fo llo w R u s s i a 's e x a m p le and e s t a b lis h th e d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t and a o n e - p a r t y s y s t e m. Our a n s w e r i s th a t a n e w - d e m o c r a t ic s ta te b a s e d on an a llia n c e of th e d e m o c r a t ic c l a s s e s i s d if fe r e n t in p r in c ip l^ ^ g o m a s o c i a l i s t s ta te u n d er th e d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t. And: T h e C h in e s e s y s t e m fo r th e p r e s e n t s ta g e i s b e in g sh a p e d b y the p r e s e n t s ta g e o f C h in e s e h is t o r y, and fo r a lo n g tim e to c o m e th e r e w ill e x i s t a s p e c ia l fo r m o f s ta te and p o lit ic a l p o w e r, a fo r m th a t i s d is tin g u is h e d fr o m th e R u s s ia n s y s t e m but i s p e r f e c t ly n e c e s s a r y and r e a s o n a b le fo r u s, n a m e ly, th e n e w - d e m o c r a tic fo r m o f s ta te and p o li t ic a l p o w e r b a s e d on the a llia n c e o f th e d e m o c r a t ic c l a s s e s. 134 Ib id., p. 2 8 0. 135 [Unreadable] 136Ib id., p. 2 8 4. 137 [Unreadable] === [PDF page 100] === 93 T he C h in e s e e m p h a s is on r u r a l and a g r ic u ltu r a l a r e a s p r o v id e s n o n -in d u s tr ia l a r e a s w ith a p o s it iv e v a lu e, in sh a r p c o n t r a s t to the " W e st's" (in clu d in g th e S o v ie t U nion) c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n o f th e m a s u n d e r d e v e lo p e d. T h u s i t i s n ot s u r p r is in g th a t th e C h in e s e p o s itio n h a s a tt r a c te d the n o t ic e o f n o n -M a r x is t in t e l le c t u a ls in th e s e n o n - in d u s t r ia liz e d n a t io n - s t a t e s. A s an e x a m p le, P r e s id e n t L e o p o ld S e n g h o r o f S e n e g a l, h a s s ta te d: I t i s c le a r th a t a g r ic u ltu r a l d e v e lo p m e n t c o n d itio n s a ll o th e r d e v e lo p m e n ts e v e n in th e s o - c a l l e d " d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s." M a r x did n o t u n d e r sta n d th is: L e n in b e g a n to^ u n d ersta n d it: M ao T s e - t u n g h a s u n d e r s to o d i t p e r f e c t l y. In any e v e n t, fr o m 1949 u n til the T w e n tie th P a r t y C o n g r e s s o f the C P SU in 1 9 5 6, S in o -S o v ie t r e la t io n s, a lth o u g h fr e q u e n tly u n e a s y, w e r e n e v e r r e a ll y d if fic u lt. On M a rc h 5, 1 9 5 3, S ta lin d ie d. L ittle w a s know n a b ou t w h a t w o u ld b e the fa te o f C o m m u n ism in th e d y n a m ic s tr u g g le fo r p o w e r th a t fo llo w e d. W ild e x p e c t a tio n s w e r e r a is e d b y s o m e o b s e r v e r s w ho f e l t th a t S o v ie t p o w e r w o u ld d is in t e g r a t e on th e r o c k s o f th e s u c c e s s io n q u e s tio n. H ow e v e r, w ith a r e v iv a l o f th e c o lle c t i v e le a d e r s h ip p r in c ip le, the S o v ie t U nion m a d e a c o n c e r te d e ffo r t to a ffe c t an o r d e r ly t r a n s it io n o f p o w e r. I t so o n b e c a m e e v id e n t th a t th e n e w le a d e r s h ip in th e S o v ie t U nion w a s ex p a n d in g the s c o p e o f S t a lin 's c o n c e p tio n o f p e a c e fu l c o - e x is t e n c e to 138 L e o p o ld S e n g h o r, e x c e r p t e d in "D akar C o llo q u im: S e a r c h fo r a D e fin itio n, " A fr ic a n R e p o r t (M ay, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 15. === [PDF page 101] === 94 139 in c lu d e th e p o s s ib ilit y o f s p e c if ic s e t t le m e n t s w ith the " W e st. " H ow e v e r, i t w a s n o t u n til K h r u s h c h e v ’ s r e p o r t to the T w e n tie th P a r ty C o n g r e s s th at a s p e c if ic r e v is io n b e c a m e e v id e n t. A n e w o r ie n ta tio n to w a r d th e ir E a s t e r n n e ig h b o r s w a s e f f e c t e d a lm o s t im m e d ia t e ly b y th e n e w S o v ie t l e a d e r s. T h e K r e m lin w a s u n d o u b te d ly in flu e n c e d by the E a s t G e rm a n and C z e c h o s lo v a k ia n r io t s in the s p r in g o f 1 9 5 3. T h e o b je c tiv e o f t h e s e r io t s w a s th e r e d u c tio n or te r m in a t io n o f th e " R u s s ific a tio n " p r a c t ic e s o f th e USSR and th e l i b e r a l i z a tio n o f lo c a l C o m m u n ist r u le. M o sc o w s o o n b e g a n to m a k e o v e r t u r e s to w a r d s a n o r m a liz a tio n o f r e la t io n s w ith B e lg r a d e. T ito f o r c e d th e S o v ie t U n ion to m a k e a ll the a d v a n ces. A g e n e r a l r e la x a t io n o f t e n s io n s w a s p u r s u e d a t a g r a d u a l pace. In J u ly o f 1 9 5 3, th e S o v ie t U nion s u g g e s te d th a t th e tw o c o u n tr ie s e x c h a n g e a m b a s s a d o r s, to w h ic h th e Y u g o s la v s a g r e e d. T he o th e r E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s so o n fo llo w e d. In a d d itio n, th e lo n g r e c u r r in g b o r d e r in c id e n t s, w h ic h h a d so a n g e r e d th e Y u g o s la v s, d e c lin e d, th en sto p p e d. B y th e s u m m e r o f 1 9 5 4, T ito h ad a c c e p t e d e c o n o m ic a g r e e m e n ts w ith both th e K r e m lin and th e o th e r c o u n tr ie s o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e. H ow ever, th e s e S o v ie t g e s t u r e s d id n o t e f f e c t T it o 's in d e p e n d e n t a c tio n. In fa c t, a lm o s t im m e d ia t e ly a fte r s e c u r in g e c o n o m ic a g r e e m e n t s w ith the 139 M a r s h a ll S h u lm a n, l o c. c i t. 140 H e lm u t S o n n e n fe ld t, " F o r e ig n P o lic y fr o m M a len k o v to K h r u sh c h e v, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 12. === [PDF page 102] === 95 C o m m u n ist b lo c in A u g u st o f 1 9 5 4, T ito s ig n e d a m ilit a r y p a c t w ith tw o m e m b e r s o f N A T O, T u r k e y and G r e e c e. T he s a m e b r e e d o f C o m m u n ist " e x p e r ts" th a t had f o r e c a s t th e b rea k u p o f th e S o v ie t U n ion o v e r S t a lin 's s u c c e s s o r p r e d ic te d th a t Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld so o n jo in N A T O and b u t t r e s s th e W e ste r n sta n d a g a in s t R u s s ia. H o w e v e r, th e Y u g o s la v s w e r e and a r e o p p o se d to both N A T O and th e W a r sa w P a c t on the g r o u n d s th a t, a s b lo c s, th e y je o p a r d iz e the 141 p o s s ib ilit y o f c o e x is t e n c e and i n c r e a s e th e r is k s o f w a r. In an y e v e n t, T ito h a s c a u tio n e d, "Do n o t m a k e o f u s w h a t w e a r e not; w e a r e C o m m u n is t s, " and th u s i t w a s u n lik e ly th a t th e y w o u ld jo in any o v e r t a n ti- C o m m u n ist a llia n c e. T ito, a s a C o m m u n is t, d id d e s ir e a n o r m a liz a tio n o f r e la t io n s w ith h is C o m m u n is t n e ig h b o r s, b u t w ith c e r ta in r e s e r v a t i o n s. On N o v e m b e r 2 2, 1 954, T ito a u th o r iz e d a n e w s p a p e r a r t ic l e th a t co n ten d ed th a t Y u g o s la v ia m u st m ak e: ... i t c le a r to th e o th e r s id e, n a m e ly th e S o v ie t U nion and th e E a s t e r n c o u n t r ie s, th a t w e /Y u g o s la v ia /c a n n o t im p r o v e ou r r e la t io n s h ip s w ith th e m a t th e e x p e n s e and to th e d e t r i m e n t o f ou r r e la t io n s w ith th e w e s t e r n c o u n t r ie s, th a t th e y m u s t r e a l i z e o n c e and fo r a ll th a t w e a r e co n d u ctin g our ow n f o r e ig n p o lic y, th a t w e ca n n o t q u a r r e l or b r e a k - o f f r e la t io n s w ith w e s t e r n c o u n t r ie s... fo r ^ ge s o le p u r p o se o f im p r o v in g ou r r e la t io n s w ith the e a s t. 141 F r e d W arn er N e a l, " Y u g o sla v C o m m u n ist T h e o r y, " p. 4 9. 142 Q u oted in G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, o p. c i t., p. 422. === [PDF page 103] === S o v ie t a tte m p ts a t r a p p r o c h e m e n t co n tin u e d d e s p ite T it o 's c o o ln e s s. B u lg a n in and K h r u sh c h e v e v id e n tly a c c e p t e d T it o 's a lo o f n e s s and s w a llo w e d t h e ir p r id e, fo r in 1955 th e y m a d e the h u m ilia tin g g e s t u r e o f jo u r n e y in g to B e lg r a d e. U pon th e ir a r r iv a l in B e lg r a d e on M ay 2 6, 1 9 5 5, K h r u sh c h e v p u b lic a lly a p o lo g iz e d fo r th e p a s t co n d u ct o f the S o v ie t U n io n. A lth ou gh K h r u s h c h e v g u a r d e d ly a c c e p t e d th e th e o r y th a t th e r e w a s m o r e th an one 143 p ath to s o c i a l i s m, T ito r e m a in e d a lo o f a t th is in i t i a l m e e t in g. B y Jun e 2, th e n e g o tia t io n s b e tw e e n th e R u s s ia n h e a d s o f s ta te and T ito h ad c u lm in a te d in a j o in t - d e c la r a t io n in w h ic h both s id e s " a g r e e d to ta k e fu r th e r s t e p s to w a r d s n o r m a liz a tio n o f th e ir r e la t io n s and p r o m o tio n o f c o o p e r a tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o c o u n t r ie s." S p e c if i c a lly, T ito r e c e iv e d a p r o m is e fr o m th e S o v ie ts in s u r in g th e ir " c o m p lia n c e w ith th e p r in c ip le of m u tu a l r e s p e c t f o r, and n o n - in t e r f e r e n c e in in t e r n a l a f f a ir s ... w h e th e r o f an e c o n o m ic, p o li t ic a l o r id e o lo g ic a l n a tu r e.... " In a d d itio n, K h r u sh c h e v p r o m is e d " to e lim in a te e v e r y fo r m o f p ro p a g a n d a and m is in f o r m a t io n a s w e ll a s o th e r f o r m s o f co n d u ct w h ic h c r e a t e d i s - tru st... B y F e b r u a r y o f 1 9 5 5, M a len k o v w a s e a s e d out o f j o in t - c o n t r o l of S o v ie t p o li t ic s b y K h r u sh c h e v. 143 T h e N ew Y ork T i m e s, M ay 2 7, 1 9 5 5. 144Ib id., Ju n e 3, 1 95 5. === [PDF page 104] === 97 C h ap ter 3: T he D is in te g r a tio n o f U n ity In F e b r u a r y o f 1956 and w ith K h r u sh c h e v p r a c t ic a lly s u p r e m e w ith in th e U SSR, h e d e liv e r e d a s p e e c h b e fo r e th e T w e n tie th P a r ty C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U. In t h is s p e e c h h e d is a s s o c ia t e d h is r e g im e fr o m S ta lin 's p o lic ie s. K h r u sh c h e v d e n o u n c ed S ta lin fo r h is " c r im e s " and a c c u s e d h im o f d e v e lo p in g a " c u lt o f th e p e r s o n a lit y. " T h e r e w e r e th r e e fu n d a m e n ta l a r e a s o f ch a n g e in th e n ew fo r e ig n p o lic y s e t fo r th b y K h r u sh c h e v a t th e T w e n tie th P a r ty C o n g r e s s. The f i r s t c o n c e r n e d th e L e n in is t p r in c ip le c o n c e r n in g th e in e v it a b ilit y of w ar. K h r u sh c h e v c o n te n d e d th a t a w a r w o u ld no lo n g e r in e v it a b ly b e c a u s e d b y c a p it a lis t s due to th e s tr e n g th o f th e n o n - c a p it a lis t " p e a c e - 145 lo v in g " f o r c e s. T h is r e in te r p r e ta tio n w a s b o ls t e r e d b y th e b e l i e f in th e S o c ia lis t b lo c 's in c r e a s e d s tr e n g th v i s - a - v i s th e " W est" and K h r u s h c h e v 's b e lie f th a t the S o v ie t U n ion w a s no lo n g e r a C o m m u n ist is la n d in a h o s t ile c a p it a l is t s e a. In e f f e c t, i t w a s n ow a b le, in co n ju n c tio n w ith o th e r " p e a c e - lo v in g f o r c e s, " to in flu e n c e the c a p it a l is t s t a t e s s o th a t a 145 H a r r y S. D in e r s t e in, W ar and th e S o v ie t U nion (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 8 0 -8 1; N. S. K h r u sh c h e v, "On P e a c e f u l C o e x is t e n c e," F o r e ig n A ffa ir s XXXVIII (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 8; a d d r e s s to th e n in th a ll G e rm a n c o n fe r e n c e o f tr a d e -u n io n and p la n t o f f i c i a l s, L e ip z ig, G DR, T a s s (M a rch 2 5, 1 9 5 9 ), q u o ted in N. H. M a g e r and J a c q u e s K a te l ( e d s. ), C o n q u e st W ithout W ar (N ew Y ork: S im o n & S c h u s t e r, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 69; "Som e F u n d a m e n ta l Q u e s tio n s of P r e s e n t D a y I n te r n a tio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t - - R e p o r t o f the C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C P SU to th e tw e n tie th p a r ty C o n g r e s s (F e b r u a r y 1 9 5 6, " e x c e r p t s q u o ted in A lv in Z. R u b in s te in, op. c it., p. 2 8 5. === [PDF page 105] === 98 w a r c o u ld b e a v o id e d. In a d d itio n to t h is, th e r e w a s an a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e d e s t r u c t iv e c a p a b ility o f n u c le a r w e a p o n s. T h ese w eapons th r e a t e n e d th e v e r y e x is t e n c e o f C o m m u n ism, a s w e ll a s any o th e r l i f e - f o r m. K h r u sh c h e v h i m s e l f h a s sta te d: You kn ow th a t i f a n e w f r e e - f o r - a l l e n s u e d, th e r e w o u ld be n o th in g l e f t to grow; a s w e s a y in R u s s ia, "It w i l l be to o la te to c r y o v e r l o s t h a ir a fte r y o u r h e a d i s cu t o ff. "146 I d e o lo g ic a lly, M a r x is m i s in a b ad w a y i f one a c c e p t s th e p r e m is e th a t no s o c ie t y c a n s u r v iv e a n u c le a r w a r and th en c o n te n d s th a t th e c o n s e - 147 q u en ce o f a n u c le a r w a r i s in e v it a b le d o o m. T h u s, b e c a u s e o f th e s h ift in th e w o r ld r a tio o f p o w e r and th e a d v e n t of n u c le a r w e a p o n s, " p e a c e fu l c o e x is t e n c e " w a s e x te n d e d fr o m S t a lin 's te m p o r a r y e x p e d ie n t to K h r u s h c h e v 's lo n g - r u n n e c e s s i t y. T he s e c o n d a r e a o f ch a n g e c o n c e r n e d th e c o n c e p ts o f the n e c e s s i t y o f v io le n c e in th e s e c o n d s ta g e o f L e n in 's tw o s ta g e r e v o lu tio n and th e c o n c o m ita n t c o n c e p t of "just" and "unjust" w a r s. L en in d r e w a d ic h o to m y b e tw e e n "ju st" and "unjust" w a r s. D o m e s t ic r e v o lu tio n a r y a n d /o r d e fe n s iv e w a r s w e r e "ju st"; im p e r i a l i s t i c c a p it a lis t w a r s w e r e " u n ju st. ” In th a t c o n te x t, S ta lin b e lie v e d th a t w h en th e tid e c h a n g e d, th e S o v ie t U n ion sh o u ld b e in a p o s it io n to e x te n d m a t e r ia l a id to s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu t io n a r ie s. 146 N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, R e m a r k s a t T w en tieth C e n tu r y -P o x S tu d io s, S e p te m b e r 19, 1959; q u o ted in N. H. M a g er and J a c q u e s K a te l ( e d s. ), o p. c i t., p. 64. 147 F r e d W arn er N e a l, U.S. F o r e ig n P o lic y and th e S o v ie t U n ion, p. 28. === [PDF page 106] === 99 In t h is w a y, w a r and r e v o lu tio n w e r e s e e n a s c o m p lim e n ta r y. H ow ever, K h r u sh c h e v s tip u la te d th a t th e S o v ie t U nion m u s t a v o id n u c le a r w a r and th a t v io le n t r e v o lu tio n te n d s to e s c a la t e to g e n e r a l n u c le a r w a r. T h u s, v io le n t r e v o lu tio n sh o u ld be a v o id e d and, s in c e c a p it a lis m h a s b e e n w e a k e n e d, C o m m u n is ts c a n g a in p o w e r b y n o n -v io le n t m e a n s. T h is i s c le a r ly e x p r e s s e d b y K h r u sh c h e v in e x p la in in g w h a t h e m e a n t b y th e p h r a s e, "We s h a ll b u r y you": We a r e c o n v in c e d th a t C o m m u n ism w ill w in, a s i t p r o v id e s b e tt e r c o n d itio n s f o r the d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p r o d u c tiv e f o r c e s o f s o c ie t y, p r o v id e s the c o n d itio n s fo r th e f u l l e s t and m o s t h a r m o n io u s d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s o c ie t y in g e n e r a l and fo r e v e r y in d iv id u a l in p a r t ic u la r. C a p ita lis m fig h ts a g a in s t C o m m u n is m, b u t i t i s im p o s s ib le to a r r e s t the p r o c e s s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a n k in d. S o o n e r o r la t e r C o m m u n ism w ill w in e v e r y w h e r e in th e w o r ld, and, c o n s e q u e n tly, C o m m u n ism w i l l b u r y c a p it a lis m. T h is i s h ow m y s ta te m e n t sh o u ld be u n d e r s to o d. I t i s n o t a q u e s tio n o f s o m e o n e b u r y in g s o m e o n e p h y s ic a lly, b u t of a ch a n g e in th e s o c i a l s y s t e m in the c o u r s e o f th e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f s o c i e t y. W hen w e s a y th a t C o m m u n ism w ill b u r y c a p it a lis m, t h is d o e s n o t m e a n, o f c o u r s e, th a t th e S o v ie t p e o p le the C o m m u n ist o f the S o v ie t U n ion, w ill in t e r J_ s i c / c a p it a lis t s o f th is o r th a t c o u n tr y. N o, C o m m u n ism i s w in n in g in th e S o v ie t U n ion, and m a n y o th e r co u n trj^ g a r e n ow fo llo w in g th e ro a d o f c o m m u n is t d e v e lo p m e n t. T he th ir d a r e a of ch an g e c o n c e r n e d th e r e la t io n s b e tw e e n C o m m u n ist sta te s. K h r u sh c h e v a p p e a r e d to a c c e p t T it o 's c o n te n tio n th a t th e r e w e r e N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, I n te r v ie w w ith G a r d n e r C o w le s, b r o a d c a s t T A SS a c c o u n t, R a d io M o sc o w ( A p r il 2 5, 1 9 6 2 ). R e p r in te d in R ay m o n d L. G a rth o ff, "T he A d v a n ce d C o u n tr ie s, " in C y r il E. B la c k and T h o m a s P. T h o rn to n ( e d s. ), C o m m u n ism and R e v o lu tio n: T he S t r a t e g ic U s e s o f P o l it ic a l V io le n c e (P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, === [PDF page 107] === 100 s e v e r a l r o a d s to s o c ia l is m: A s fa r b a c k a s th e e v e o f th e G r e a t O c to b e r S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n L e n in w r o te: " a ll n a tio n s w ill a r r iv e a t s o c i a l i s m - - T h is i s in e v it a b le, but n o t a ll w ill do so in e x a c t ly th e s a m e w a y, e a c h w ill c o n tr ib u te s o m e th in g o f i t s ow n in on e o r a n o th e r fo r m o f d e m o c r a c y, one o r a n o th e r v a r ie t y o f th e d ic ta to r s h ip of th e p r o le t a r ia t, one o r a n o th e r r a te a t w h ic h s o c i a l i s t tr a n s fo r m a tio n s w ill b e e f f e c t e d in th e v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f s o c ia l l i f e. K h r u sh c h e v th en w e n t on to e n u m e r a te fo u r d iffe r e n t f o r m s of s o c i a l i s t c o n s tr u c tio n: 1) th e S o v ie t, 2) th e p e o p le 's d e m o c r a t ic, 3) 150 the C h in e s e and 4) th e Y u g o s la v. K h r u sh c h e v and the S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip, a s o p p o se d to S ta lin, b e lie v e d th a t a w id e r la titu d e in v a r io u s C o m m u n is t c o u n t r ie s c o u ld b e tu r n e d in to a d e c i s i v e s o u r c e o f s tr e n g th, S o v ie t p o w e r and w o r ld r e v o lu tio n c o u ld a d v a n c e to g e th e r w ith o u t a m a jo r c o n f lic t o f i n t e r e s t s and h e n c e w ith o u t su b o r d in a tin g one to the 151 o th e r. T h u s, the S o v ie t l e a d e r s b e lie v e d th a t a r e s t o r a t io n o f S o v ie t- Y u g o s la v r e la t io n s w a s the a p p r o p r ia te "key" to th e n ew a p p ro a c h to in t e r - C o m m u n is t r e la t io n s. T he e f f e c t o f K h r u s h c h e v 's d e c la r a t io n a t th e T w e n tie th P a r ty C on g r e s s b r o u g h t d e c is i v e r e s u lt s in Y u g o s la v ia. M o se P ija d e, P r e s id e n t o f 149 N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, op. c it., p. 2 9 9. 150 C ite d in B e r n a r d M o r r is, op. c i t., p. 13 4. 151 R ic h a r d L o w en th a l, " S c h ism A m on g th e F a ith fu l," p. 3, and B e r n a r d M o r r is, op. c i t., p. 13 3. 152 B o r is L e v it s k i, " C o e x is te n c e w ith in th e B lo c, " in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s. ), o p. c i t., p. 2 8. === [PDF page 108] === 101 the Y u g o s la v F e d e r a l A s s e m b ly and on e o f th e o r ig in a t o r s o f Y u g o s la v ia 's a n t i- S t a lin is t t h e o r i e s, w a s e n t h u s ia s t ic: S u ch a d e c is i v e and d a r in g b r e a k w ith S t a lin is m can b e ta k en a s f ir m p r o o f o f th e d e e p and s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s in the S o v ie t U n ion. A ll Y u g o s la v s h a v e m a n y r e a s o n s to be s a t is f ie d. T h e r e w a s, h o w e v e r, s t i l l an e le m e n t o f c a u tio n in Y u g o s la v ia 's r e c e p tio n o f M o s c o w 's m e s s a g e. R e g a r d le s s o f t h is, th e g e n e r a l a tm o s p h e r e c r e a t e d w a s on e in w h ic h th e S o v ie t m o v e w a s r e g a r d e d a s s o lid g r o u n d fo r r a p p r o c h e m e n t. W hen in A p r il, 1 9 5 6, th e C o m in fo r m w a s d is s o lv e d 1 54 a s no lo n g e r a p p r o p r ia te, i t g a v e T ito tr e m e n d o u s s a t is f a c t io n. On Ju n e 1, 1 9 5 6, th e d a y b e fo r e T ito a r r iv e d in M o s c o w fo r a v i s i t, V. M. M o lo to v w a s r e li e v e d o f h i s p o s t a s F o r e ig n M in is te r o f th e S o v ie t U n io n. T h is w a s a n o th e r g e s t u r e o f S o v ie t- Y u g o s la v r a p p r o c h e m e n t; n e x t to S ta lin, M o lo to v had b e e n m o s t c l o s e l y id e n t ifie d w ith th e e x c o m m u n ic a tio n o f T ito. In th e th r e e w e e k s th a t h e s ta y e d in M o sc o w, T ito a g a in m a d e i t c le a r th a t he w a s n o t c o n f e s s in g p a s t s in s; 155 th a t w a s th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f the le a d e r s h ip o f the S o v ie t U n ion. F r o m th e S o v ie t s, T ito g a in e d a r e a f fir m a tio n o f h is d e s ir e d s ta tu s. T he R u s s ia n s a g r e e d th a t a ll C o m m u n is t n a tio n s and p a r t ie s sh o u ld be in d e p e n d e n t and eq u a l; and, t h e r e f o r e, n o t d o m in a te d b y the S o v ie t U n ion. 153 Quoted in F r e d W. N e a l, T it o is m in A c tio n, p. 2 6 3. 154 A lv in Z. R u b in s te in, o p. c i t., p. 2 8 5. 155 T h o m as Ham m ond, op. cit., p. 35. === [PDF page 109] === 102 F u r t h e r m o r e, T ito g a r n e r e d a S o v ie t d e c la r a t io n th a t p le d g e d the S o v ie t U n ion to r e c o g n iz e th e c o n c e p t o f S e p a r a te P a th s to S o c ia lis m. F in a lly, K h r u sh c h e v a g r e e d th a t a lth o u g h Y u g o s la v ia and th e S o v ie t U nion w o u ld c l o s e l y c o o p e r a te in th e fu tu r e, a ll su c h c o o p e r a tio n w o u ld be p u r e ly i n *ta r y. 1 5 6 v o lu T he e f f e c t o f t h is a m o n g the n o n -S o v ie t C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s w a s v a r ie d. In C h in a, K h r u s h c h e v 's s p e e c h d en o u n cin g S ta lin w a s the c a u s e 157 o f a c u te e m b a r r a s s m e n t. It i s n ot know n to w h at e x te n t the C h in e se w e r e in fo r m e d o f K h r u s h c h e v 's in te n tio n to d e m o te and c a s t ig a te S ta lin. It i s p r o b a b le th a t th e y w e r e n o t in f o r m e d a t a ll, s in c e b oth M ao T s e -t u n g and Chu T e h, th e C h in e s e d e le g a te to th e T w e n tie th C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U, la u d e d S ta lin in th e ir s p e e c h e s. A fte r d ig e s tin g i t, th e y c o n c lu d e d th a t K h r u s h c h e v 's a tta c k upon S ta lin w o u ld c r e a t e g e n e r a l c o n fu sio n w ith in th e e n tir e C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t. T h u s, the C h in e se e f f o r t to l im it the a tta c k on S ta lin w a s p r o b a b ly a sy m p to m o f th e C h in e s e le a d e r s h i p 's f e a r o f th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t w o u ld r e s u lt fr o m K h r u s h c h e v 's a tta ck; n o t fr o m an y p a r tic u la r a d m ir a tio n o f, S o ta lin p e r s e. 1 5 8 T he e s s e n c e o f th e C h in e s e p o s itio n i s that; a lth o u g h in th e la t t e r y e a r s o f h is lif e S ta lin c u ltiv a te d th e C ult of P e r s o n a lit y and th u s l o s t 156_ Ib id. 157 G e o ffr e y H u d so n, op. c it., p. 4 2, and D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, T he S in o - S o v ie t C o n flic t, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 1 (P r in c e to n; P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 2 ), 158 Donald Z a g o ria, op. cit., p. 44. === [PDF page 110] === 103 c o n ta c t w ith th e m a s s e s, on e m u s t r e c o g n iz e th a t u n d e r h is le a d e r s h ip 159 th e S o c ia lis t B lo c w a s s tr e n g th e n e d. T h u s, v ie w e d d ia l e c t ic a lly, h e sh o u ld b e v ie w e d a s a g r e a t M a r x is t - L e n in is t le a d e r w ho c o m m itte d 160 erro rs. A s fo r th e o th e r i s s u e s r a is e d by K h r u s h c h e v, th e C h in e se e n d o r s e d th e m a jo r a s p e c t s o f h is n e w p o lic y: p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e, the p o s s ib ilit y o f n o n - v io le n t t r a n s it io n to s o c i a l i s m and th e no lo n g e r f a t a lis t ic in e v it a b ilit y o f w a r. H o w e v e r, th e C h in e s e b e g a n to w o n d e r i f, a s K h r u s h c h e v 's d e n u n c ia tio n o f S ta lin s e e m e d to in d ic a t e, a c o n g r e s s o f th e C P SU a lo n e co u ld d e te r m in e p o lic y fo r th e w h o le I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t. T he E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s m ig h t a c c e p t su c h a situ a tio n; th e C h in e s e w o u ld n o t. A s fo r th e E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s, K h r u sh c h e v h ad h o p ed fo r a c o n tr o lle d lib e r a liz a t io n o f th e ir r e la t io n s h ip w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n. T he g r o w in g t e n s io n in t h e s e c o u n t r ie s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t S o v ie t d o m in a tio n c o u ld n ot b e ig n o r e d. H o w e v e r, i t i s u n lik e ly th a t th e S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip 159 On the H is t o r ic a l E x p e r ie n c e o f th e D ic ta to r s h ip o f TH E P r o le t a r ia t (P ek in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e P r e s s, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 8 - 9. ^^*John E. R u e, M a o ism in C hina: M a o 's E a r ly J u d g e m e n ts o f S ta lin (D itto ), pp. 2 - 3. ^^ i b i d., p. 4 2. It w a s o n ly in 1 9 5 8, tw o y e a r s la t e r, th a t the C h in e s e b e g a n to a tta c k K h r u s h c h e v 's d o c tr in a l in n o v a tio n s. === [PDF page 111] === 104 162 w a s in fa v o r o f th e d is s o lu t io n o f the b lo c. T he S o v ie t U n io n 's p o s itio n a s th e le a d e r o f th e C o m m u n is t b lo c w a s ta k e n a s a s s u r e d by th e C PSU *s u n c o n te s te d id e o lo g ic a l a u th o r ity and i t s u n iq u e n e s s a s the 163 f i r s t and m o s t p o w e r fu l C o m m u n ist s t a t e. E v id e n tly th is w a s g r o s s l y m is u n d e r s to o d in E a s t e r n E u r o p e. E a s t e r n E u r o p e w a s s t i l l le a d fo r th e m o s t p a r t b y S t a lin is t s. H o w e v e r, th e p r e s s u r e s a r is in g fr o m Y u g o s la v ia 's d ir e c t io n, s e e m in g ly su p p o r te d b y th e S o v ie t U n ion, w e r e w e ig h in g h e a v ily on th e lo c a l r e g im e s. M o s c o w s o o n b e g a n to b e f e a r fu l th a t n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism m ig h t g e t o u t o f h an d, p a r t ic u la r ly a ft e r th e r io t s o f June 2 8, 1 9 5 6. H e n c e in S e p te m b e r of 1 9 5 6, M o sc o w s e n t a s e c r e t le t t e r to th e C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s in E a s t e r n E u r o p e, e x c lu d in g Y u g o s la v ia. T h is l e t t e r c a lle d fo r the m a in te n a n c e o f u n ity w ith a r e c o g n itio n o f S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip and a r e j e c - 164 tio n o f T it o is m. 162 Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i, "The C h a lle n g e o f C hange in th e S o v ie t B lo c, " p. 4 3 1. On D e c e m b e r 2, 1 9 6 1, Y u. A n d ro p o v in P r a v d a s ta te d: "Our p a r ty d id n o t b o ld ly and o p e n ly c o n d e m n th e c u lt o f th e in d iv id u a l in o r d e r to sta n d b y in d if f e r e n t ly w h ile d o g m a tis ts and n a t io n a lis t s a tte m p t in th e n a m e o f th is c u lt to w e a k e n th e c o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t and e r a s e e v e r y th in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m h a s g a in e d in r e c e n t y e a r s. " Q u o ted in M e lv in C ro a n, " C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l R e la tio n s, " in W a lte r L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s.), P o l y c e n t r is m, p. 17. 163 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, lo c. c it. 164 G e o r g e H o ffm a n and F r e d W a rn er N e a l, o p. c i t., p. 4 3 5. === [PDF page 112] === 105 T h is d u a lity o f p o l i c i e s r e s u lt e d in a c r i s i s o f m a jo r p r o p o r tio n s. T he a tte m p ts b y th e E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s to im p le m e n t in d e p e n d e n c e and to tak e up th e ir ow n path to s o c i a l i s m w a s g r e e t e d b y r e s is t a n c e; r e s is t a n c e e m a n a tin g p r im a r ily fr o m th e lo c a l S t a lin is t le a d e r s. In H u n g a ry, S o v ie t su p p o r t o f the T it o is t p o lic y w a s e m b a r r a s s in g fo r th e S t a lin is t le a d e r s h ip. A s e ls e w h e r e in E a s t e r n E u r o p e, a c r i s i s o f a u th o r ity w a s in p r o g r e s s c o n c e r n in g th e d is c lo s u r e and d e n u n c ia tio n o f S t a lin 's c r i m e s, due to th e in v o lv e m e n t o f m a n y E a s t E u r o p e a n le a d e r s in th e " a n t i- T it o is t p e r io d o f th o s e ’ C r im e s '" and the g e n e r a l u n c e r ta in ty c o n c e r n in g th e u ltim a te o u tc o m e o f th e s u c c e s s io n s tr u g g le in th e 165 U SSR. In an a tte m p t to s o lv e th is c o n flic t, K h r u sh c h e v, T ito, and E rn o G e ro { i. e., th e n e w e s t le a d e r in H un gary) m e t a t Y a lta on S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 5 6, w h e r e a top l e v e l p o lic y d is c u s s io n to o k p la c e. T h e r e w a s a g r e a t d e a l o f d is a g r e e m e n t o v e r th e t a c t ic s to b e s t r e s s e d in H u n g a ry: T it o is t o r S t a lin is t. K h r u sh c h e v a p p e a r s to h a v e s id e d w ith T ito h e r e. A lth ou gh fin a l a g r e e m e n t w a s n o t r e a c h e d on the e x a c t p o lic y th a t w o u ld b e e n fo r c e d, T ito did c o n c e d e to su p p o rt G e r o. Upon h is r e tu r n to Y u g o s la v ia, T ito in v ite d G ero to B e lg r a d e. W hile G e ro w a s in B e lg r a d e, W la d y sla w G om u lk a r e s u m e d th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e P o lis h C o m m u n ist P a r ty. He c a lle d fo r in t e r n a l l i b e r a l iz a t io n and n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e. W hen th e p r e d o m in a n tly n o n -C o m m u n is t 165 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, lo c. c it. 166 G eorge Hoffm an and F r e d Warner N e a l, lo c. cit. === [PDF page 113] === 106 H u n g a r ia n s sa w th e e x a m p le o f G om u lka*s n a t io n a lis t p la tfo r m, th ey r e a c te d a g g r e s s iv e ly. W hen G e ro r e tu r n e d fr o m B e lg r a d e on O c to b e r 2 3, h e w a s m e t b y r io ts. G e r o f i r s t a p p e a le d to th e c r o w d s fo r c o o p e r a tio n and w h e n th is f a ile d h e c a lle d fo r S o v ie t t r o o p s. T h is w a s th e f i r s t o f tw o u p r is in g s in H u n g a ry and i t w a s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y T ito a s an a tte m p t b y p r o g r e s s i v e e le m e n t s to o v e r th r o w th e r e m a in in g H u n g a ria n S t a lin is t s. T ito c o n s id e r e d th e se n d in g o f R u s s ia n tr o o p s a b s o lu t e ly u n n e c e s s a r y. W hen th is f i r s t in s t a n c e o f r e b e llio n h ad b e e n q u e lle d, th e o n c e d e p o s e d N a g y to o k o v e r. T ito f e l t th a t N a g y r e p r e s e n t e d p r o g r e s s iv e e le m e n t s th a t w o u ld be a b le to h a n d le th e s itu a tio n. H o w e v e r, fo llo w in g N a g y 's r e tu r n to p o w e r, a s e c o n d u p r is in g to o k p la c e. B o th T ito and K h r u s h c h e v w e r e a la r m e d. T h e s e c o n d r e v o lt h a d, in th e w o r d s o f P r o f e s s o r F r e d W a rn er N e a l, " tu rn ed in to an u p r is in g o f th e w h o le n a tio n 167 a g a in s t s o c i a l i s m and a g a in s t the S o v ie t U n io n. " C le a r ly T ito, a s a C o m m u n is t, c o u ld n o t a c c e p t th e o v e r th r o w o f an y C o m m u n ist n a tio n. T h e r e f o r e, h e s u p p o r te d K h r u s h c h e v 1s u s e o f S o v ie t tr o o p s to q u e ll th e r e v o lu tio n. T ito j u s t if ie d th is a c tio n in th e f o l lo w in g m a n n e r: I t w a s c le a r th a t th e r e w o u ld b e a t e r r ib le m a s s a c r e /o f C o m m u n is t s / a t e r r ib le e v il w a r in w h ic h s o c i a l i s m c o u ld be c o m p le te ly b u r ie d and out o f w h ic h a th ir d w o r ld w a r c o u ld b r e a k ou t... b e c a u s e th e r e n e w e d c o m in g to p o w e r o f th e 167 F r e d W arn er N e a l, T it o is m in A c tio n, p. 271. === [PDF page 114] === 107 h o r th y ite s and th e o l ^ g e a c t i o n a r i e s co u ld n o t b e to le r a t e d b y the S o v ie t U n ion. It w a s o n ly due to th e in a b ilit y o f th e C o m m u n is t r e f o r m e r s in H u n g a ry to g a in c o n tr o l of th e p a r ty in tim e to p r e v e n t a p o p u la r r is in g and r e b e l' s w illin g n e s s to aban don p a r ty d ic ta t o r s h ip and th e S o v ie t a llia n c e th a t c a u s e d th e S o v ie t U n ion to u s e a r m e d f o r c e. R e fo r m s c a r r ie d out b y the P a r ty w e r e a c c e p ta b le; r e f o r m s c a r r ie d out a g a in s t the P a r ty w e r e n o t. T he r is in g s p ir it o f T it o is m o c c u r r e d in a m a n n e r fa r m o r e p le a s in g to T ito in P o la n d. T h e r e G o m u lk a w a s e le c t e d a s f i r s t s e c r e ta r y o f th e P o lis h C o m m u n ist P a r t y, due p r im a r ily to th e p o p u la r and P a r ty d is c o n te n t o v e r S o v ie t d o m in a tio n. G om u lk a w a s s o m e w h a t s im ila r to T ito. H e w a s a r e s is t a n c e le a d e r; h e h ad o p p o se d th e c r e a tio n of th e C o m in fo r m; and h e w a s p u r g e d in th e a fte r m a th o f th e f i r s t S o v ie t- Y u g o s la v s p lit. G om u lk a w a s a p o p u la r fig u r e; n o t o n ly w ith th e lo c a l C o m m u n is ts, b u t w ith a p o r tio n o f th e n o n -C o m m u n is t p o p u la c e a s w e ll. G om u lk a fr a n k ly s t r e s s e d h is T it o is t p la tfo r m in h is in a u g u r a l a d d ress: T h e r e a r e d if fe r e n t w a y s and m e a n s to a c h ie v e s o c i a l i s m. T h e r e i s th e R u s s ia n w a y, th e Y u g o s la v w a y and s e v e r a l o th e r s d ep en d in g on v a r io u s d if fe r e n t c ir c u m s t a n c e s.... E v e r y c o u n tr y h a s the r ig h t to be s o v e r e ig n and in d e p e n d e n t.... 168 T it o 's s p e e c h a t P u la, B o r b a (N o v e m b e r 16, 1 9 5 6 ), c it e d in i b i d., pp. 2 7 1 -2 7 2. * ^ R i c h a r d L o w e n th a l, lo c. c it. === [PDF page 115] === 108 P o l is h - S o v ie t r e la t io n s b a s e d on p r in c ip le s o f e q u a lity and in d e p e n d e n c e w ill g iv e r i s e... to su c h d e e p f e e l in g s o f fr ie n d s h ip to w a r d th e S o v ie t U n ion th a t no a tte m p ts at so w in g d is t r u s t o f th e S o v j ^ U n ion w il l fin d f e r t i l e s o il a m o n g th e P o lis h p e o p le. M o s t o f t h e s e p r in c ip le s w e r e a c c e p t e d b y K h r u sh c h e v w h e n G om u lk a m a d e h i s " v ic to r y tr ip " to M o sc o w. H o w e v e r, K h r u sh c h e v i n s i s t e d th a t S o v ie t tr o o p s r e m a in on P o lis h s o i l. T ito fou n d h i m s e l f to r n b e tw e e n h i s su p p o rt o f th e S o v ie t U n io n 's le n ie n c y in P o la n d and t h e ir u s e o f f o r c e in H u n g a ry. In T it o 's s p e e c h a t P u la, Y u g o s la v ia, r e f e r r e d to a b o v e, h e s e r io u s ly c r i t i c i z e d the S o v ie t U n ion fo r c o n tr ib u tin g to th e c o n d itio n s w h ic h h ad c a u s e d th e H u n g a r ia n R e v o lt. T ito b la m e d S t a lin is m fo r th e r e v o lt s in H u n g a ry and d e s c r ib e d th e r e f o r m s th at K h r u sh c h e v h a d in itia te d a s b e in g to o lit t le and to o la t e. T ito s t r e s s e d th e e f f e c t th a t th e r e v o lu tio n m u s t h a v e h ad on " e v e n th e S t a lin is t e le m e n t" in M o sc o w. H e f e l t th a t a ch a n g e in p o lic y s u r e ly h a d to c o m e fr o m t h e s e r e v o lu t io n s. I t d id, o f c o u r s e, bu t n o t in th e d ir e c t io n e n v is io n e d b y T ito. T ito did n o t lim it h is c r i t i c i s m to S ta lin, b u t b la m e d th e S o v ie t s y s t e m i t s e l f. T he r o o ts o f S t a lin is m w e r e "in th e b u r e a u c r a tic a p p a r a tu s, in th e m e th o d s o f le a d e r s h ip and in th e s o - c a l l e d one m a n r u le. T he S o v ie t U n ion r e tu r n e d T it o 's c r i t i c i s m w ith v ig o r. F o r th e f i r s t tim e s in c e 1 9 5 3, th e Y u g o s la v s c a m e u n d e r a tta c k b y th e S o v ie t 170 C ite d in T h o m a s H a m m o n d, op. c i t., p. 3 8. 171 Cited in T h o m a s H am m ond, op. c it., p. 40. === [PDF page 116] === 109 p ress. F o llo w in g the P u la s p e e c h, T ito found h is m o v e m e n ts in to E a s t e r n E u r o p e h in d e r e d. T h e P o l e s w e r e p e r h a p s th e o n ly s u p p o r te r s o f Y u g o s la v ia. G om u lk a d id s o m e th in g th a t no o th e r C o m m u n ist r e g im e d a r e d do w h en h e r e f r a in e d fr o m a tta c k in g th e Y u g o s la v s and p u b lis h e d 172 th e Y u g o s la v 's r e b u tta ls a lo n g s id e th e S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m s. B o th P o la n d and Y u g o s la v ia f e l t th a t th e ir tr o u b le s w ith th e S o v ie t U n ion w e r e c a u s e d b y th e S t a lin is t e le m e n t s th a t s t i l l h a d a v o ic e t h e r e. H e n c e, w h en K h r u s h c h e v p u r g e d th is g r o u p in J u ly o f 1 9 5 7, G o m u lk a and T ito b e lie v e d th a t h e w o u ld i n c r e a s e h is su p p o r t o f th e ir p a th s to s o c i a l i s m. On th a t a s s u m p tio n, T ito r e c o g n iz e d E a s t G e r m a n y and v e r b a lly e n d o r s e d in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n ism in h is e f f o r t to m o v e K h r u sh c h e v to w a r d s c a r r y in g out h is 1955 and 1956 p le d g e s. H o w e v e r, T ito o n ly s u c c e e d e d 173 in a lie n a t in g h is W e s te r n t i e s. In A u g u st, 1 9 5 7, T ito m e t " s e c r e t ly " w ith K h r u sh c h e v in B u c h a r e s t. I t s e e m s th a t T ito w o u ld n o t a g r e e to jo in th e S o v ie t B lo c w h en K h r u sh c h e v u r g e d h im to do s o. T ito d id a g r e e to c o m e to M o sc o w in N o v e m b e r so th a t h e c o u ld ta k e p a r t in th e d r a ftin g o f a D e c la r a tio n o f S o c i a lis t S o li d a r ity. H o w e v e r, T ito did n o t r e a li z e w h a t h ad m o tiv a te d the S o v ie t U n ion to c o n v e n e su c h a c o n f e r e n c e. T he e v e n ts o f 1 9 5 6 -1 9 5 7, w ith th e d e n u n c ia tio n o f S ta lin and th e r i s e o f T it o is m, c o n v in c e d K h r u sh c h e v th a t th e S o v ie t 172 A d am B r o m k e and M ilo r a d D r a c h k o v itc h, " P o la n d and Y u go s la v ia: th e A b o r tiv e A llia n c e, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism X (M a r c h -A p r il, 173 Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i, T he S o v ie t B lo c, p p. 3 1 3 -3 1 4. === [PDF page 117] === 110 174 U n ion h a d to r e a s s e r t i t s e l f o n c e a g a in. T h e S o c ia lis t C o m m o n w e a lth D e c la r a tio n a r r iv e d a t in M o sc o w p r o v e d to be a g r e a t s h o c k fo r th e Y u g o s la v d e le g a t e s, K a r d e lj and R a n k o v ic. T h is d o c u m e n t d e fin e d th e m in im u m r e q u ir e m e n ts o f i n t e r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t u n ity, a s d e fin e d b y th e S o v ie t and C h in e s e C o m - 175 m u n is t le a d e r s h ip, a c tin g in c o n c e r t e. T h e C h in e s e h ad b e g u n to ta k e a p o s itio n a s a m e d ia t o r b e tw e e n C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s fo llo w in g th e r i s e o f G o m u lk a to p o w e r. T h e C h in e se b e lie v e d th a t G o m u lk a w a s a lo y a l C o m m u n ist; h e h a d no in d e p e n d e n t 176 f o r e ig n p o lic y and h e p r o f e s s e d lo y a lt y to th e S o c i a lis t C a m p. T hat O c to b e r, M ao w a s r e p o r t e d to h a v e a d v is e d M o sc o w n o t to in t e r v e n e 177 m i l i t a r i l y " if th e P o l is h r e v o lu tio n g o t out o f h an d. " T h e y im p lic it ly 178 w a r n e d th e K r e m lin n ot to c o n fu s e G o m u lk a ism w ith r e a c t io n. T he C h in e s e c o n s id e r e d the fo llo w in g to be e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C o m m u n is t s t a t e s: 1) th e c o n tr o l o f s ta te p o w e r b y th e C o m m u n ist p arty; 2) a llia n c e w ith th e C o m m u n ist B lo c; and 3) th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f in d u s tr y 174 R o b e r t B a s s, "T he P o s t - S t a lin E r a in E a s t e r n E u r o p e, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XXII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 7 2. 175 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, " S c h ism A m on g th e F a ith fu l, " p. 4. 176 D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, o p. c i t., p. 55. 177 G r u so n, N ew Y o r k T i m e s, J a n u a r y 11, 1 9 5 7, c ite d in ib id., p. 56. 178 Donald Z a g o ria, op. cit., p. 57. === [PDF page 118] === and th e c o lle c t iv iz a t io n o f a g r ic u lt u r e. U n ity of th e p a c e o f d e v e lo p m e n t o r p r a c t ic e s m o d e le d a ft e r th e USSR w e r e n o t e s s e n t i a l, b e in g s u b je c t to 179 " n a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. " In e a r ly 1 9 5 7, Chou E n - L a i, P r e m ie r o f th e D P R C, t r a v e le d to th e S o v ie t U n ion, P o la n d and H u n g a ry. T h is e v e n t m a r k e d the f i r s t p o lit ic a l in t e r v e n tio n b y C hina in E u r o p e. T h is w a s c le a r ly an in d ic a tio n o f th e d is m a y e x p e r ie n c e d b y th e C h in e s e o v e r th e e v e n ts in H u n g a ry and 180 P o la n d. A lth ou gh in fa v o r o f " S e p a r a te P a th s to S o c ia lis m, " the C h in e s e c o u ld n o t a c c e p t any s itu a tio n w h e r e b y a C o m m u n ist c o u n tr y su c h a s H u n g a ry m ig h t d e s ir e to le a v e tne C o m m u n ist b lo c. L e g itim a te d if f e r e n c e s am on g p a r t ie s co u ld n o t in c lu d e a p a r ty 's d is a s s o c ia t i o n w ith o th e r p a r t ie s n o r th e c r e a tio n o f p o lit ic a l o p p o r tu n itie s fo r th e " W est. " T he C h in e s e a p p e a r e d to a d v a n c e w h a t m ig h t b e d e s ig n a te d a s a c o n fe d e r a tiv e a p p ro a c h to in t r a - b lo c r e la t io n s. T h is im p lie d r e s t r ic t io n s up on S o v ie t p r e r o g a t iv e s v i s - a - v i s o th e r C o m m u n ist c o u n t r ie s. T he C h in e s e w e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith th e fo llo w in g: 1) th e p o s s ib le d is r u p tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist un ity; 2) th e e c o n o m ic e f f e c t s upon C hina o f any s e r io u s d is lo c a t io n in E a s t e r n E u ro p e; 3) th e s w if t n e s s w ith w h ic h th e S o v ie t U nion h ad a d v a n c e d d e -S ta lin iz a tio n; and f in a lly, 4) th e f e a r o f 181 S o v ie t in t e r v e n tio n in C h in a 's in t e r n a l a f f a ir s. [Unreadable] 180 G eoffrey Hudson, op. cit., p. 43. === [PDF page 119] === 112 E v e n d u rin g th e p e r io d o f th e f i r s t S o v ie t- Y u g o s la v s p lit the C h in e s e f o c u s e d th e ir a tta c k on T ito on th e g r o u n d s th a t h e h ad a d o p ted an " a n ti-S o v ie t p o s itio n, " n o t th a t h e h a d r e v is e d M a r x is m - L e n in is m 182 per se. T he C h in e s e d id n o t w a n t to p la c e t h e m s e lv e s in th e p o s itio n o f c o n c e d in g th at an y o n e w h o d is a g r e e d w ith th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e S o v ie t 183 U n ion w a s a h e r e t i c. H o w e v e r, by N o v e m b e r and the c o n v e n in g o f th e M o sc o w C o n fe r e n c e, e v e n ts w ith in th e C P C i t s e l f h ad tr a n s f o r m e d C h in a 's m o d e r a te c o n fe d e r a tiv e a p p r o a c h to a m o r e c o n s e r v a t iv e u n ita r y. 184 app roach. On N o v e m b e r 17, M ao s ta te d th a t "the S o c i a lis t c a m p m u s t h a v e a h e a d and th is h e a d i s th e U SSR. " M o r e o v e r, "T he C o m m u n ist and w o r k e r 's p a r t ie s o f a ll c o u n tr ie s m u s t h a v e a h e a d and th a t h e a d i s th e C PSU. " T h e d e c la r a t io n w h ic h r e s u lt e d fr o m th is N o v e m b e r M o s c o w m e e tin g s t r e s s e d the le a d in g r o le o f th e C P S U, in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e n e e d fo r a 186 c o m m o n fo r e ig n p o lic y o f a ll " S o c ia lis t S t a te s. " W hen p r e s e n t e d w ith th is d o c u m e n t, th e Y u g o s la v s w e r e in d ig n a n t and r e f u s e d to s ig n i t. **^I b i d., p. 63. 1 8 3Ti id 184 F o r a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e s p lit w ith in th e C P Y, r e f e r to ib id., pp. 6 6 -1 4 1. 185 J e n -M in J ih - P a o, N o v e m b e r 2 0, 1 9 5 7, c ite d in ib id., p. 146. 186 M elv in Croan, op. cit., p. 16, and R ich ard L ow enthal, l o c. cit. === [PDF page 120] === 113 T it o 's p r e v io u s c o n c e s s io n s to K h r u s h c h e v h ad c l e a r l y d is s ip a t e d h i s h ig h m o r a l sta n d a g a in s t S t a lin is t t a c t ic s and n a tio n a l su b o r d in a tio n. A lth o u g h K h r u sh c h e v w o u ld r a th e r h a v e h a d T ito in a tte n d a n c e, th e p r e s e n c e o f K a r d e lj and R a n k o v ic in M o s c o w g a v e th e d e c la r a t io n w h ic h fo llo w e d an a ir o f le g it im a c y. H is la t e r w a r n in g s to T ito w e r e f ir m ly b a s e d on T it o 's u n w illin g n e s s to a c c e d e to th e w ill o f th e C o m m u n ist c o m m u n ity. K h r u s h c h e v h a d n e a tly p la c e d T ito in th e r o le o f a d e s e r t e r. B y th is a c tio n T ito w a s ro b b ed o f th e a u r a o f a m a r ty r and th e s tr e n g th 187 su c h a s y m b o l e n c o m p a s s e s. T ito, d e s p ite m in o r o s c i l l a t i o n s, h a s r e m a in e d o u ts id e o f w h a t r e m a in s o f th e S o v ie t b lo c s in c e th e s e c o n d b r e a k w ith th e USSR. H o w e v e r, j u s t a s i t a p p e a r e d th a t K h r u sh c h e v h ad s o lv e d h is p r o b le m v i s - a - v i s th e m o s t in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ist P a r ty, h is p r o b le m s w ith C hin a b e g a n to s u r f a c e. C h in a 's sta u n c h a d v o c a c y o f th e M o s c o w D e c la r a tio n m a y b e e x p la in e d b y m il it a r y c o n s id e r a t io n s. P e k in g r e g a r d e d th e " S o v ie t B lo c" p r im a r ily a s a m il it a r y a llia n c e d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e " W e st. " If th e b lo c w a s to b e s t r a t e g i c a lly o r g a n iz e d, the S o v ie t U nion w o u ld h a v e to tak e th e le a d in g r o le due to i t s m il i t a r y s u p e r io r it y v i s - a - v i s th e o th e r m e m b e r s o f th e b lo c. T h e S o v ie t U n ion th u s had th e o b lig a tio n to le a d in a g iv e n d ir e c t io n, a g a in s t th e n o n -C o m m u n is t " W e st, " and th e n o n -S o v ie t 187 Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i, T he S o v ie t B lo c, p. 3 1 5, === [PDF page 121] === 114 C o m m u n is ts w e r e to fo llo w on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e ir i n t e r e s t s w o u ld 188 n o t b e su b o r d in a te d to M o sc o w. A s P r o f e s s o r M e lv in C ro a n h a s w r itte n: The m o r e a n x io u s th e C h in e s e w e r e to p r e s e r v e a u n ifie d in t e r n a t io n a l m o v e m e n t le d fr o m a s in g le c e n t r e, th e m o r e c o n c e r n e d th e y b e c a m e th a t th e d o c t r in e s ex p o u n d ed and th e p o l i c i e s p u r s u e d b y th e c e n tr e s h o u ld b e in th e ir ow n v ie w, th e " c o r r e c t" o n e s, and th e m o r e o m in o u s, fo r th at r e a s o n, th e g r o w in g d iv e r g e n c e b e tw e e n C h in e s e and S o v ie t in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f su c h a b s t r a c t and y e t in t e n s e ly p r a c t ic a l q u e s tio n s a s "the d e fin itio n o f th e p r e s e n t e p o c h," "the m e a n in g o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e, " "the c h a r a c t e r o f n a tio n a l lib e r a t io n m o v e m e n t s, " " r o a d s to s o c i a l i s m, " "the tim in^g^nd m e th o d s o f a r r iv a l a t C o m m u n ism " and th e lik e. T h is p r o b le m w a s c le a r ly i llu s t r a t e d b y K h r u sh c h e v a t th e T w e n ty -S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U w h en h e sta te d: You w ill h a v e s e e n in f i l m s a b ou t A fr ic a and A s ia h ow k in g s, p r in c e s, r a ja h s, and o th e r n o ta b le s g o t ig e r h u n tin g on e le p h a n ts. T h ey do th is b e c a u |^ t h e y k n ow th a t th is fo r m o f t ig e r h u n tin g i s n o t d a n g e r o u s. A s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y A r th u r A. C oh en, K h r u sh c h e v i s s a y in g th a t M ao i s a w a r e th a t the W e ste r n t ig e r f e a r s th e m il it a r y s tr e n g th o f th e S o v ie t e le p h a n t. It i s n o t th e C h in e se n o ta b le w ho sh o w s c o u r a g e bu t r a th e r th e S o v ie t e le p h a n t on w h ic h h e r id e s. T h e n o ta b le c a lc u la t e s th a t i f the t ig e r a tta c k s w h ile b e in g h u n ted, he i s bou nd to c la s h w ith th e e le p h a n t. 188 G e o ffr e y H u d so n, op. c i t., pp. 4 3 - 4 4. 189 M e lv in C ro a n, o p. c it., p. 12. 190 Q u oted in A rth u r A. C o h en, T he C o m m u n ism o f M ao T s e -t u n g (C h ica g o: T h e U n iv e r s it y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 69. === [PDF page 122] === 115 K h r u s h c h e v w o u ld p r e f e r th a t th e C h in e s e n o ta b le e it h e r p r o v e h is c o u r a g e b y h u n tin g th e W e s te r n t ig e r on fo o t o r sto p s p u r r in g th e e le p h a n t to hunt fo r h im. T he r e s u lt o f th e 1957 c o n fe r e n c e a p p e a r s to h a v e s a t is f ie d P e k in g. H o w e v e r, i t w a s o n ly a fe w m o n th s b e fo r e C h in e s e and S o v ie t i n t e r e s t s and id e o lo g ic a l in t e r p r e t a t io n s b e g a n to c la s h. W ith the s u c c e s s f u l la u n c h in g o f S p utn ik I in 1 9 5 7, C hina b e g a n to m a in ta in th a t S o v ie t w e a p o n s d e v e lo p m e n t m a d e i t p o s s ib le fo r th e b lo c to m o v e to w a r d s 192 b o ld e r r e v o lu tio n a r y s t r a t e g y a b r o a d. T he C h in e s e b e g a n to s t r e s s th a t the " E a s t w in d J_wa.sJ p r e v a ilin g o v e r th e W e st w in d. 11 In a s p e e c h b e fo r e th e a s s e m b l e d C o m m u n ist le a d e r s at the M o sc o w c o n f e r e n c e, M ao i s r e p o r t e d to h a v e sa id: I am o f th e o p in io n th a t th e in t e r n a t io n a l s itu a tio n h a s now r e a c h e d a n ew tu r n in g -p o in t. T h e r e a r e tw o w in d s in the w o r ld to d a y: th e E a s t w in d and th e W est w in d.... I th in k th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f the s itu a tio n to d a y i s th e E a s t w in d p r e v a ilin g o v e r th e W e st w in d. T h a t i s to s a y, th e s o c i a l i s t f o r c e s a r e o v e r w h e lm in g ly s u p e r io r to th e I m p e r ia l is t f o r c e s. M o sc o w, on th e o th e r h an d, h a s n e v e r s u g g e s t e d su c h an o p t im is t ic fo r m u la tio n. T heir* s h a s b e e n m o r e a m b ig u o u s, c o n te n d in g th a t th e b a la n c e o f f o r c e s h a s b e e n a lt e r e d "in fa v o r of" the s o c i a l i s t c a m p. Ib id. 192 D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, o p. c it., p. 154. Q u oted in ib id., p. 160 / i t a l i c s s u p p lie d by th e a u th o r /. === [PDF page 123] === 116 T h is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t th e s o c i a l i s t c a m p i s s tr o n g e r th an th e W e st, 194 o n ly th a t i t i s s tr o n g e r th an i t h ad p r e v io u s ly b e e n. T he c o n s e q u e n c e s o f C hin a’ s p o lic y o r ie n ta tio n w e r e d ir e c t ly a d v e r s e to K h r u s h c h e v ’ s tw e n tie th p a r ty c o n g r e s s ’ s d o c tr in e o f th e n e c e s s i t y o f a v o id in g w a r s. P e k in g a d v o c a te d a s te p p e d -u p a s s a u lt on the I m p e r ia lis t s in th e u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t S o v ie t m ilit a r y s tr e n g th w o u ld d e te r th e " W est" fr o m g e n e r a l w a r. T h u s, th e b e s t th e "W est" c o u ld h o p e fo r w o u ld b e th e p o s s ib il it y o f o ffe r in g lo c a l and lim it e d a s s i s t a n c e. H e n c e, th e C h in e s e d e v e lo p e d th e v ie w th a t w a r s w o u ld in c r e a s in g ly and in e v it a b ly b e lo c a l w a r s and t h e r e f o r e, th e S o c ia lis t B lo c w o u ld n o t b e th r e a te n e d w ith d e s tr u c tio n i f i t a id e d 195 r e v o lu t io n a r ie s in "ju st" w a r s. In a r e c e n t a r t i c l e, L in P ia o, D e fe n s e M in is t e r o f C o m m u n ist C h in a, s p e lle d out in s o m e d e ta il, th e t a c t ic a l and s t r a t e g ic th in k in g of th e C o m m u n is t C h in e s e. D r a w in g on th e ir e x p e r ie n c e in s u c c e s s f u l w a r a g a in s t Jap an and in th e C iv il W ar th a t fo llo w e d, th e C h in e s e h a v e c o m e to b e lie v e th a t a m o d e r n, in d u s t r ia liz e d n a tio n w h ic h c o n c e n tr a te s i t s s tr e n g th in c i t i e s can b e d e fe a te d p o li t ic a lly and m i l i t a r i l y by a fo e th a t c o n tr o ls th e su r r o u n d in g c o u n t r y s id e, i f t h is fo e c o n tin u a lly s h ifts i t s p o in t o f a tta c k s and c a u s e s the o p p o n en t to s p r e a d i t s e l f too th in. 194 Ib id., pp. 1 6 0 -1 6 1. * ^ I b i d., p. 166. === [PDF page 124] === 117 T he C h in e s e h a v e now e x te n d e d th is c o n c e p t to the in t e r n a t io n a l a r e n a, c o n te n d in g th a t th e u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s o f the w o r ld a r e, a s a w h o le, th e c o u n tr y s id e and th e in d u s t r ia liz e d n a tio n s o f th e W e st a r e th e c i t i e s. M ao T s e - t u n g h a s s ta te d th a t th e U n ited S ta te s and the r e s t o f the I m p e r ia lis t B lo c a r e ''p ap er t ig e r s " and t h e r e f o r e, s in c e n u c le a r w a r i s n o t v e r y p r o b a b le, th e C o m m u n is ts sh o u ld ta k e p a r t in n a tio n a l w a r s of lib e r a t io n. In 1 9 4 6, M ao f i r s t u s e d th e t e r m w h en h e w r o te: A ll r e a c t io n a r ie s a r e p a p er t i g e r s. In a p p e a r a n c e, th ey a r e fr ig h te n in g, b u t in r e a lit y th e y d o n 't a m o u n t to m u c h. F r o m a lo n g - t e r m p o in t o f v ie w, i t i s th e p e o p le w ho r e a lly h a v e g r e a t s tr e n g th, and n o t th e r e a c t io n a r ie s. M ao la t e r r e v is e d th is o r ig in a l s ta te m e n t and in D e c e m b e r o f 1958 h e s ta te d that: J u s t a s th e r e i s n o t a s in g le th in g in th e w o r ld w ith o u t a d u al n a tu r e (th is i s th e L aw o f th e U n ity o f O p p o s ite s ), so im p e r ia lis m and a ll r e a c t io n a r ie s, h a v e a d u a l n a tu r e ---th e y a r e r e a l t ig e r s and p a p e r t ig e r s a t th e s a m e tim e... im p e r ia lis m and a ll r e a c t i o n a r ie s, lo o k e d a t in e s s e n c e, fr o m a lo n g - t e r m p o in t o f v ie w, fr o m a s t r a t e g ic p o in t o f v ie w, m u s t be s e e n fo r w h a t th e y a r e - - p a p e r t i g e r s. On th e o th e r h an d, th e y a r e a ls o liv in g t i g e r s, ir o n t i g e r s, r e a l t i g e r s, w h ic h c a i ^ ^ t p e o p le. On th is w e sh o u ld b u ild our t a c t ic a l th in k in g. In c o n tr a s t to th is C h in e s e a r g u m e n t, th e S o v ie t U n ion h a s c o n te n d ed th at: We a r e fo r th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n. A nd w e b e lie v e th a t th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n w il l ta k e p la c e and th a t th e w o r k in g c l a s s, 196 Q u oted in A rth u r A. C ohen, o p. c i t., p. 60. 197 Quoted in ibid., p. 65. === [PDF page 125] === 118 th e w o r k in g p e o p le, w ill tr iu m p h th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld; th a t th e e x p lo ita tio n o f m a n by m a n w ill b e liq u id a te d! Our s y m p a th ie s and o u r su p p o r t a r e on th e s id e o f ou r c l a s s b r o t h e r s in the c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s, on th e s id e of th e p e o p le fig h tin g fo r lib e r a t io n. B ut w e r e j e c t th e " th eo ry " a lle g in g th a t in th e i n t e r e s t o f th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n, th e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r ie s s h o u ld u n le a s h a w a r a g a in s t th e c a p it a lis t s t a t e s. W hat d o e s ^ d e c la r in g w a r on the c a p i t a l i s t s / m e a n, in t e r m s o f h a r d r e a lit y? T h at m e a n s th a t w e h a v e to fig h t F r a n c e, fig h t W e st G e r m a n y, fig h t th e U n ited S ta te s o f A m e r ic a, I ta ly, B r ita in, J a p a n and o th e r c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s. And to fig h t m e a n s to k il l p e o p le. N o w, w h o m a r e w e to k il l in th o s e c o u n t r ie s? I m p e r i a l i s t s? B u t d o e s F r a n c e c o n s is t o f i m p e r i a l i s t s a lo n e? Do B r ita in and o th e r c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s c o n s is t o f im p e r i a l i s t s a lo n e? Our c l a s s b r o t h e r s - - w o r k e r s, p e a s a n t s, in t e l li g e n t s ia - - m a k e up an o v e r w h e lm in g m a j o r it y of th e p o p u la tio n o f c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s. "What r ig h t do w e h a v e to in t e r f e r e in th e ir in t e r n a l a f f a ir s? A fte r a ll, th e y a r e n o t a s k in g u s to do th a t. T h e y 'll sa y: you h a v e g o t th e b e t t e r o f th e e x p lo it e r s a t h o m e, in y o u r own c o u n tr ie s; w e s h a ll do th e s a m e and do i t b y o u r s e l v e s, w ith o u t y o u r h e lp. And i f w e n e e d y o u r h e lp, w e s h a ll a s k fo r i t. I f w e g iv e t h is h e lp a t a ll w e s h a ll g iv e i t in s p e c if ic c i r c u m s t a n c e s and on d e fin ite c o n d itio n s. It i s c o m m o n k n o w led g e th a t w e a r e a g a in s t the exp ojr^ o f r e v o lu tio n and a g a in s t th e e x p o r t o f c o u n t e r - r e v o lu t io n. T he S o v ie t U n ion v ie w e d th e ir ow n w e a p o n s d e v e lo p m e n t p r im a r ily a s an in s tr u m e n t fo r n e g o tia tio n, r a th e r than a s an o p p o rtu n ity to b e g in r e v o lu tio n a r y a s s a u l t s. B y th e f a ll o f 1 9 5 7, th e S o v ie t U n io n b e g a n to a s s e r t th at "the d a n g e r o f lo c a l m il it a r y c o n fla g r a tio n h a s b e c o m e m u ch 199 m o r e p ronou nced. " A m o r e r e c e n t s ta te m e n t p o s it s that: 198 N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, " S p ee c h a t B o r s o d (H ungary) C h e m ic a l W ork s" (A p r il 6, 1 9 6 4 ), r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 19. 199 B u lg a n in 's m e s s a g e to T u r k is h P r e m ie r M e n d e r e s, S e p te m b e r 10. R e p r in te d in P r a v d a (S ep te m b e r 1 4, 1957) and q u o ted in ib id., p. 168. === [PDF page 126] === 119 T he s e a t s o f in te r n a tio n a l te n s io n th a t e x i s t t o d a y - - and u n fo r tu n a te ly th e r e a r e n o t a fe w o f th e m in v a r io u s p a r ts o f th e w o r l d - - a r e fr a u g h t w ith d a n g e r. T h e y a r e d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e lo c a l w a r s a r e, in f a c t, b e in g w a g e d w h ic h, u n d er s p e c if ic c ir c u m s t a n c e s, m a y e s c a l a t ^ n t o a g r e a t c o n f lic t and e v e n s t a r t a w o r ld c o n fla g r a tio n. T h u s, th e d is a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n the S o v ie t U n io n and C o m m u n ist C h in a, a lth o u g h in v o lv in g the in e v it a b ilit y o f a g e n e r a l n u c le a r w a r, f o c u s e s p r im a r ily on th e lik e lih o o d o f lo c a l and lim it e d w a r s. The C h in e s e b e lie v e th a t th e n u c le a r b a la n c e o f t e r r o r w o r k s in s o f a r a s it p r e v e n ts th e r a tio n a l e s c a la t io n o f a lim it e d w a r to a g e n e r a l w a r. H ow e v e r, th e C h in e s e b e lie v e th at a s lo n g a s c a p it a lis m and im p e r ia l is m e x i s t, lo c a l w a r s a r e in e v it a b le. T h u s, th e d eb a te d o e s n o t c o n c e r n th e p r o b a b le e f f e c t s of a g e n e r a l w a r. It i s p r im a r ily c o n c e r n e d w ith th e 202 lik e lih o o d o f a g e n e r a l w a r. T he C o m m u n is t C h in e se w e r e, and a r e, w o r r ie d a b ou t th e p o s s ib ilit y o f a U n ited S t a t e s - S o v ie t d e te n te. A d e te n te r e q u ir e s s o m e k in d o f a g r e e m e n t o v e r n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s. S o v ie t i n t e r e s t s in E a s t e r n E u ro p e h a v e, in e f f e c t, b e e n r e c o g n iz e d. C h in a 's i n t e r e s t s in A s ia, in c lu d in g N ik ita S. K h r u sh c h e v, " S p ee c h a t A n n u al R e c e p tio n fo r G r a d u a tes of M ilita r y A c a d e m ie s, " P r a v d a (J u ly 9, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A u gu st 3, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 2 5. 201 H a r o ld C. H in ton, C o m m u n is t C h in a in W orld P o l i t i c s (B o sto n: H ough ton M ifflin C om p an y, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 161. 202 Ib id., pp. 1 6 2 -1 6 3 and D a v is B. B o b r o w, " P e k in g ’ s M ilita r y C a lc u lu s, " W orld P o l i t i c s, XVI (J a n u a ry, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 8 7 -3 0 1. === [PDF page 127] === 120 h e r ow n s e c u r it y, h a v e n o t. T h e S o v ie t U n ion ca n a c c e p t a d y n a m ic s ta tu s quo b a s e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t S o c ia lis t s tr e n g th i s in c r e a s in g w h ile C a p it a lis t s tr e n g th i s d e c lin in g. C h in a, b e c a u s e o f h e r p o s itio n, ca n n o t a c c e p t th e s ta tu s quo due to i t s p o s itio n. F o r C hin a, the s ta tu s quo m e a n s th e c o n tin u e d h o s t ilit y o f th e U n ited S t a te s, th e n o n -fu lfillm e n t o f i t s r e v o lu tio n, and in h e r e n t in s t a b ilit y in w o r ld a f f a ir s. B oth th e S o v ie t U nion and th e C h in e se a r e c o r r e c t in th e ir i n t e r p r e ta tio n o f c a p it a lis t s tr e n g th o r w e a k n e s s and th e lik e lih o o d o f t h e r m o n u c le a r w a r. In a r e a s o f S o v ie t c o n c e r n ( i. e., E u r o p e ), th e c a p it a l is t p o s it io n i s g e n e r a lly s ta b le; an o v e r t a tta c k up on th e "W est" th e r e w o u ld lik e ly t r ig g e r a g e n e r a l w a r. H o w e v e r, in a r e a s o f C h in e s e c o n c e r n (i. e., A s ia and A f r ic a ), th e c a p it a lis t p o s itio n i s m u c h w e a k e r. In e s s e n c e, th e C h in e se a c c u s e th e S o v ie t U nion o f fa ilin g to d ra w a s h a r p d is tin c t io n b e tw e e n C o m m u n ist and n o n -C o m m u n is t s ta te s; o f f a ilin g to a c t in c o n c e r te w ith i t s a l l i e s; and in c a r r y in g on an e x p e d ie n t fo r e ig n p o lic y, s e e k in g a d v a n ta g e s w h e r e v e r o p p o rtu n ity o f f e r s w ith b o u r g e o is n a t io n a lis t In d ia, h e r e t i c Y u g o s la v ia o r im p e r i a l i s t A m e r ic a. In th e au tu m n o f 1 9 5 8, th e c o n f lic t b e tw e e n th e D P R C and th e U n ited S ta te s o v e r p o lic y in th e T a iw a n s tr a ig h t b e g a n to e s c a l a t e. T he C h in e se d id n o t b e lie v e th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n 's su p p o rt o f th e ir m e a s u r e s w a s e m p h a tic e n o u g h. A lth ou gh w a r n in g th e U n ited S ta te s th at any a tta c k on th e D P R C w o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a s an a tta c k up on th e S o v ie t U nion, S o v ie t 203 G eo ffrey Hudson, op. cit., p. 46. === [PDF page 128] === 121 su p p o r t a p p e a r e d to b e b a s e d on th e a b ility o f th e C h in e s e to r e p e l any 204 aggressor. On O c to b e r 5, 1 9 5 8, a day b e fo r e th e C h in e s e T a iw a n Strait* s c e a s e - f i r e a n n o u n c e m e n t, K h r u s h c h e v i s s u e d a v e r y u n u su a l r e p ly to a q u e s tio n a s k e d h im b y a T a s s c o r r e s p o n d e n t r e g a r d in g th e T a iw a n C r is is: ... T h e U. S.S. R. w ill c o m e to th e h e lp o f th e C P R i t th e la t t e r i s a tta c k e d fr o m w ith o u t; s p e a k in g m o r e c o n c r e t e ly, i f th e U n ited S ta te s a tta c k s th e C P R. T he S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t h a s th o u g h t it n e c e s s a r y to m a k e th is w a r n in g, a s the a tm o s p h e r e in th e F a r E a s t i s su c h th a t U.S. in t e r f e r e n c e in C h in e s e in t e r n a l a f f a ir s h a s b r o u g h t th e U n ited S ta te s to th e v e r y b r in k o f a d ir e c t m il it a r y c o n flic t w ith th e C P R. And i f th e U n ited S ta te s s t e p s o v e r th is b r in k, th e U SSR w ill n o t sta n d a s id e. B u t w e h a v e n o t in t e r f e r e d in and do n o t in te n d to in t e r f e r e in th e c iv il w a r w h ic h th e C h in e s e p e o p le a r e w a g in g a g a in s t th e C hian g K a i-S h e k c liq u e. ... T he in te n tio n to g e t b a c k t h e ir is la n d s o f Q u em o y and M a tsu and to f r e e T a iw a n and t h e ^ g s c a d o r e s i s th e in t e r n a l a ffa ir o f th e C h in e se p e o p le. A fte r th e S in o -S o v ie t d isp u te b e c a m e c o m m o n k n o w le d g e, the C h in e s e w e r e to a c c u s e th e S o v ie t U n ion o f b e in g an u n r e lia b le a lly and to h a v e 2 06 r e c o g n iz e d th e "tw o C h in as" p o lic y. On N o v e m b e r 12, 1958, th e CC o f th e C P S U d e c id e d to c o n v e n e th e 204 D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, o p. c i t., pp. 2 0 6 - 2 1 7. 205 P r a v d a, O c to b e r 6, 1958; q u o ted in ib id., p. 2 16 ( it a lic s su p p lie d b y a u th o r ). 206 " S ta te m e n t o f C h in e s e G o v e r n m e n t, S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 6 3." "R efuted " b y th e S o v ie t U n ion on S e p te m b e r 2 1, 1963; r e f e r to " S ta te m e n t o f th e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t, S e p te m b e r 2 1, 1963" (N ew Y ork: C r o s s c u r r e n t s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 17. === [PDF page 129] === 122 e x tr a o r d in a r y t w e n t y - f ir s t c o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U fo r the fo llo w in g Janu ary 27, 1959. T he p u r p o se w a s th e d is c u s s io n o f th e d r a ft o f K h r u s h c h e v 's p r o p o s e d p la n fo r 1 9 5 9 -1 9 6 5, s e t tin g fo r th b oth S o v ie t 207 in t e r n a l p o lic y and C o m m u n ist s t r a t e g y in g e n e r a l. One o f th e b a s ic q u e s tio n s to b e c o n s id e r e d w a s w h e th e r o r not th e c o u n t r ie s o f th e " S o c ia lis t W orld S y s te m " w o u ld e n te r th e C o m m u n ist p h a se o f d e v e lo p m e n t to g e th e r o r a t d if fe r e n t t i m e s. T h e C h in e s e w e r e o f th e o p in io n th a t th e y sh o u ld e n te r th e p h a se to g e th er. T h ey w e r e h ig h ly c r i t i c a l o f S o v ie t e c o n o m ic a id to " n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is " c o u n t r ie s on the b a s i s th a t th is a id d e tr a c te d fr o m th at 20 8 a v a ila b le to th e l e s s d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s o f th e S o c i a l is t B lo c. S o v ie t a id to C hin a in th e p a s t h a d b e e n m in im a l and th e la c k o f m a s s i v e S o v ie t a id m a y h a v e a c c o u n te d fo r th e C h in e s e a tte m p t a t a " G r e a t L e a p F o r - 209 w ard " in th e ir e c o n o m ic s p h e r e, in 1 9 5 8. 207 B o r is L e v it s k i, op. c i t., p. 3 3. 20 8 D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, op. c i t., G e o ffr e y H u d so n, op. c i t., and E d w a rd C r a n k sh a w, T he N e w C old W ar: M o s c o w v P e k in g { B a ltim o r e: P e n g u in B o o k s, I n c., 1 9 6 3 ). R e fe r a ls o to L u ig i L on go a t th e p le n a r y s e s s i o n o f th e CC o f the I ta lia n C P (D e c e m b e r 2 0 - 2 4, 1 9 6 1 ), c ite d in B o r is L e v it s k i, op. c it., p. 3 6. 209 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, " S c h ism A m o n g th e F a ith fu l, " p. 5, and D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, op. c i t., p. 6 6. F o r th e S o v ie t U n io n 's c o n te n tio n th a t th e ir a id " H as p la y e d a v e r y s ig n if ic a n t r o le in sh a p in g and d e v e lo p in g th e CPR* s e c o n o m y, " r e f e r to " S o v ie t E c o n o m ic and T e c h n ic a l A id to C hina: F a c t s and F i g u r e s, " N o v o s t i P r e s s A g e n c y. R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (O c to b er 12, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1 6 -2 6. === [PDF page 130] === 123 In an y e v e n t, th e t w e n t y - f ir s t c o n g r e s s s e t fo r th th e S o v ie t U n ion ’ s b e l i e f th a t i t h a d e n te r e d th e C o m m u n is t p h a s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t. A d ia l e c t ic a l h a lf - s t e p had b e e n tak en; " C o m m u n ism in One C o u n try. " A s fo r th e r o le of the C P S U in th e W orld C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t, K h r u s h c h e v s ta te d in h is r e p o r t: A ll C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s a r e in d e p e n d e n t and th e ir w o r k p r o c e e d s fr o m th e c o n c r e te c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f th e c o u n try in w h ic h th e y a r e s itu a te d.... T h e C P SU d o e s n o t le a d the o th e r p a r t ie s and th e S o v ie t U n ion d o e s n o t le a d o th e r c o u n t r ie s: In the C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t th e r e a r e no " s u p e r io r " or " in fe r io r " p a r t ie s. We h a v e a lw a y s fo llo w e d th e g r e a t te a c h in g o f M a r x, E n g le s and L en in... o u r p a r ty c o n s id e r s i t s e l f, fig u r a t iv e ly s p e a k in g, a s o n e o f th e v a n g u a r d s o f the C o m m u n is t wp^Jd m o v e m e n t, the f i r s t to c lim b th e h e ig h ts o f c o m m u n is m. T h u s, a lth o u g h the C PSU w a s no lo n g e r th e o n ly p a r ty th a t h ad s u c c e s s fu lly c a r r ie d ou t a " p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n, " i t w a s th e o n ly P a r ty w h ic h h a d c lim b e d "the h e ig h ts of C o m m u n is m. " T h is fo r m u la tio n w a s a c c e p t - 211 a b le to th e C h in e se and an u n e a s y tr u c e e n s u e d. H o w e v e r, th e r e w a s 212 n o r e a l r e s t o r a t io n o f C h in e se c o n fid e n c e in th e ir S o v ie t a lly. In Jun e o f I 9 6 0, th e d e le g a t e s fr o m tw e lv e C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s in p o w e r and th ir t y -n in e in o th e r c o u n t r ie s, m e t a t a c o n fe r e n c e in B u c h a r e s t in o r d e r to p r e p a r e fo r the N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r C o n fe r e n c e o f a ll e ig h ty - on e f r a t e r n a l C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s in th e w o r ld. In the s ta te m e n t i s s u e d 210 C ite d in B o r is L e v it s k i, o p. c it., pp. 3 3 - 3 4. R e fe r a ls o to M e lv in C r o a n, op. c it., p. 16. 211 R ic h a r d L o w en th a l, lo c. c it. 212 G eoffrey Hudson, op. cit., p. 45. === [PDF page 131] === 124 a f t e r th is c o n f e r e n c e, th e c o n c e p t o f th e S o v ie t U n io n 's e c o n o m ic a d v a n ce w a s e x p lic it ly s e t fo r th: T h e S o v ie t U n ion i s r e a liz in g s u c c e s s f u lly th e c o m p r e h e n s iv e d e v e lo p m e n t o f C o m m u n ist s o c ie ty; th e o th e r c o u n tr ie s in th e s o c i a l i s t c a m p a r e s u c c e s s f u l ly la y in g th e fo u n d a tio n s o f s o c ia l is m: s o m e o f th e m h a v e a lr e a d y e n te r e d th e p e r ^ c ^ o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e f u lly - d e v e lo p e d s o c i a l i s t s o c ie t y. 214 C h in a, b y in f e r e n c e, w a s in c lu d e d in th e lo w e s t c a te g o r y. T h u s, th e r e w a s e s t a b lis h e d a n e w p y r a m id a l s tr u c tu r e o f th e C o m m u n is t b lo c w h e r e in th e le a d r o le f a l l s in a ll c ir c u m s t a n c e s to th e C P S U, due to th e f a c t th at th e S o v ie t U n ion i s th e o n ly c o u n tr y in the w o r ld to 215 h a v e e n te r e d th e C o m m u n ist s ta g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e M o sc o w c o n fe r e n c e o f N o v e m b e r /D e c e m b e r I 9 6 0, r e s u lt e d in an o v e r t e x t e n s io n o f th e S in o - S o v ie t t r u c e. T he c o n fe r e n c e put s o m e e m p h a s is on th e d a n g e r s o f w a r and the a g g r e s s i v e n e s s o f im p e r ia lis m; g u a r d e d ly c o n c e d e d th e r e le v a n c e o f C h in a 's e x p e r ie n c e to th e r e v o lu tio n s in th e u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d a r e a s and th e m ilit a n t c h a r a c t e r o f n a tio n a l lib e r a t io n s t r u g g le s; and d ir e c t ly c o n d e m n e d Y u g o s la v r e v is io n. A ll of 216 t h e s e m a y h a v e e n v o lv e d an a d ju s tm e n t to th e C h in e s e p o in t o f v ie w. H o w e v e r, a c c o r d in g to P r o f e s s o r Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i: 213 Q u oted in ib id. 214 Ib id. A ls o, D o n a ld Z a g o r ia, op. c i t., p. 112. 215 B o r is L e v it s k i, lo c. c it. 216 Z b ig n ie w B r z e z in s k i, "T he C h a lle n g e of C hange in th e S o v ie t [Unreadable] === [PDF page 132] === 125 On a la r g e r n u m b e r o f i s s u e s th e s ta te m e n t b e a r s g r e a t e r r e s e m b la n c e to su c h m a t t e r s a s: th e d e c is i v e c h a r a c t e r o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t and th e r o le o f th e " s o c i a l i s t w o r ld s y s te m " in sh a p in g o u r a g e; th e d e s t r u c t iv e n e s s o f w a r...; th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e and th e p o s s i b ili t y o f th e p r e v e n tio n o f w a r; th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e 2 0 th and 2 1 s t C PSU c o n g r e s s e s, and th e u n iv e r s a l r e le v a n c y o f S o v ie t e x p e r ie n c e; th e p e a c e fu l tr a n s it io n to s o c i a l i s m, th e g ^ r a c t e r o f " n a tio n a l-d e m o c r a c y " and th e e v i l s o f d o g m a tis m. T h u s, i t a p p e a r s th a t a s an a lte r n a tiv e to o u tr ig h t S o v ie t d o m in a n c e, the u n ity o f th e C o m m u n ist b lo c w a s to b e p r o v id e d b y an a llia n c e o f p a r t ie s w ith v a r io u s d e g r e e s o f a u to n o m y, h e ld to g e th e r b y a c o m m o n fa ith. T h e in f e r e n c e w a s th a t d if f e r e n c e s o f in t e r p r e t a t io n m ig h t a r i s e fr o m tim e to t im e, but i t w a s b e lie v e d th a t t h e ir c o m m o n id e o lo g y w o u ld be s tr o n g e n o u g h to p r o v id e a b a s i s fo r c o m p r o m is e s to b e r e a c h e d in a 218 p r o c e s s o f s te a d y a d ju s tm e n t. H o w e v e r, a s P r o f e s s o r M e lv in C ro a n h a s w r itte n: I d e o lo g y, by i t s n a tu r e, v it i a t e s the p a r lia m e n ta r y s o lu tio n. W h ere th e r e c a n b e o n ly one " c o r r e c t" p o lic y, o n ly one " righ t" a n s w e r, p r a g m a tic c o m p r o m is e b e tw e e n d iv e r g e n t p o in ts o f v ie w i s c le a r ly im p o s s ib l e. T h u s, c o m m o n a d h e r e n c e to M a r x is m - L e n in is m, w h ic h S o v ie t th e o r y r e g a r d s a s th e b a s ic c o h e s iv e fa c to r in C o m m u n is t in t e r n a t io n a l r e la t io n s h a s, in th e a b s e n c e o f a s in g le c e n t r e o f a u th o r ita tiv e in t e r p r e ta tio n, p r o v e d to b e a d is r u p tiv e o n e. ^ ^ I b i d., pp. 4 3 5 - 4 3 6. 218 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, " S c h is m A m o n g th e F a ith fu l, " p. 13. 219 M elv in Croan, op. c it., p. 17. === [PDF page 133] === 126 T he C h in e s e h a v e p o in te d ou t w h a t th e y b e lie v e to b e g a p s in S o v ie t id e o lo g ic a l th in k in g. T h e y c o n te n d th a t th e C o m m u n is ts w o u ld h a v e a g r e a t e r c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s i f th e y w o u ld o n ly p u sh fo r w a r d. T h e y c la im th a t th e n ew S o v ie t p o lic y o f p e a c e f u l c o m p e titio n and th e ir la c k o f a c tiv e su p p o r t in n a tio n a l lib e r a t io n s t r u g g le s w ill s lo w, b lo c k, th en r e v e r s e 220 th e C o m m u n is fs a d v a n c e. T he S o v ie t U nion c la im s th a t th is i s n o t th e c a s e. T h e n e w p o lic y s im p ly in d ic a t e s th a t th e S o c ia lis t C am p i s n o w s tr o n g en o u g h to a v o id r e a c t io n to c a p it a lis t in it ia t iv e. T he p r o c e s s o f c a p it a l is t w e a k e n in g g o e s on. T he C h in e s e c la im th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n i s fo llo w in g a " r e v is io n is t " co u rse. K h r u sh c h e v c o u n te r s b y a d m ittin g th a t S o v ie t th e o r y h a s c h a n g e d. H o w e v e r, i t i s s t i l l in c o n c e r te w ith c r e a t iv e M a r x is m - L e n in is m, s in c e M a r x is t th e o r y i s s u p p o se d to r e f l e c t m a t e r ia l r e a lit y and m a t e r ia l r e a lit y h a s c h a n g e d. H e n c e, K h r u s h c h e v 's s ta te m e n t: T he fr a n k a ttitu d e to w a r d th e p o lic y o f p e a c e f u l c o e x i s te n c e in c lu d e s a t h e s i s p r o c la im e d a t th e tw e n tie th and tw e n ty - f i r s t c o n g r e s s e s o f ou r p a r ty, a c c o r d in g to w h ic h, in ou r t im e s, w a r i s n o t in e v it a b le. T he T h e s is on i m p e r ia li s m put fo r w a r d b y L en in r e m a in s v a lid and, a s h e r e t o f o r e, s e r v e and w ill c o n tin u e to s e r v e a s ou r g u id in g s t a r in th e o r y and p r a c t ic e. B u t i t m u s t n ot b e fo r g o tte n th a t L e n in 's p o s it io n s on im p e r ia lis m w e r e pu t fo r w a r d and e la b o r a te d b y h im te n s o f y e a r s a g o, w h en m a n y p h en o m e n a, w h ic h h a v e now b e c o m e d e c is i v e in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h is t o r ic a l p r o c e s s and f o r the e n tir e in te r n a tio n a l s e ttin g w e r e a b s e n t.... We m u s t n o t m e c h a n ic a lly r e p e a t 220 Donald Z a g o r ia, op. cit., pp. 2 4 5 -2 7 6. === [PDF page 134] === 127 n o w, on th is q u e s tio n w h a t w a s s a id b y V la d im ir I ly ic h L en in m a n y d e c a d e s ag o on i m p e r ia li s m and a ff ir m th a t im p e r ia l is m w a r s a r e u n a v o id a b le u n til s o c i a l i s m h a s w on th e w o r ld T h e r e f o r e, w h a t th e g r e a t L en in s a id u n d e r c o m p le te ly d if fe r e n t h is t o r i c a l c o n d itio n s ca n n o t b e r e p e a te d w ith o u t r e c k o n in g w ith th e c o n c r e te c ir c u n ^ t p n c e s and th e ch a n g e in th e b a la n c e of f o r c e s in th e w o r ld. T he e f f e c t o f th is d if fe r e n c e in id e o lo g ic a l p e r c e p tio n w a s e v id e n c e d b y th e d e fin ite s p lit b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U nion and C hina a t th e T w e n ty - S e c o n d P a r ty C o n g r e s s of th e C P S U. A t th is c o n f e r e n c e, th e S o v ie ts d e n o u n c e d S ta lin w ith r e n e w e d v ig o r; to th e e x te n t th a t th e y r e m o v e d h is b o d y fr o m th e m a u s o le u m in R ed S q u a r e. In a d d itio n, th e S o v ie t U nion d ir e c t e d an a tta c k at A lb a n ia, a c o u n tr y w h o s e d e fia n c e o f th e K r e m lin 222 e x te n d e d b a c k to 1 9 5 6. H o w e v e r, K h r u s h c h e v m a d e h is p r in c ip le ta r g e t c le a r w h e n h e s ta te d th a t th e c o u r s e la id out b y th e S o v ie t U nion a t th e T w e n tie th P a r ty C o n g r e s s w o u ld n o t b e c h a n g e d, s in c e th e USSR w o u ld n o t y ie ld, " e ith e r to the A lb a n ia n l e a d e r s o r to a n y o n e e ls e " (i. e., 223 th e C h in e s e ). T he C h in e s e c o u n te r e d w ith a sta u n c h d e fe n s e o f th e A lb a n ia n le a d e r s and an a tta c k on th e S o v ie t U n ion, le a v in g a lm o s t im m e d ia t e ly 221 N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, a d d r e s s to th e th ir d c o n g r e s s o f th e W o r k e rs P a r ty o f R u m a n ia in B u c h a r e s t, Jun e 2 2, I9 6 0; q u o ted in N. H. M a g e r and J a c q u e s K a te l ( e d s. ), op. c it., p. 6 7. R e fe r a ls o to N ik ita S. K h r u s h c h e v, " S p eech a t P le n a r y M e e tin g o f C P S U C e n tr a l C o m m itte e " (a b r id g e d ), C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts, I (M a rch 2, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 3 4. 222 Donald Z a g o ria, op. c i t., p. 370. 223 Ibid. === [PDF page 135] === 128 a fte r th e C o n g r e s s w a s a d jo u r n e d. S in c e th en, the S in o - S o v ie t d i s a g r e e m e n t h a s b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly v o c a l and th e m u tu a l r e c r im in a t io n s h a v e b e c o m e m u c h m o r e h a r s h ly d ir e c t. T he d e b a te h a s p u b lic ly ru n the g a m u t fr o m th e e s s e n c e o f " p e a c e fu l c o e x is t e n c e," th e n a tu r e o f th e c a p it a l is t ’ s p e r c e p t io n s o f the S o c ia l is t b lo c, and th e e f f ic a c y o f a r m s c o n tr o l, th ou gh th e o p e n su p p o rt o f In d ia b y the S o v ie t U n io n in h e r b o r d e r c o n f lic t w ith th e D P R C. A s an e x a m p le, a t th e in v ita tio n o f th e P r e s id iu m o f th e S u p r e m e S o v ie t o f th e USSR, D r. S a r v a p a lli R a d h a k r ish n a n, th e P r e s id e n t o f the R e p u b lic of In d ia, v i s i t e d th e S o v ie t U nion b e tw e e n S e p te m b e r 1 1 - 1 9, 1964. In th e jo in t co m m u n iq u e i s s u e d a t th e end o f t h is v i s i t, th e y p o in te d out that: The ta lk s a ff ir m e d th a t th e S o v ie t U n ion a n d In d ia h o ld a s im ila r p o s itio n on m a n y b a s ic p r o b le m s fa c in g th e w o r ld. T he d e v e lo p m e n t o f S o v ie t-I n d ia n r e la t io n s on th e b a s i s o f th e p r in c ip le s o f e q u a lity, m u tu a l b e n e fit, and r e s p e c t fo r t e r r it o r ia l in t e g r it y and s o v e r e ig n t y i s a s tr ik in g e x a m p le o f th e s u c c e s s f u l im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e p o lic y o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e o f s t a t e s w ith d if fe r e n t p o lit ic a l and s o c ia l s y s t e m. C o m p a r e th is w ith C h in a 's c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n o f th e In d ia n g o v e r n m e n t a s 225 " e x p a n s io n is t" and h y p o c r it ic a l. " J o in t-In d ia n C o m m u n iq u e, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (O c to b er 12, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 2 8 4 S o v ie t p o lic y to w a r d s In d ia h a s n o t c h a n g e d s in c e K h r u sh c h e v 's " r e t ir e m e n t. " R e fe r to A. N. K o sy g a n, " S p eech a t S o v ie t-I n d ia n F r ie n d s h ip M e e tin g in M o s c o w," S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts III (M ay 3 1, 1 9 6 5 ), 225 E. g., " C h in e s e F o r e ig n M in is tr y D e n o u n c e s I n d ia 's A tte m p t to D e n y I t s R e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r A g g r e s s io n " and " C h in e s e D e fe n s e M in is tr y W arns In d ia to Stop A ll P r o v o c a t io n s, " both in P e k in g R e v ie w 43 (O c to b er 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 2 1 - 2 3. === [PDF page 136] === 129 T he fo u n d a tio n of th e S o v ie t U n io n 's p o s t-t w e n tie th c o n g r e s s C o m m u n is t b lo c p o lic y h a s b e e n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e r e c o u ld n o t b e an y m a jo r c o n tr a d ic tio n s b e tw e e n th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e S o v ie t U nion and th e i n t e r e s t s o f r e v o lu tio n a r y e x p a n s io n b y in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n is t s t a t e s 2 26 and m o v e m e n t s. T he a fte r m a th o f th e t w e n t y - s e c o n d c o n g r e s s w r o te th e en d to th o s e a s s u m p t io n s. W ith th e r e m o v a l o f K h r u s h c h e v fr o m h is p o s itio n a s F i r s t S e c r e t a r y and C h a ir m a n o f th e C o u n c il o f M in is t e r s on O c to b e r 1 4, 1 9 6 4, 227 b y th e CC o f th e C P S U, th e r e w a s s o m e e x p e c ta tio n th a t th e e x tr e m e m a n if e s t a t io n s o f the S in o -S o v ie t c o n f lic t c o u ld be r e d u c e d. H ow ever, th e su b s e q u e n t c o u r s e o f e v e n ts h a s p r o v e d o t h e r w is e. In g e n e r a l, th e S o v ie t U n io n 's s t r a t e g ic f o r e ig n p o lic y p o s itio n i s th e s a m e a s th a t o f K h r u sh c h e v and th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n ion and C o m m u n ist C hina r e m a in. On M a rc h 2 2, 1 9 6 5, J e n -M in J ih - P a o (P ek in g ) p u b lis h e d an e d it o r ia l in w h ic h th e y d e n o u n c ed th e n e w S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip fo r i m p l e m e n tin g " K h r u s h c h e v is m w ith o u t K h r u s h c h e v. " In p a r t, i t s ta te d that: 226 R ic h a r d L o w e n th a l, " S c h ism A m on g th e F a ith fu l, " p. 2 227 " A n n o u n cem en t on th e P le n a r y M e e tin g o f th e C P S U C e n tr a l C o m m itte e, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (N o v e m b e r 2, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1. A le x e i N ik o la y e v ic h K o s y g in w a s a p p o in te d to the p o s itio n o f C h a ir m a n o f th e C o u n cil o f M in is t e r s of th e U SSR (i. e., H ea d o f G o v e r n m e n t). "In the P r e sid iu m o f th e U. S. S. R. S u p r e m e S o v ie t, " ib id., pp. 1 - 2. L eo n id I ly ic h B r e z h n o v w a s e le c t e d to th e p o s it io n o f F i r s t S e c r e t a r y o f th e CC o f th e C P S U (i. e., C h a ir m a n o f th e P a r t y ). " B io g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h e s o f L. I. B r e z h n e v and A. N. K o s y g in, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (N o v e m b e r === [PDF page 137] === 130 A ll th e ir fin e w o r d s o n ly a m o u n t to s e ll in g h o r s e m e a t a s b e e f s t e a k.... T h e y a r e s a y in g one th in g and d o in g a n o th e r.... T h ey a r e s t i l l b e n t on d e e p e n in g th e d if f e r e n c e s, w r e c k in g u n ity, and... o p e n ly s p littin g th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t. T o su m up, w h a t th e n ew le a d e r s o f th e C PSU h a v e b e e n d oin g ca n b e d e s c r ib e d a s " th r e e s h a m s and th r e e r e a lit ie s ": sh a m a n t i- im p e r ia lis m b u t r e a l c a p itu la tio n, sh a m r e v o lu tio n bu t r e a l b e t r a y a l, sh a m u n ity bu t a r e a l s p lit. T h e y a r e s t i l l d oin g w h a t K h r u sh c h e v d id... " fou r a lig n m e n ts w ith and fo u r a lig n m e n ts a g a in s t": a lig n m e n t w ith i m p e r i a li s m a g a in s t s o c i a l i s m, a lig n m e n t w ith th e U n ited S t a te s a g a in s t C hina and th e o th e r r e v o lu tio n a r y c o u n t r ie s, a lig n m e n t w ith th e r e a c t io n a r i e s e v e r y w h e r e a g a in s t th e n a t io n a l- lib e r a t io n m o v e m e n ts and th e p e o p le 's r e v o lu t io n s, and a lig n m e n t w ith th e T ito c liq u e and r e n e g a d e s o f a ll d e s c r ip t io n s a g a in s t a ll th e f r a t e r n a l M a r x is t - L e n in is t P a r t ie s and a ll r e v o lu t io n a r ie s 228 fig h tin g i m p e r i a l i s m. And a g a in in J u ly, th e C h in e s e a c c u s e d th e S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip o f "doing 229 n o t l e s s b u t m o r e h a r m th an K h r u sh c h e v d id. " T he S o v ie t 's p o s itio n s t i l l p la c e s h e a v y e m p h a s is on th e n e e d fo r p e a c e f u l c o - e x is t e n c e: T he S o v ie t U n ion h a s b e e n p u r s u in g and c o n tin u e s to p u r s u e th e L e n in is t p o lic y o f th e p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e o f s ta te s w ith d if fe r e n t s o c ia l s y s t e m s. T he p u r p o se o f th is p o lic y i s to p r e v e n t a w o r ld th e r m o n u c le a r w a r, to s e t t le d is p u te s b e tw e e n s t a t e s b y n e g o t ia t io n s, to r e s p e c t th e r ig h t o f e a c h n a tio n to s e l e c t fo r i t s e l f th e s o c i a l and s ta te s y s t e m i t d e s i r e s and to "A C o m m e n t on th e M o sc o w M e e tin g, " J e n -M in J ih - P a o and H ung C h'i (M arch 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), r e p r in te d in P e k in g R e v ie w VIII (M a rch 2 6, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 7 -1 3 and q u o ted in W illia m E. G r iffith, " S in o -S o v ie t R e la tio n s, 1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 5, " T h e C hina Q u a r te r ly N o. 25 (J a n u a r y -M a r c h, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 9 0 - 9 1. 229 F a n H s iu -C h u, " T h e S tr u g g le B e tw e e n the T w o L in e s O v er the Q u e s tio n o f D e a lin g w ith U.S. I m p e r ia lis m, " T a Kung P a o (J u ly 2 7, 1 9 6 5 ). C ite d in W illia m E. G r iffith, op. c it., p. 1 1 0. === [PDF page 138] === SECTION III T H E IN D O N E SIA N P O L IT IC A L SY ST E M I n d o n e s ia i s c o m p o s e d o f th at a r e a kn ow n in th e p a s t a s the N e th e r la n d s E a s t I n d ie s o r th e " S p ice I s la n d s." P r io r to th e D u tch c o n s o lid a tio n o f t h e s e i s la n d s, th e y w e r e p o lit ic a lly fr a g m e n te d b e tw e e n lo c a l g r o u p in g s o f p e o p le. On a t l e a s t tw o o c c a s io n s p r io r to th e a r r iv a l o f th e D u tch, a p o lit ic a l u n it e x is t e d w h ic h c o m p r is e d m a jo r p o r tio n s o f th e m o d e r n s t a t e. * H o w e v e r, e v e n in t h e s e c a s e s, t h is a r e a ’ s h is t o r y m u s t b e w r itte n in t e r m s o f J a v a, S u m a tr a o r B o r n e o, r a th e r th an in t e r m s o f a c o m p r e h e n s iv e s in g le u n it. T h e D u tch d id n o t c o n s o lid a te th e w h o le o f th e N e th e r la n d s E a s t I n d ie s u n til th e is la n d of S u m a tr a w a s su b d u ed in 1 8 9 9. D o m in a tio n by th e D utch g a v e an e a r ly im p e t u s to I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis t ic f e e lin g. W ith h in d s ig h t, i t i s p o s s ib le to s ta te th a t s o m e fo r m o f n a t io n a lis m *1) T he S u m a tr a n K in gd om o f S r iv ij a y a, c ir c a 6 7 0 -1 2 8 6; and 2) M a ja p a h it, c ir c a 1 3 5 0 -1 5 5 0. S ta te m e n ts by D u tch le a d e r s, su c h a s C o lijn, w ho w r o te (K o lo n ia le V r a a g s tr u k k e r V an H ed en e n M o r g e n, 1928) p. 3 9, th a t i t sh o u ld b e m a d e c le a r to I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis t s th a t D utch a u th o r ity in I n d o n e s ia w a s e s t a b lis h e d a s f ir m ly a s M ont B la n c on the A lp s, o n ly s e r v e d to fla m e I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis m. C ite d in M o h a m m a d H a tta, P a s t and F u tu r e (Ith aca: S o u th e a s t A s ia P r o g r a m, D e p a r tm e n t o f F a r E a s t e r n S tu d ie s, C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y ), p. 4. 132 === [PDF page 139] === 131 s e t t le in i t s ow n w a y p r o b le m s o f i t s in t e r n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. T he p o lic y o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e p r o v id e s a fo u n d a tio n fo r m u tu a l u n d e r s ta n d in g and fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m u tu a lly p r o fita b le c o o p e r a tio n a m o n g c o u n t r ie s r e g a r d le s s o f d if f e r e n c e s in th e ir s o c ia l s y s t e m s. A t th e s a m e tim e the a t m o s p h e r e o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n c e p r o m o t e s th e s u c c e s s o f th e lib e r a t io n s tr u g g le and th e a tta in m e n t o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y g o a ls o f th e p e o p le. T h u s, r e la t io n s b e tw e e n th e C P S U and th e C P C h a v e d e t e r io r a t e d to th e e x te n t th a t, on M a rch 2 2, 1 9 6 6, th e CC o f th e C P C r e f u s e d the in v ita tio n to a tten d th e T w e n ty -T h ir d C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U. In s o d o in g, th e y p o in te d out th at: T he C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y h a s a tte n d e d m a n y o f th e C o n g r e s s e s o f th e C P S U. A ls o, w e s e n t d e le g a tio n s to y o u r 2 0 th, 2 1 s t and 22n d C o n g r e s s e s, a fte r th e K h r u sh c h o v J_s i c / r e v i s i o n i s t g r o u p u s u r p e d th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e C P S U. B ut a t the 20 th C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U y o u su d d e n ly la s h e d out a t S ta lin. S ta lin w a s a g r e a t M a r x is t - L e n in is t. In a tta c k in g S ta lin yo u w e r e a tta c k in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m, th e S o v ie t U n ion, C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s, C h in a, th e p e o p le and a ll th e M a r x is t - L e n in is t s o f th e w o r ld. A t th e 22nd C o n g r e s s, you a d o p te d an o u t-a n d -o u t r e v i s i o n i s t p r o g r a m m e, m a d e a w ild p u b lic a tta c k on A lb a n ia and r e p r o a c h e d th e C h in e se C o m m u n is t P a r ty, s o th a t th e h e a d o f o u r d e le g a tio n h ad to le a v e fo r h o m e w h ile th e C o n g r e s s w a s o n ly h a lf w a y [Unreadable] We w o u ld lik e to in fo r m y o u e x p lic it ly th a t s in c e you h a v e g o n e s o f a r, th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a r ty, a s a s e r io u s M a r x is t - L e n in is t P a r ty ^ ^ ja n n o t s e n d i t s d e le g a tio n to atten d th is C o n g r e s s o f y o u r s. 230 L e o n id B r e z h n e v, " R e p o r t a t th e M e e tin g C e le b r a tin g th e 4 7 th A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e G r e a t O c to b e r R e v o lu t io n," S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (N o v e m b e r 2 3, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 7 -1 8. 231 T h e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f C hina, " C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y C annot S en d D e le g a tio n to C P S U 2 3 r d C o n g r e s s, " P e k in g R e v ie w, 13 (M a rch 2 5, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 5 - 6. === [PDF page 140] === 133 w o u ld h a v e e v e n tu a lly c o m e to th e p e o p le o f I n d o n e s ia in an y e v e n t. H ow e v e r, u n d e r o th e r c ir c u m s t a n c e s, i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n J a v a n e s e, S u m a tr a n, o r o th e r is la n d o r r e g io n a l n a t io n a lis m. W h a tev er th e f e e lin g o f u n ity a s now e x i s t s am o n g th e d is p a r a te in h a b ita n ts o f th e is la n d n a tio n h a s c o m e ab ou t la r g e l y th ro u g h th e ir c o m m o n e x p e r ie n c e u n d er th e D u tch. C h a p ter 1: T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f U nity I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis m in i t s f i r s t o r g a n iz e d fo r m to o k sh a p e in 1 9 0 8, o n ly n in e y e a r s a ft e r th e a s s e r t i o n o f D u tch h e g e m o n y o v e r th e i s la n d s. T h e B u d i U to m o (g lo r io u s e n d e a v o r ) w a s p r im a r ily c o n c e r n e d w ith tr a in in g i t s m e m b e r s fo r s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s h ip. T he a im o f the g r o u p w a s to a c h ie v e " W e ster n " e c o n o m ic and s o c i a l s ta n d a r d s o f liv in g. H o w e v e r, th is g r o u p h ad a n a r r o w b a s e o f su p p o r t, c o m p o s e d m a in ly o f " W e ster n " e d u c a te d J a v a n e s e o f f ic ia l s and d id n o t g a in a w id e fo llo w in g a m o n g th e p o p u la c e. I t w a s n o t u n til th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e S a r e k a t I s la m (I s la m ic A s s o c ia tio n ) m o v e m e n t th a t an a p p e a l w a s m a d e to the g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n. T h is m o v e m e n t, w h en fou n d ed in 1 9 1 1, w a s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e e c o n o m ic p o s it io n o f th e r e s id e n t C h in e s e. I t a p p e a le d to r e lig io u s and r a c ia l A m r y Y a n d en b o sch and R ic h a r d B u tw e ll, S o u th e a s t A s ia A m on g th e W orld P o w e r s (L ex in g to n: U n iv e r s it y o f K en tu ck y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2 6. B r ia n H a r r is o n, South E a s t A s ia: A S h o rt H is to r y (N ew Y ork: St. M a r tin ’ s P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 2 4 1. === [PDF page 141] === 134 e m o tio n s b y p o in tin g to th e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n th e e c o n o m ic s tr e n g th o f the C h in e s e in I n d o n e s ia, w ho c o m p r is e d the m a jo r p o r tio n o f th e b u s in e s s m id d le c l a s s, and th e e c o n o m ic w e a k n e s s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n s t h e m s e lv e s. D r a w in g i t s su p p o rt fr o m th e r u r a l v i l l a g e s, S a r e k a t I s la m g r a d u a lly e v o lv e d in to a n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t and i t s e a r l i e r g o a ls m e r g e d in to th e w id e r a im o f n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e. T he c o n c lu s io n o f W orld W ar I and th e e m p h a s is on s e l f - d e te r m in a tio n a id e d in d ir e c t in g I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis m in a m o r e a g g r e s s iv e m a n n e r. M a r x is m w a s in tr o d u c e d in to th e is la n d s in 1 9 1 4, w ith th e fo u n d in g o f th e I n d ie s S o c ia l D e m o c r a tic A s s o c ia t io n b y a fe w D u tch S o c i a l i s t s, w ho w e r e s o o n jo in e d by a fe w I n d o n e s ia n s. T h e s e w e r e th e s a m e I n d o n e s ia n s w h o la t e r jo in e d th e S a r e k a t I s la m and th u s c a u s e d a s p lit in th a t g r o u p. In M ay, 1 9 2 0, th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r ty (P a r t a i K o m u n is I n d o n e s ia o r P K I) w a s fou n d ed and b y 1923 c la im e d to h a v e f if t y th o u sa n d m em b ers. T he PK I w a s th e f i r s t C o m m u n is t p a r ty e s t a b lis h e d in A s ia and i t h ad c lo s e t i e s w ith th e C o m in te r n th ro u g h th e C o m in te r n 's E a s t e r n J e a n n e S. M in tz, " M a r x ism in I n d o n e s ia, " in F r a n k T r a g e r ( e d.), M a r x is m in S o u th e a s t A s ia (S tanford: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 9 ), === [PDF page 142] === 135 B u r e a u in S h a n g h a i. A p p a r e n tly e n c o u r a g e d b y i t s tr e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e in m e m b e r s h ip, th e C o m m u n ist p a r ty a tte m p te d to o v e r th r o w th e c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t in la t e 1 9 2 6. T h e r e i s no e v id e n c e th a t th is u p r is in g w a s a n y th in g but a l o c a l ly c o n c e iv e d and e x e c u t e d o p e r a tio n. In f a c t, th e r e v o lt w a s d ir e c t ly c o n tr a d ic te d b y C o m in te r n p o lic y a t th e t im e. C o m in te r n p o lic y r e q u ir e d n o n -R u s s ia n C o m m u n is ts in c o lo n ia l a r e a s to a c t in c o n c e r te w ith n o n -C o m m u n is t r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s, e s p e c i a l l y th e p e a s a n tr y. T h e PK I h ad b e e n s u c c e s s f u l in r e c r u itin g m a s s p e a s a n t s u p p o r t th ro u g h i t s s tr u g g le fo r c o n tr o l w ith th e r ig h t w in g o f S a r e k a t I s la m in th e e a r ly 1 9 2 0 's. W ith a s p lit in 1 9 2 3, th e PK I c r e a t e d th e C o m m u n is t-le d p e a s a n t o r g a n iz a tio n, S a r e k a t R a k ja t ( P e o p le 's A s s o c ia t io n S R ), w h ic h b e c a m e th e b a s is o f PK I su p - p o r t. H o w e v e r, b y D e c e m b e r o f 1 9 2 4, th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e PKI b e c a m e c o n v in c e d th a t th e C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t in I n d o n e s ia w a s b e in g d ilu te d by th e i n c r e a s e d in flu e n c e o f th e p e a s a n tr y and th e d e c r e a s in g a tte n tio n g iv e n to tr a d e u n io n a c t iv it y b y th e P a r ty. A s a r e s u lt o f t h is and o th e r c o n c e r n s, a c o n fe r e n c e w a s h e ld d u rin g D e c e m b e r o f 1924 in J o g ja k a r ta fo r th e p u r p o s e o f r e v ie w in g R uth M c V e y, T h e R is e o f I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ism (Ithaca: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 115. C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, S o v ie t S t r a t e g ie s in S o u th e a s t A s ia ( P r in c e ton: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 86. === [PDF page 143] === 136 p a r ty p o l i c i e s. ^ A t t h is m e e tin g, th e CC o f th e PKI p r o p o s e d th a t the SR b e d isb a n d e d b e c a u s e: 1) a c c o r d in g to M a r x is t th e o r y, a C o m m u n ist p a r ty w a s s u p p o s e d to b e a p a r ty o f th e p r o le t a r ia t and n ot th e p e a s a n tr y, 2) th e p e a s a n t c l a s s w a s n o t a r e v o lu tio n a r y c l a s s and th u s, th e SR h a d l i t t l e r e v o lu tio n a r y v a lu e, 3) the ex p a n d ed s iz e o f th e SR m a d e i t to o d if fic u lt to o r g a n iz e i l l e g a l l y i f th a t b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y, and 4) i t s le g a l e x is t e n c e n e c e s s it a t e d p u b lic g a th e r in g s and th u s g a v e th e c o lo n ia l a u t h o r itie s an o p p o rtu n ity to c r a c k dow n on th e C o m m u n ist le a d e r s h ip fo r a n tig o v e r n m e n t s ta te m e n ts m a d e a t th e s e m e e t in g s. T h is p r o p o s a l w a s o p p o se d by a m a j o r it y o f th e d e le g a t e s a tte n d in g th e m e e t in g. T h u s, a c o m p r o m is e w a s r e a c h e d w h e r e b y th e d e s i r e s o f th e p a r ty le a d e r s h ip w o u ld be g r a d u a lly a tta in e d. T h e c o m p r o m is e p r o v id e d fo r a f r e e z e on SR ’ s m e m b e r s h ip w ith the p r o v is o th a t th o s e m e m b e r s o f SR w ho to o k in s t r u c t io n on C o m m u n ist th e o r y and m e t o th e r c r i t e r i a w o u ld jo in th e P K I. T he o t h e r s w o u ld be d r o p p ed o r w o u ld jo in 12 a n o n -r e v o lu tio n a r y C o m m u n is t-le d a g r a r ia n c o o p e r a tiv e m o v e m e n t. T he d e c is io n to d isb a n d the S R, a lth o u g h s lo w ly, w a s b a s e d on the n e e d to d e v e lo p a d is c ip lin e d p a r ty c a p a b le o f c a r r y in g ou t a r e v o lu tio n ^ T h e m e e tin g w a s a tten d e d b y 96 d e le g a t e s fr o m 3 8 PK I s e c t io n s and 46 SR b r a n c h e s. Ruth M c V e y, op. c i t., p. 2 6 2. [Unreadable] 12Ib id., p. 2 7 1. === [PDF page 144] === 137 in th e n e a r fu tu r e. T he d e c is i o n s ta k e n a t th e J o g ja k a r ta m e e tin g w e r e ta k en up d ir e c t ly b y th e e n la r g e d P le n u m o f th e EC CI b e tw e e n M a rc h 2 1 - A p r il 6, 14 1925. A lth o u g h th e te x t o f th e r e s o lu t io n on I n d o n e s ia u n a n im o u sly a d o p te d by th is P le n u m h a s n o t b e e n p u b lis h e d, i t i s c l e a r th a t th o s e p o l i c i e s o f th e PK I w h ic h w o u ld le a d to th e ir is o la t io n fr o m the p e a s a n t 15 c l a s s e s w e r e r e p u d ia te d.. In a s p e e c h d u rin g th e P le n u m, th e C o m in t e r n 's p o s it io n to w a r d s th e p e a s a n tr y w a s m a d e c le a r b y Z in o v ie v: T he e x p e r ie n c e o f th e l a s t y e a r s h a s sh ow n th a t in v a r io u s c o u n t r ie s and v a r io u s s itu a t io n s th e C o m m u n is ts h a v e c o m m itte d th e s a m e e r r o r o f u n d e r e s tim a t in g th e n a tio n a l q u e s tio n, an e r r o r w h ich h ad m a d e i t im p o s s ib le fo r th e C o m m u n is ts to a c h ie v e an im p o r ta n t, n o t to m e n tio n d e c i s i v e, p la c e am on g th e p o p u la tio n. W h e r e v e r p e a s a n ts a r e o r g a n iz e d in to p o li t ic a l p a r t ie s o f h e te r o g e n e o u s s o c ia l c o n s titu tio n, th e C o m m u n ist p a r ty m u s t c o u r t th e le f t w in g, w h ic h i s fo r m e d o f s m a ll p e a s a n t s, in o r d e r to s e p a r a t e th em out a t an o p p o rtu n e m o m e n t and fo r m an in d e p e n d e n t o r g a n iz a tio n. T h e C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s sh o u ld fo r m a b lo c w ith the s m a ll p e a s a n t p a r t ie s, s u b je c tin g th em to a ll th e ir id e o lo g i c a l in flu e n c e and p r o p a g a tin g th e id e a o f the n e c e s s i t y o f an a llia n c e b e tw e e n th e w o r k e r s and p e a s a n ts f o r a s u c c e s s f u l 13Ib id., p. 2 7 3. 14 T h e P le n u m w a s a tte n d e d by 2 4 4 d e le g a t e s (104 o f w h o m had v o tin g r ig h ts ) fr o m 34 s e c t io n s, in c lu d in g 32 m e m b e r s and 5 c a n d id a te m e m b e r s o f th e E C C I. T h is m e e tin g c o n c e r n e d i t s e l f w ith th e a ff a ir s o f m o s t m e m b e r p a r t ie s o f th e C o m in te r n. J a n e D e g r a s ( e d.), T he C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l 1 9 1 9 -1 9 4 3: D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 8 3 -1 8 4. C h a r le s B. M cL ane, op. c i t., p. 89. === [PDF page 145] === 138 s tr u g g le o f th e t o i l e r s a g a in s t the e x p lo it e r s.... W h e r e v e r th e p e a s a n t q u e s tio n i s c o n n e c te d w ith a n a tio n a l q u e s tio n, th e C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s m u s t p a y p a r tic u la r a tte n tio n to th e la t t e r. T o ig n o r e th e n a tio n a l fa c to r in ^ u c h c a s e s w o u ld n o t o n ly be an e r r o r bu t a p o lit ic a l c r im e. W ith s p e c if ic r e f e r e n c e to the I n d o n e s ia n c a s e, th e E C C I a tta c k e d both th e P K I's c u r r e n t and p a s t p o l i c i e s. A c c o r d in g to th e ECCI r e s o l u tio n, th e p r o b le m s a r is in g fr o m the P K I’ s in v o lv e m e n t w ith the SR w e r e c a u s e d b y i t s c lo s e and p u b lic n a tu r e. T h u s, th e f a c t th a t th e SR w a s p u b lic ly s u b o r d in a te to th e PK I and th a t i t s le a d e r s h ip and p r o g r a m w e r e c le a r ly th o s e o f th e PKI r e s u lt e d in a d ilu tio n o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r t y 's 17 p r o g r a m in o r d e r to m e e t th e n e e d s o f a m a s s o r g a n iz a tio n. A ccord in g to th e E C C I, th e PK I sh o u ld h a v e c r e a t e d a s e p a r a t e and in d e p e n d e n t, m a s s m o v e m e n t, w ith in w h ic h th e PK I w o u ld h a v e o p e r a te d a s the le f t w in g, w h ile e x c e r c i s i n g th e r e a l c o n tr o l o v e r th e m o v e m e n t. T h is v ie w w a s a m p lifie d in a l e t t e r fr o m th e EC C I to th e CC o f th e PK I on M ay 4, 1925: S a r e k a t R a k ja t m u s t be g r a d u a lly s e p a r a t e d fr o m th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia and b e c o n v e r te d in to a g e n u in e n a tio n a l, r e v o lu tio n a r y o r g a n iz a tio n w o r k in g in conjunct^cgi w ith and u n d er th e in t e lle c t u a l le a d e r s h ip of th e C o m m u n is ts. E x e c u t if E la r g i de l 1I n te r n a tio n a le C o m m u n is te. C o m p te ren d u a n a ly tiq u e de la S e s s io n du 21 M a r s au 6 A v r il 1925 ( P a r is, 1 9 2 5 ), pp. 2 7 0 - 2 8 6, t r a n s la t e d and q u o ted in R uth M c V e y, op. c i t., pp. 2 7 8 - 2 7 9. 17 Ruth M c V e y, op. c i t., p. 2 7 9. 18 T r a n s la te d and quoted in G eorge B. M cL ane, op. c i t., p. 88. === [PDF page 146] === 139 W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e P K I's p o s itio n on th e p e a s a n t s, th e l e t t e r w a s c le a r ly c r it ic a l: T h e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t h a s sh ow n th a t th e r e i s n o t a s in g le c o u n tr y in th e w o r ld w h e r e th e p r o le t a r ia t c a n c o u n t on s u c c e s s in th e s tr u g g le u n le s s i t o b ta in s th e a c tiv e su p p o r t o f th e m a jo r ity o f th e p e a s a n tr y. T h e p e a s a n tr y h a s i t s ow n i n t e r e s t s; c o n s e q u e n tly th e w h o le o f th e p e a s a n tr y c a n b e d ra w n in to th e a n t i- im p e r ia lis t s t r u g g le o n ly it th is fig h t i s c o n d u c te d in d e fe n c e o f i t s i n t e r e s t s. In g e n e r a l t h e s e i n t e r e s t s c o in c id e w ith th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e w h o le o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le, and do n o t c o n tr a d ic t th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t. A p la tfo r m m u s t b e d ra w n up fo r th e g e n e r a l n a tio n a l s tr u g g le w h ic h m u s t ^ |iv e f i r s t c o n s id e r a t io n to the i n t e r e s t s o f the p e a s a n tr y. In a d d itio n to th e M ay 4 th le t t e r, an a m p lific a tio n o f th e C o m in t e r n 's d e c is io n w a s r e c e iv e d by th e PK I fr o m S e m a u n, a fo u n d in g m e m b e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p a r ty, w h o had r e p r e s e n t e d J a v a a t th e fifth 20 C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s, w h e r e h e w a s e l e c t e d to th e E C C I. In th is l e t t e r, S e m a u n n o t o n ly c a lle d on th e PK I to r e v iv e and m a in ta in th e SR, bu t a ls o to in f ilt r a t e the B udi U to m o, th e S a r e k a t I s la m and o th e r n a t io n a lis t ic a lly o r ie n te d g r o u p s: P a t ie n t ly, c a r e f u lly, and w ith th e u t m o s t t a c t w e m u s t w o r k in and w ith t h e s e o r g a n iz a t io n s, a v o id in g e v e r y c a u s e fo r u n n e c e s s a r y a n n o y a n c e at u s, And w e c a n b e s t c a r r y out th o s e t a c t ic s to w a r d the n a tio n a l p a r t ie s u n d e r th e s lo g a n o f ONE F L A G F O R IN D O N E SIA, 19I b i d., pp. 8 8 -8 9. 20 R uth M c V e y, op. c i t., p. 2 6 8. S e m a u n h a d b e e n liv in g in e x il e in H o lla n d s in c e S e p te m b e r 2 0, 1923 (ib id., p. 2 4 0 ). === [PDF page 147] === 140 th e fla g o f a R a d ic a l N a tio n a l F r o n t m o v e m e n t. (C a ll i t w h a te v e r th e m a j o r it y o f th o s e a f f ilia t e d w ith i t d e s ir e: th e n a m e i s n o t im p o r ta n t).... Our p a r ty m u s t, a s th e C o m in te r n r e s o lu t io n s a y s, c r e a t e a u n ite d p a r ty m o v e m e n t su c h a s an a n t i- im p e r ia lis t fr o n t, o r, i f th is a lr e a d y e x i s t s in e m b r y o f o r m, c a u s e i t to b e d e v e lo p e d fu r th e r. T h a t o u r la b o r m o v e m e n t w i l l ta k e p a r t in i t i s a m a t te r o f c o u r s e. We had m a d e t h is t a c t ic a r e a lit y in the b e g in n in g o f 1923 w ith th e R a d ic a l C o n c e n tr a tio n, and w e m u s t n o w r e p e a t i t a g a in and a g a in, e v e n th o u g h th e c o m p le x s itu a tio n sh o u ld r e p e a te d ly p r e v e n t th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a s ta b le u n ite d fr o n t, u n til a Sovig'J I n d o n e s ia m a k e s i t s e x is t e n c e no lo n g e r n ecessary. In a d d itio n, S em a u n e m p h a s iz e d th a t th e P K I's p r e p a r a tio n fo r a r e v o lu tio n and th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t in th e n e a r fu tu r e w a s p r e m a tu r e: N ow th at a te m p o r a r y d e p r e s s io n in o u r a c t iv e m a s s m o v e m e n t to w a r d a S o v ie t s y s t e m ca n be s e e n in th e r u lin g W e st, w e m u s t r e v i s e o u r p r o p a g a n d a in th is m a t t e r.... T he r e s o lu t io n o f th e C o m in te r n s a y s t h is c l e a r ly. We m u s t a g ita te w ith in th e n a tio n a l r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t fo r a fo r m o f s ta te w h ic h w ill n o t a lie n a t e th e r e v o lu tio n a r y b o u r g e o is f o r c e s fr o m u s bu t w h ic h, on th e c o n tr a r y, w i l l b r in g th em to r e a li z e th a t w e a r e th e ir _ fr ie n d s in the s tr u g g le a g a in s t im p e r i a l i s m. T h e r e fo r e /w e m u s t u r g e / u n iv e r s a l s u ffr a g e, n o t fo r a p a r l i a m e n t but a ls o n o t p r o le t a r ia n s u ffr a g e f o r a S o v ie t s ta te. O nly fo u r te e n d a y s a fte r th e o f f ic ia l ECCI l e t t e r o f M ay 4 th, S ta lin put h im s e lf on r e c o r d in o p p o s itio n to th e o th e r m a jo r p o lic y d e c is io n ta k e n a t J o g ja k a r ta; the p r e p a r a tio n fo r an e a r ly a n t i- c o lo n ia l r e v o lt and S e m a u n, " B r ie v e n, " (June 12, 1 9 2 5 ), tr a n s la t e d and q u o ted in R.uth M c V e y, op. c i t., p. 2 8 0. 22 I b id., (June 17 and 18, 1925), tr a n sla te d and quoted in Ruth [Unreadable] === [PDF page 148] === 141 th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f an I n d o n e s ia n S o v ie t R e p u b lic. S p ea k in g a t th e C o m m u n is t U n iv e r s it y o f th e T o i le r s o f the E a s t, S ta lin c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e P K I's s tr a te g y w ith in th e c o n te x t o f le f t d e v ia tio n is m, w h ic h h e d e fin e d ... o v e r r a tin g th e r e v o lu tio n a r y p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e l i b e r a tio n m o v e m e n t and u n d e r r a tin g th e im p o r ta n c e o f an a llia n c e b e tw e e n th e w o r k in g c l a s s and th e r e v o lu tio n a r y b o u r g e o is ie a g a in s t im p e r ia lis m. T h e C o m m u n is ts in J a v a, w ho r e c e n t ly e r r o n e o u s ly pu t fo r w a r d th e s lo g a n o f a S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t fo r th e ir c o u n tr y, s u f f e r, i t s e e m s, fr o m t h is d e v ia tio n. It i s a d e v ia tio n to th e L e ft, w h ic h th r e a te n s to a lie n a t e the C o m m u n is t P a r ty fr o m th e m a s s e s and to tr a n s fo r m i t in to a s e c t. A d e te r m in e d s tr u g g le a g a in s t th is d e v ia tio n i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d itio n fo r th e e d u c a tio n o f tr u ly r e v o lu tio n a r y ^ c a d r e s fo r th e c o lo n ie s and d e p e n d en t c o u n t r ie s o f th e E a s t. T h e s e n e g a tiv e r e m a r k s c o n s titu te th e c o m p le te p u b lis h e d r e c o r d o f 24 J o s e p h S t a lin 's s ta te m e n ts on the I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty. In O c to b e r, 1 9 2 5, and a g a in in e a r ly 1 9 2 6, th e C o m in te r n e x p r e s s e d 25 i t s d is a p p r o v a l o f the P K I's p o lic y. H o w e v e r, b y th a t p o in t, th e PKI w a s no lo n g e r in a p o s itio n to a c c e p t th e C o m in te r n 's a d v ic e, e v e n i f i t h a d b e e n w illin g to do s o. D ue to the g r o w in g s u c c e s s e s and i n c r e a s in g ly r e v o lu tio n a r y a ttitu d e o f th e P K I, th e D u tch g o v e r n m e n t in t e n s if ie d 26 i t s r e s t r ic t io n s up on C o m m u n is ts and C o m m u n is t-le d o r g a n iz a tio n s. 23 J o s e p h S ta lin, M a r x is m and th e N a tio n a l and C o lo n ia l Q u e s tio n. 24 C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, op. c i t., p. 9 0. 25 P. B e r g s m a n, "T he R e v o lu tio n a r y M o v e m e n t in J a v a, " I n p r e c o r (O c to b er 8, 1925) and O tch et I s p o lk o m a K o m in te r n a (1 9 2 6 ), b o th c ite d in C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, lo c. c it. 26 C h a rles B. M cL ane, op. c it., p. 91 and Ruth M cV ey, op. c i t. p. 289. === [PDF page 149] === 142 B y N o v e m b e r o f 1 9 2 5, C o m m u n ist m e e t in g s w e r e b a n n ed a lto g e th e r. A c c o r d in g to S e m a u n ’ s r e p o r t to th e S ix th E n la r g e d P le n u m o f th e E C C I in F e b r u a r y, 1 9 2 6, th e D u tch c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t h a d a r r e s t e d 3,0 0 0 p e r s o n s, in c lu d in g 500 C o m m u n is ts, and had k ille d o r w ou n d ed 27 200 m o r e. T he s p e c if ic d e c is io n to r e v o lt w a s ta k en b y a p p r o x im a te ly e le v e n of th e top PK I le a d e r s in th e P r a m b a n a n te m p le n e a r S u r a k a r ta, in 28 C e n tr a l J a v a, on D e c e m b e r 2 5, 1 9 2 5. I t w a s d e c id e d th a t th e t a c t ic s to b e u s e d w o u ld in v o lv e a s tr ik e by la b o r u n io n s fo llo w e d by a r m e d 29 v io le n c e. T h e p a r tic ip a n ts p r o b a b ly e x p e c t e d th a t p r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e r e v o lt w o u ld be c o m p le te and th e r e c e ip t o f o u tsid e su p p o r t w o u ld 30 p r o b a b ly h a v e a r r iv e d s o m e tim e d u rin g M ay o r J u n e, 1 9 2 6. H ow ever, C ite d in C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, l o c. c it. 28 R uth M cV e y, op. c i t., p. 311 and C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, op. c i t., pp. 9 1 - 9 2. J u s ta s M. V an d e r K r o e f, T h e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (V a n c o u v e r: P u b lic a tio n s C e n tr e, U n iv e r s it y o f B r it is h C o lu m b ia, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 16, c o n te n d s th a t A lim in w a s th e c h a ir m a n o f th e P r a m b a n a n M e e tin g. R uth M c V e y, op. c i t., pp. 4 7 1 ff c o n te n d s th a t i t i s u n lik e ly th at h e e v e n a tte n d e d th e m e e t in g, h a v in g le f t I n d o n e s ia the p r e v io u s J u ly. A lim in, R in a ja t H id u p, p. 2 0, c ite d b y R uth M c V e y, lo c. c i t., c o n te n d s th at h e m e t a g a in w ith o th e r PK I l e a d e r s o n ly a fte r th e y a r r iv e d in S in g a p o r e in J a n u a r y, 1 9 2 6. 29 [Unreadable] 30 I b id. C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, op. c i t., p. 91, and G e o r g e M cT. K ah in, N a tio n a lis m and R e v o lu tio n in I n d o n e s ia (Ithaca: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1952), p. 8 0, c o n te n d s th a t th e d a te -fo r th e r e b e llio n w a s s e t fo r Jun e 18, 1 9 2 6. H e m u s t be r e ly in g on th e d ate g iv e n by T an M alak a; an I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist liv in g a t th at tim e in M a n ila. H o w e v e r, a c c o u n ts o f th e m e e tin g v a r y s ig n if ic a n t ly on t h is poin t; d a te s b e in g g iv e n fo r M ay, June or J u ly (Ruth M c V e y, op. c it., pp. 4 7 2 ff). === [PDF page 150] === 143 b y th e b e g in n in g o f J a n u a r y, 1 9 2 6, th e l a s t o f th e m a jo r PK I le a d e r s w a s f o r c e d to f l e e to S in g a p o r e a s a r e s u lt o f th e C o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t's s u p p r e s s io n o f v a r io u s p r e m a tu r e s t r ik e s d u rin g D e c e m b e r. ^ T h u s, th e P K I's r e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r s h ip w a s r e m o v e d to S in g a p o r e; a r e m o v a l w h ic h w a s to h a v e im p o r ta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e e v e n ts w h ic h fo llo w e d. T h is p h y s ic a l s e p a r a tio n c r e a t e d a p o lic y s p lit a m o n g th e PK I le a d e r s h ip and th u s w ith in th e PK I i t s e l f. In e s s e n c e, th e s p lit o c c u r r e d b e tw e e n th o s e w h o in t e r p r e t e d th e c o n d itio n in I n d o n e s ia a s d id th e in d ig e n o u s C o m m u n ist le a d e r s h ip and th o s e w ho a g r e e d w ith th e ECCI; su c h a s T an M a la k a, an e a r ly m e m b e r o f th e PK I. T an M a la k a h ad r e p r e s e n t e d I n d o n e s ia a t th e F o u r th C o m in te r n C o n g ress. H e h ad b e e n e x ile d fr o m J a v a in 1923 and c la im e d to b e s e r v in g a s th e C o m in te r n 's r e p r e s e n t a t iv e in S o u th e a s t A s ia s in c e 1 9 2 4. S u ffe r in g fr o m t u b e r c u lo s is and liv in g in M a n ila, h e w a s in f o r m e d o f the P r a m b a n a n d e c is io n by m a il and w h en A lim in r e - v i s i t e d h im in F e b r u a r y, p e r h a p s to e x p la in th e d e c is io n to h im, M a la k a p r e p a r e d a s ta te m e n t s e ttin g fo r th 31 R uth M c V e y, o p. c i t., pp. 3 1 5 - 3 1 6. C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, l o c. c i t., c la im s th a t A lim in w a s one o f t h e s e. R uth M c V e y, op. c i t., pp. 3 1 5 - 3 1 6, c o n te n d s, in lin e w ith h e r b e li e f th a t A lim in had n o t b e e n in I n d o n e s ia s in c e th e p r e v io u s J u ly, th a t h e m e t t h e s e o th e r In d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is ts a g a in o n ly a fte r th e ir a r r iv a l in S in g a p o r e. T h e r e i s a g r e e m e n t h o w e v e r, th at t h is i s w h en M u s s o, a n o th e r le a d in g In d o n e sia n C o m m u n is t w h o w a s la t e r to sp e n d m u c h tim e in M o sc o w, le f t I n d o n e s ia. === [PDF page 151] === 144 h is v ie w s fo r th e PK I le a d e r s h ip. M ala k a p o in te d ou t th a t th e P r a m a n a n d e c is io n " w en t a g a in s t C o m - 33 in t e r n r u le s, " and th a t th e C o m in te r n 's d e c is io n w a s c o r r e c t on th e g r o u n d s th at: T o b r in g abou t a p u ts c h in a c o u n tr y lik e I n d o n e s ia ( e s p e c ia lly on J a v a ), in a p la c e w h e r e c a p ita l i s c o n c e n tr a te d, w e ll o r g a n iz e d, and p r o te c te d b y s o ld ie r s and s p ie s in the m o d e r n W e ste r n fa s h io n, and w h e r e on th e o th e r han d th e p e o p le a r e s t i l l c o m p le te ly s u p e r s t it io u s m e a n s to p la y w ith f i r e - - i t i s o n e 's own f in g e r s th a t w ill g e t b u rn t. T h e s e a n a r c h is t s w ho a r e a c c u s t o m e d to s a y in g th a t th e w e ll- k n it f o r c e s o f th e W est c a n b e c r u s h e d b y a fe w " e x p lo d in g e g g s" a r e b e in g no m o r e in t e llig e n t th an a m a n w h o t r i e s to b e a t in a s to n e w a ll w ith h is h e a d. ^ In T a n 's v ie w, the PK I sh o u ld d e v e lo p s u p p o r t a m o n g th e b r o a d m a s s e s in I n d o n e s ia u s in g the m o d e r a te a p p r o a c h e m b o d ie d w ith in a p o lic y o f 35 U n ited F r o n t fr o m A b o v e. T he PK I i t s e l f sh o u ld o p e r a te a s a d i s c i p lin e d b lo c w ith in: I f a " s in g le p arty" s y s t e m i s to b e u s e d, th e p r o le ta r ia n s and n o n p r o le ta r ia n s w ill be g a th e r e d in o n e r e v o lu tio n a r y o r g a n iz a tio n w ith in w h ic h p a r ty th e m o r e c o n s c io u s and e d u c a te d w o r k e r s w ill fo r m a " le ft w in g. " T h is l e f t w in g w ill b e c o m e the 32 R uth M c V e y, o p. c i t., pp. 3 1 8 - 3 2 0, C h a r le s B. M c L a n e, o p. c it., p. 9 2, and G e o r g e M cT. K a h in, o p. c i t., p. 82. 33 T a n M a la k a, T h e s is, p. 3 8, q u o te d in R uth M c V e y, o p. c i t., 34 Tan M alaka, M a s s A c t i e, p. 4 8, quoted in Ruth M cV ey, lo c. cit. 35T^ Ibid. === [PDF page 152] === 145 36 d r iv in g f o r c e o f th e I n d o n e s ia n m o v e m e n t. A lim in to o k T a n 's s ta te m e n t to S in g a p o r e, a lth o u g h i t i s n o t c le a r h o w, o r i f, h e p r e s e n t e d i t to th e PK I le a d e r s h ip a s s e m b le d t h e r e. In an y e v e n t, T an M alak a*s a d v ic e w a s n o t a c c e p t e d and i t w a s d e c id e d a t a m e e tin g in A p r il th a t tw o PK I r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s, A lim in and M u s s o, sh o u ld b e d is p a tc h e d to M o sc o w in o r d e r to s e c u r e th e C o m in te r n 's 37 a u th o r iz a tio n and m a t e r ia l su p p o r t f o r th e r e v o lt. W hat th e r e a c tio n o f th e E C C I w a s on A lim in * s and M u sso * s a r r iv a l in M o s c o w i s n o t c le a r, a lth o u g h b y w h a t h a d g o n e b e f o r e, i t i s lik e ly th a t i t w a s n e g a t iv e. H ow e v e r, e v e n t s r a p id ly m a d e M o s c o w 's r e a c t io n s r e la t iv e l y u n im p o r ta n t. T h e fo llo w in g J u n e, T an M a la k a t r a v e lle d to S in g a p o r e and fou nd th a t p r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e u p r is in g h a d r e a c h e d an a d v a n c e d s ta g e. He th en f o r c e f u lly p r e s e n t e d h is p o s it io n to th e PK I le a d e r s h ip a s s e m b le d th e r e and c o n v in c e d s e v e r a l o f th e m to d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e lv e s fr o m th e p la n. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e, s o m e m e m b e r s o f th e P a r t y 's C e n tr a l C o m m itte e, lo c a te d in B an d u n g, w ith d r e w th e ir su p p o r t fr o m th e a tte m p t a t r e v o lu tio n. H o w e v e r, s o m e lo c a l le a d e r s d e c id e d to p r o c e e d w ith th e r e v o lu tio n. 38 d e s p it e any c o n tr a r y in s t r u c t io n s fr o m S in g a p o r e a n d /o r M o sc o w. By 36 I b i d., q u o ted in Ruth M c V e y, o p. c i t., p. 3 1 9. R e fe r a ls o to J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, op. c i t., p. 13 9. 37 R uth M c V e y, o p. c i t., p. 321, G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, op. s i t., p. 92 and G e o r g e M cT. K ah in, o p. c i t., p. 8 2. 38 R uth M cV e y, o p. c i t., pp. 3 2 1 - 3 2 2, G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, o p. c i t., pp. 9 2 -9 3 and G e o r g e M c T. K a h in, op. c i t., pp. 8 2 - 8 3. === [PDF page 153] === 146 th e end o f S e p te m b e r, 1 9 2 6, th e r e w e r e th r e e g r o u p s c la im in g the le a d e r s h ip o f th e PK I: (1) th e o f f ic ia l h e a d q u a r te r s o f th e P a r ty in B a n dung, w h ic h w a s b a d ly s p lit, (2) a r e v o lu tio n a r y C o m m itte e, c o m m itte d to r e v o lu tio n, in B a ta v ia, and (3) th e s u p p o r te r s o f T an M a la k a in 39 S in g a p o r e. T h u s, th e PKI le a d e r s h ip dow n th ro u g h the lo c a l l e v e l h a d s p lin t e r e d on p o lic y and t h is, c o m b in e d w ith th e in c r e a s in g r e p r e s s i o n o f th e D u tch c o lo n ia l a u t h o r itie s and th e r e s u lt a n t g e o g r a p h ic a l d is lo c a t io n o f th e le a d in g I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is ts, c a u s e d a s e v e r e b r e a k d o w n in c o m m u n i c a tio n s and th e im p o s s ib i lit y o f m a in ta in in g d is c ip lin e w ith in th e P a r ty. T h e " R ev o lt" fin a lly b e g a n in J a v a on N o v e m b e r 12 and on S u m a tr a on J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 2 7, a p p r o x im a te ly on e m o n th a ft e r th e r e v o lt o n J a v a 40 had b e e n c r u s h e d. A lim in and M u s s o r e tu r n e d to M a la y a fr o m M o sc o w in m id - D e c e m b e r, 1 9 2 6, w h e r e u p o n th e y w e r e p r o m p tly a r r e s t e d b y 41 B r i t is h a u t h o r it ie s. T h u s, th e p r in c ip a l a n t i- c o lo n ia l f o r c e in the N e th e r la n d s E a s t I n d ie s in th e y e a r s b e tw e e n 1915 and 1 9 2 6 w a s d e s tr o y e d. H o w e v e r, b y v ir tu e o f t h is e v e n t, th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t e s t a b lis h e d i t s e l f a s a p a r t of th e g e n e r a l n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n t. M any In d o n e s ia n N a t io n a lis t s c o n s id e r t h is u p r is in g a s a m a n ife s t a tio n 39 Ruth M cV e y, op. c it., p. 3 3 4. 40 R uth M cV e y, op. c it., pp. 3 4 0 - 3 4 6, and G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, o p. c i t., p. 9 4. 41 Ruth M cV ey, op. cit., p. 346, and G eo rg e B. M cL a n e, l o c. c i t. === [PDF page 154] === 147 o f n a t io n a lis m and a s a n a t io n a lis t r e v o lt, r a th e r th a n s im p ly a s a C o m - 42 m u n is t u p r is in g. S u k arn o c la im s to b e lo n g to th e " g e n e r a tio n " th at 43 le d th e 1926 r e v o lt a lth o u g h h e w a s n o t an a c tiv e p a r tic ip a n t in i t. H o w e v e r, th e r e v o lt w a s a c r u c ia l e r r o r, s in c e th e u p r is in g w a s v ig o r o u s ly s u p p r e s s e d and th e w h o le n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n t w a s d i s c r e d it e d. M any o f th e D u tch c o n c lu d e d th a t "the m ilita n t n a t io n a lis t s 44 a r e a s m u c h th e e n e m ie s o f th e ir ow n p e o p le a s th e C o m m u n is ts a r e. ” T he C o m in te r n r e a c t e d to th e f a it a c c o m p li in I n d o n e s ia w ith w h o le - 45 h e a r te d p u b lic s u p p o r t. H o w e v e r, th e P K I's a tte m p t h a d o b v io u s ly r e s u lt e d in a d e b a c le and th u s, on th e f i r s t a n n iv e r s a r y o f th e a tte m p te d r e v o lu tio n, th e EC C I c a r r ie d out i t s p o s t - m o r t e m: T he r e v o lt to o k p la c e u n d er th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e C o m m u n is t p a r ty. H u n d red s o f th e b e s t I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is ts w e r e s h o t o r th ro w n in to j a il. E v e n b e fo r e th e r e v o lt th e b e s t le a d e r s h a d b e e n a r r e s t e d. T h e p a r ty m a d e g r e a t e ffo r ts to p r e p a r e i t s e l f fo r the r e v o lt... but i t s e n tir e c o u r s e sh o w e d th e la c k o f s e r io u s p o lit ic a l and o r g a n iz a tio n a l 42 In d o n esia * s N a tio n a l M o v e m e n t (San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, 1 9 5 6 ), d itto. 43 A r th u r J. D o m m e n, "T he A tte m p te d Coup in I n d o n e s ia, " T he C hin a Q u a r te r ly N o. 25 (J a n u a r y -M a r c h, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 163. 44 M. W. F. T r e u b, H et g i s t in In d ie: e e n a n a ly s e d er^ h ed en - d a a g s c h e I n la n d sc h e b e w e g in g, q u o ted in R uth M c V e y, o p. c i t., p. 3 5 5. 45 — "EC CI M a n ife s to on T he R e v o lt in In d o n e sia " /A d o p te d on N o v e m b e r 2 0, 1 9 2 6 /. A b r id g e d and r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., II, pp. 3 1 1 - 3 1 2. R e fe r a ls o to Ruth M c V e y, op. c i t., pp. 3 4 7 - 3 5 3, and G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, o p. c it., pp. 9 4 -9 6. === [PDF page 155] === 148 p r e p a r a tio n o f th e m o v e m e n t a s a w h o le. It i s h ig h ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c th a t th e r e v o lt w a s c o n d u c te d u n d er th e g e n e r a l s lo g a n o f fig h tin g D u tch im p e r ia lis m, w ith o u t c o n c r e te p o li t ic a l and e c o n o m ic a l s lo g a n s w h ic h m ig h t h a v e m o b iliz e d th e b r o a d m a s s e s and b r o u g h t th e r e v o lt to th e fin a l and d e c |g iv e p o in t o f a g e n e r a l s t r ik e and a p e a s a n t u p r is in g.... T h u s, th e C o m in te r n c o n te n d e d th a t th e PK I h ad ig n o r e d th e s t r a t e g y r e p e a t e d ly s u g g e s t e d by th e E C C I d u rin g 1925 and e a r ly 1 9 2 6. T h e y had n ot o r g a n iz e d a b r o a d u n ite d fr o n t n o r m o b iliz e d th e p e a s a n t s. H o w e v e r, th e PK I le a d e r s h ip b la m e d th e ir p a r ty 's f a ilu r e on the C o m in te r n 's la c k of m a t e r ia l su p p o rt fo r th e r e v o lt. An In d o n e s ia n d e le g a te to th e S ix th W orld C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m in te r n (J u ly, 1928) and b e lie v e d to b e A lim in s ta te d: We c o n s id e r i t to be a s e r io u s m is ta k e th a t d u rin g the u p r is in g /o f 1 9 2 6 - 1 9 2 7 /... the C o m in te r n r e m a in e d in a c t iv e. T h e b la m e c a n n o t be put on ou r D u tch p a r ty b e c a u s e o u r c o m r a d e s did w h a t th e y c o u ld to su p p o rt th e r e b e llio n. T h e C o m in te r n ou gh t to h a v e in s t r u c t e d a ll i t s s e c t io n s... to su p p o r t th e u p r is in g and to m a k e a c a m p a ig n w ith d e m o n s t r a t io n s, th ro u g h th e p r e s s, e t c., in fa v o r o f i t. B u t t h is h a s n o t b e e n d o n e. It i s a sa d e x p e r ie n c e o f th e C o m i^ e r n and w e h o p e th a t su c h a m is ta k e w ill n o t o c c u r a g a in. T h e C o m in te r n 's l a s t know n in s t r u c t io n s to th e PK I w e r e e m b o d ie d w ith in th e " T h e s e s on th e R e v o lu tio n a r y M o v e m e n t in C o lo n ia l and S e m i- C o lo n ia l C o u n tr ie s ": 46 "EC CI S ta te m e n t on th e T a s k s o f I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is ts ” (ad op ted N o v e m b e r, 1 9 2 7 ). A b r id g e d and r e p r in te d in ib id., pp. 4 1 2 - 4 1 4. 47 S t e n o g r a f ic h e s k ii o tc h e t VI K o n g r e s s a, uyp., I, pp. 2 7 6 -2 7 8. T r a n s la t e d and q u o te d in G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, op. c it., pp. 9 8 - 9 9. === [PDF page 156] === 149 In I n d o n e s ia th e s u p p r e s s io n o f th e r is i n g o f 1 9 2 6, the a r r e s t and e x ile o f th o u sa n d s o f m e m b e r s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty, s e r i o u s l y d is o r g a n iz e d i t s r a n k s. T he n e e d to r e b u ild th e d e s t r o y e d p a r ty o r g a n iz a tio n s d e m a n d s fr o m th e p a r ty n ew m e th o d s o f w o r k, c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e i l l e g a l c o n d itio n s c r e a t e d b y th e p o lic e r e g im e o f D u tch i m p e r ia lis m. T he c o n c e n tr a tio n o f p a r ty a c t i v i t i e s on th e p la c e s w h e r e th e tow n and v illa g e p r o le t a r ia t i s c o n c e n tr a te d, th e f a c t o r ie s and p la n ta tio n s; r e s t o r a t io n o f th e d is s o lv e d tr a d e u n io n s and th e s tr u g g le fo r th e ir le g a liz a tio n; s p e c ia l a tte n tio n to the p r a c t ic a l p a r tia l d e m a n d s o f th e p e a s a n tr y; d e v e lo p m e n t and s tr e n g th e n in g o f p e a s a n t o r g a n iz a tio n a l w o r k w ith in a ll the m a s s n a t io n a lis t o r g a n iz a tio n s, in w h ic h th e C o m m u n ist p a r ty m u s t e s t a b lis h fr a c t io n s and r a lly to i t s e l f th e n a tio n a lr e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s; r e s o lu t e s tr u g g le a g a in s t th e D u tch s o c ia l - d e m o c r a t s w h o, su p p o r te d by th e G o v e r n m e n t, a r e a tte m p tin g to s e c u r e a fo o th o ld fo r t h e m s e lv e s a m o n g th e n a tiv e p r o le t a r ia t, w in n in g o v e r the n u m e r o u s C h in e s e w o r k e r s fo r th e c l a s s s tr u g g le and n a t io n a l- r e v o lu t io n a r y s t r u g g le, and the e s t a b lis h m e n t o f c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t in C hin a and I n d ia - - t h e s e a r e s o m e o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t ta s k s 48 of th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty. T h e s e in s t r u c t io n s w e r e c l e a r ly a r e tu r n to th e E C C I's r e c o m m e n d e d p o lic y p r io r to th e s ta g in g o f the r e v o lt: (1) e m p h a s is on the tow n and v il l a g e, (2) p a r tic ip a tio n in tr a d e u n io n a c t iv it y, (3) a tte n tio n to p e a s a n t d e m a n d s and (4) w o r k w ith in m a s s n a t io n a lis t g r o u p s. T h is a d v ic e w a s fo r n au gh t, h o w e v e r, s in c e th e D u tch C o lo n ia l G o v e r n m e n t's a c tiv ity fo llo w in g the cou p e f f e c t iv e ly d e s tr o y e d o r d is p e r s e d th e P K I's le a d e r s h ip. A m e a s u r e o f th e P K I's d e m is e b e tw e e n 1927 and th e end o f W orld W ar II i s s e e n b y th e f a c t th a t b y A p r il o f 1 9 3 0, C o m m u n ist a c t iv it y in I n d o n e s ia " T h e s e s on th e R e v o lu tio n a r y M o v e m e n t in C o lo n ia l and S e m i- C o lo n ia l C o u n tr ie s" (ad op ted by th e S ix th C o m in te r n C o n g r e s s, S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 2 8 ). A b r id g e d and r e p r in te d in J a n e D e g r a s, op. c i t., II, pp. 5 3 0 - 548. === [PDF page 157] === w a s to b e d ir e c t e d by s u b - d e p a r t m e n t s.o f th e M a la y a n C o m m u n ist P a r ty. W ith th e d e fe a t o f th e PK I in 1 9 2 6, th e d e c k s w e r e c le a r e d fo r a y o u n g e r g e n e r a t io n o f s e c u la r n a t io n a lis t s to ta k e up th e c u d g e ls o f a n t i- c o lo n ia l n a t io n a lis m. T h e in d ig e n o u s s e c u la r n a t io n a lis t s e s t a b l is h e d a n e w p o lit ic a l p a r ty, th e P a r ta i N a s io n a lis I n d o n e s ia (P N I), le d by S u k a rn o. A lth o u g h m o s t o f th e n e w n o n -C o m m u n is t n a t io n a lis t le a d e r s w e r e o r ie n te d to w a r d s s o c i a l i s m, th e y w e r e n ot w illin g to s u b o r d in a te th e ir g o a l of p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e to th e d e s i r e s o f th e C o m - 50 in t e r n. A s M o h a m m a d H a tta w r o te: On th e r u in s o f the PK I and IR 's th e r e h a s b e e n fo r m e d a n e w m a s s m o v e m e n t.... In th e s e d if fic u lt t i m e s, o n ly a fe w b e lie v e d in th e p o s s i b ilit y o f a n ew m a s s m o v e m e n t. A m on g t h e s e p io n e e r s w e r e th e fo u n d e r s o f th e P N I.... / T h i s n ew p a r ty d if f e r s fr o m th e PK I o n ly in th a t/ th e u ltim a te a im o f th e PN I i s n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e. S u k arn o w a s c o n v in c e d th a t in o r d e r to a c h ie v e th e ir g o a l, th e I n d o n e s ia n s w o u ld h a v e to r e ly on t h e m s e l v e s. A d d itio n a lly, h e r e c o g n iz e d th a t n e ith e r th e n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie n o r th e u r b a n p r o le t a r ia t w e r e s u f f ic ie n t ly d e v e lo p e d to p r o v id e th e b a s is fo r a n a tio n a l r e v o lu tio n. H is a n s w e r w a s a r e lia n c e on, and c o m m itm e n t to th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e 49 G e o r g e B. M c L a n e, op. c i t., p. 136. 50 J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m ed, M a rx and M a rh a en (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 4 7. 51 M o h a m m a d H a tta (u n sig n e d ), "D e G r o e i v a n de P N I en de R e g e e r in g s t e e r e u r in In d o n e s ia, " I n d o n e s ia M e r d e k a (J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 3 0 ), p. I f. t r a n s la t e d and q u o ted in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m ed, M a rx and M a rh a en, pp. 5 6 -5 7 f f. === [PDF page 158] === 151 M a r h a e n, i. e., th e c o m m o n m a n. In 1 9 3 0, he w r o te: AThe P N I / i s a r e v o lu tio n a r y n a t io n a lis t ic p a r ty and i t s m a s s - c h a r a c t e r, i t s K r o m o - is m, i t s M a r h a e n -is m a r e n o t th e r e s u lt o f any c o m m u n is tic p r in c ip le s but e x i s t b e c a u s e th e I n d o n e s ia n c o m m u n ity m a k e s i t n e c e s s a r y fo r th e P N I to s u b s c r ib e to su c h a M a r h a e n is m. It i s a n e c e s s it y, j u s t a s E u r o p e a n s o c ie t y m a k e s i t n e c e s s a r y fo r E u r o p e a n s o c i a l i s t s to a d h e r e to p r o le t a r ia n is m. T h e I n d o n e s ia n c o m m u n ity i s a K r o m o - is t ic c o m m u n ity, a c o m m u n ity w h ic h c o n s i s t s o f s m a ll p e a s a n t s, s m a ll w a g e - e a r n e r s, s m a ll s e a m e n, in s h o r t... in a ll f i e l d s, a k r o m o o r a m a r h a e n. A n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie s tr o n g en ou gh to ta k e up a r m s a g a in s t i m p e r ia lis m d o e s n o t e x i s t a s y e t. T he I n d o n e s ia n m o v e m e n t m u s t b e o r ie n te d to w a r d th e k r o m o, th e m a r h a e n. In th e ir h a n d s l i e s I n d o n e s ia ’ s f a t e, and fr o m th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e k r o m o and th e m a r h a e n m u s t w e d ra w our s tr e n g th. T h e m o v e m e n t w h ic h k e e p s a p a r t fr o m the c o m m o n p e o p le, w h ic h m e r e ly c a r r i e s ( ^ " s o lo n " p o li t i c s, e t c., ca n n o t c o n d u ct p o li t i c s s e r io u s ly. S u k arn o c la im s th a t a D u tch s o c i a l i s t, A. B a a r s, ta u g h t h im to r e j e c t n a t io n a lis m in fa v o r o f an id e n t if ic a t io n w ith th e h u m a n ity o f the w h o le w o r ld. H o w e v e r, h e c r e d it s Sun Y a t-S e n and th e t h e s i s e m b o d ie d in San M in Chu I o r T h e T h r e e P e o p l e ’ s P r i n c i p l e s, w ith " ex p o sin g " 53 c o s m o p o lit a n is m and r e p la c in g i t w ith n a t io n a lis m. 52 S u k a rn o, I n d o n e s ia K la a g t A an (1 9 3 0 ), t r a n s la t e d b y and q u o ted in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m e d,M a r x and M a r h a e n, p. 5 7. J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, in " In d o n esia: T h e M y stiq u e o f P e r m a n e n t R e v o lu tio n, " South A tla n tic Q u a r te r ly LX IV (W in te r, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 2 - 3, c la im s th a t m a r h a e n i s "an o b s c u r e te r m in I n d o n e s ia a t b e s t, b u t m e a n in g fu l to d e c la s s e in t e l le c t u a ls lik e /S u k a r n o /w it h in the c o n te x t o f th e R o u s s e a u - i s t id e a l o f th e s im p le, n a tu r a l m a n o f n o b le s e n tim e n t and of th e M a r x is t v ie w o f th e p r o le t a r ia n. " 53 S u k a rn o, "T he B ir th o f P a n tja S ila, " June 1, 1 9 4 5. R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and the D ig n ity o f M an (D ja k a rta: R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 1 3 - 1 4. T h e th r e e p e o p le ’ s p r in c ip le s a r e: 1) N a t io n a lis m, 2) d e m o c r a c y, and 3) s o c ia l is m. It sh o u ld b e n o te d th at Sun Y a t-S e n i s h e ld in h ig h e s t e e m b y m a n y === [PDF page 159] === 152 D ue to th e i n c r e a s e d v ig o r o f th e n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n t a fte r 1 9 2 6, th e D u tch a u t h o r itie s h ad by 1934 a r r e s t e d and j a ile d o r e x ile d th e c h ie f 54 n a t io n a lis t l e a d e r s, C o m m u n ist and n o n -C o m m u n is t a lik e. T h ese l e a d e r s, in c lu d in g S u k arn o and H a tta, w e r e r e l e a s e d w ith th e a r r iv a l o f the J a p a n e s e, in 1 9 4 2. B y th e tim e th e J a p a n e s e a r r iv e d, I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis t s o f w h a t e v e r p e r s u a s io n, had g e n e r a ll y a r r iv e d a t a c o m m o n o u tlo o k. T he D utch g o v e r n m e n t in e x ile in E n g la n d w o u ld h a v e to m a k e a c o m m itm e n t to I n d o n e s ia n in d e p e n d e n c e o f s o r t s o r the n a t io n a lis t s w o u ld be c o n fir m e d 55 in t h e ir v ie w th a t n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e D u tch w e r e u s e l e s s. T h e D u tch d id n o t r e s p o n d an d, due to th e w a r, I n d o n e s ia w a s in c o r p o r a te d in to th e J a p a n e s e " A sia n C o - P r o s p e r i t y S p h ere" in 1 9 4 2. T he I n d o n e s ia n ’ s r e a c t io n to th e J a p a n e s e w a s a m b iv a le n t. T he J a p a n e s e w e r e m o r e h o s t ile to C o m m u n ism and o th e r fo r m s o f s o c i a l i s m th an w e r e th e D u tch, so th a t th e PK I and o th e r s o c i a l i s t g r o u p s w e r e e a r ly fo r c e d in to th e u n d e rg r o u n d, c a r r y in g out m i l it a r y r e s is t a n c e fo r th e d u ra tio n o f th e w a r. O th er n a t io n a lis t le a d e r s o fte n c h o s e to I n d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n a r y n a t io n a lis t s. D u r in g 1924 and 1 9 2 5, p ic t u r e s o f Sun Y a t-S e n a c c o m p a n ie d th o s e o f L e n in, M a rx, L ie b n e c h t, R o s a L u x e m b u r g, T r o t s k y, S em a u n and T a n M a la k a a t m a j o r PK I fu n c tio n s (Ruth M c V e y, op. c i t., pp. 4 4 7 ff). 54 H a r r is o n, op. c it., p. 2 4 4. 55 J e a n n e S. M in tz, " M a r x is m in I n d o n e s ia, " in F r a n k N. T r a g e r ( e d.), M a r x is m in S o u th e a s t A s ia (S tan ford: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, === [PDF page 160] === 153 c o lla b o r a te w ith th e J a p a n e s e to fu r th e r n a t io n a lis t e n d s. T he J a p a n e s e i n c r e a s e d th e c i v i l s e r v i c e o p e n in g s fo r I n d o n e s ia n s an d, alth o u g h a d m itte d ly s u b s e r v ie n t to th e J a p a n e s e and c o n c e r n e d o n ly w ith m in o r a d m in is tr a tiv e m a t t e r s, p r o v id e d I n d o n e s ia n s w ith e x p e r ie n c e a lo n g t h e s e lin e s fo r th e f i r s t t im e. In a d d itio n, th e J a p a n e s e e s t a b lis h e d an I n d o n e s ia n h o m e g u a r d and, a g a in fo r th e f i r s t t im e, la r g e n u m b e r s o f 56 I n d o n e s ia n s w e r e tr a in e d in th e u s e o f w e a p o n s. On A u g u st 17, 1 945, w ith th e c o lla p s e o f th e J a p a n e s e, P r e s id e n t S u k arn o p r o c la im e d th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d o n e s ia. S ix w e e k s l a t e r, 57 a B r it is h f o r c e a r r iv e d to r e a s s e r t D u tch c o n tr o l o v e r th e c o lo n y. T h e D u tch w e r e u n w illin g to n e g o tia te w ith th o s e w h o p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s a s n a t io n a lis t le a d e r s. T he D u tch c o n s id e r e d S u k a rn o and th e o th e r n a t io n a lis t le a d e r s a s J a p a n e s e a g e n ts, t r a it o r s to th e N e th e r la n d s 58 and u n r e p r e s e n t a tiv e o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le. T he a tte m p t to r e s t o r e D u tch r u le r e s u lt e d in a b itte r w a r b e tw e e n I n d o n e s ia and th e N e th e r la n d s 56 T h e w r it e r r e a l i z e s th at th e J a p a n e s e w e r e n o t b e n e v o le n t d e s p o ts and th a t th e ir a c tio n s in th is r e g a r d w e r e fo r th e ir ow n i n t e r e s t s. H o w e v e r, r e g a r d le s s o f th e ir m o t iv e s, th e r e s u l t s w e r e p o s it iv e in t e r m s of I n d o n e s ia n N a t io n a lis t p o w e r. F o r a p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t o f the typ e of tr a in in g p r o v id e d, r e f e r to A rth u r P o in d e x te r, " C itiz e n o f a N e w R ep u b lic: A B io g r a p h ic a l P r o f ile o f an In d o n esia n " (u n p u b lish e d M a s t e r s t h e s i s, C la r e m o n t G ra d u a te S c h o o l and U n iv e r s it y C e n te r ), pp. 4 7 - 5 2. 57 H ugh S e to n -W a ts o n, N e ith e r W ar N o r P e a c e (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, I 9 6 0 ), p. 87. 58Ibid., pp. 8 5 -8 7. === [PDF page 161] === 154 w h ic h c o n tin u e d u n til th e D utch r e c o g n iz e d I n d o n e s ia n s o v e r e ig n t y in N o v e m b e r o f 1 9 4 9, th e t r a n s f e r b e in g c o n s u m m a te d on D e c e m b e r 2 7, 1 949. T he p r in c ip a l p r o b le m c o n fr o n tin g th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip in I n d o n e s ia i s and h a s b e e n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o lit ic a l u n ity a m o n g the c it iz e n s o f th a t c o u n tr y. A lth o u g h m o s t Indone s ia n s id e n t ify t h e m s e lv e s a s M o s le m s, th e im p a c t o f H in d u ism b e tw e e n th e F o u r th and F ifth c e n t u r ie s h a s b e e n th e m o s t im p o r ta n t fa c to r in sh a p in g th e tr a d itio n a l I n d o n e s ia n fo r m o f p o li t ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n. T h e m o s t im p o r ta n t o f th e s e H indu c o n c e p ts i s w h at C liffo r d G e e r tz h a s te r m e d "T he T h e o r y o f th e E x e m p la r y C e n te r. " A s h e p u ts it: T he n o tio n / i s / th a t th e c a p ita l c ity (o r m o r e a c c u r a t e ly th e k in g 's p a la c e ) w a s a t o n c e a m ic r o c o s m o f th e s u p e r n a tu r a l o r d e r.... T he c a p ita l w a s n o t m e r e l y th e n u c le a s, th e e n g in e, o r th e p iv o t o f th e sta te; i t w a s th e s t a t e. ^ A lth ou gh a t f i r s t g la n c e t h is s y s t e m m a y a p p e a r to r e - in f o r c e u n ity, i t e m p h a s iz e d d e c e n t r a liz a t io n. T h is w a s due to th e f a c t th a t lo y a lt y d ep en d ed m o r e on a s ta te o f m in d th a n on th e s y s t e m a t ic a d m in is tr a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n o f a d ja c e n t t e r r i t o r i e s. ^ T h u s, th e e a r ly p o lit ic a l s y s t e m w a s c h a r a c t e r iz e d by th e c o lle c t io n o f u rb a n c a p ita l c e n t e r s c o m p e tin g w ith e a c h o th e r fo r th e lo y a lt y o f th o s e p e a s a n t v i l l a g e s w ith in th e ir 59 C liffo r d G e e r t z, " Id e o lo g y a s a C u ltu r a l S y s te m, " in D a v id E. A p te r ( e d.), I d e o lo g y and D is c o n te n t (L ondon: T he F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e, === [PDF page 162] === 155 v ic in it y. T he p o lit ic a l im p a c t o f a p a r tic u la r u r b a n /c a p it a l c e n te r d e p e n d ed p r im a r ily on i t s n e a r n e s s to t h e s e v i l l a g e r s and i t s a b ility to r e p r e s e n t i t s e l f a s a s y m b o l o f s p ir it u a l e x c e ll e n c e. A lth o u g h th e im p a c t o f I s la m and th e D u tch C o lo n ia l a d m in is tr a tio n w a s to c h a n g e th e tr a d itio n a l H indu o r g a n iz a tio n a l fo r m s to s o m e e x te n t b y th e ir e m p h a s is on a d if fe r e n t ia te d u rb a n m a s s, th e tr a d itio n a l fo r m s s t i l l p e r s i s t in r u r a l I n d o n e s ia and m o s t o f I n d o n e s ia i s s t i l l r u r a l. T h u s, a g a in a c c o r d in g to G e e r tz, th e p r o b le m i s that: T h e c o n c e p tu a l t r a n s it io n fr o m the c l a s s i c im a g e o f a p o lity a s a c o n c e n tr a te d c e n te r o f p om p and p o w e r, a l t e r n a t e ly p r o v id in g a c y n o s u r e fo r p o p u la r a w e and la s h in g out m i l i t a r i l y at c o m p e tin g c e n t e r s, to one o f a p o lity a s a s y s t e m a t ic a l ly o r g a n iz e d n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity h a s, fo r a ^ th e s e c h a n g e s and in f lu e n c e s, s t i l l n o t b e e n c o m p le te d. In s h o r t, th e p r o b le m i s: h o w d o e s o n e d e v e lo p a s e n s e o f n a t io n a lis m w h ic h id e n t if ie s i t s e l f w ith th e n e w n a tio n a l s t a t e? A lth o u g h th e c o n te m p o r a r y h is t o r i c a l e p o c h h a s b e e n g e n e r a lly a c c e p t e d a s " T h e A g e o f N a t io n a lis m, " th e p r o b le m s fa c e d b y c o u n t r ie s lik e I n d o n e s ia i s th at th is i s, in f a c t, th e a g e of s u b - n a tio n a lis m o r r e g io n a lis m. T he e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 965, illu s t r a t e fo r the s e c o n d tim e th e f a ilu r e o f a tte m p ts to d e a l e f f e c t iv e l y w ith t h is p r o b le m in I n d o n e s ia. [Unreadable] === [PDF page 163] === 156 C h ap ter 2: T he D is in te g r a tio n o f U n ity T he te n y e a r s b e tw e e n p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e in 1949 and th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f "G u ided D e m o c r a c y " in 1959 w it n e s s e d th e a tte m p t a t and th e f a ilu r e o f a fu n c tio n in g P a r lia m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c y in I n d o n e s ia. 62 T he r e a s o n s fo r th is f a ilu r e a r e v a r ie d, b u t c h ie f a m o n g th em w a s th e d iv e r g e n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e p r o g r a m s fo r fu lf illin g th e " p r o m is e " o f Indon e si a 's fu tu r e and th e a b s e n c e o f any s u f f ic ie n t ly broad b a sed c o n c en su s. M any p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s w e r e fo r m e d, e a c h r e p r e s e n t in g a n a r r o w ly b a s e d v ie w p o in t and e a c h c o m p e tin g w ith th e o th e r s fo r p o lit ic a l in f lu e n c e. T he r e s u lt w a s p a r lia m e n ta r y in s t a b ilit y and im m o b ilis m e. A s w ith F r a n c e d u rin g th e p e r io d s o f th e T h ir d and F o u r th R e p u b lic s and th e c o n te m p o r a r y p o lit ic a l s y s t e m in I ta ly, c o a lit io n g o v e r n m e n t m e a n t c o m p r o m is e and c o m p r o m is e w ith in a h ig h ly h e te r o g e n e o u s s o c ie t y m e a n t s t a le m a t e. T h u s, th e fo r m a l in s tit u tio n s o f g o v e r n m e n t w e r e, o f n e c e s s it y, b y - p a s s e d in o r d e r th a t th e m in im a l p o lit ic a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f the 63 s o c ie t y w e r e m e t. H e n c e, th e p r in c ip a l p o li t ic a l d y n a m ic w ith in the 62 F o r a p o lit ic a l h is t o r y o f th is p e r io d, r e f e r to H e r b e r t F e ith, T he D e c lin e o f C o n s titu tio n a l D e m o c r a c y in I n d o n e s ia (Ithaca: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 2 ). 63 T h e c o n c e p t o f n o n -fu n c tio n a l fo r m a l g o v e r n m e n ta l in s tit u tio n s i s g e n e r a lly a p p lie d o n ly to th o s e g o v e r n m e n ts o f th e " n o n -W est" a n d /o r t h o s e o f a to t a lita r ia n c h a r a c t e r. R e fe r e n c e to th e T h ir d and F o u r th R e p u b lic s in F r a n c e in d ic a t e s an a p p r o a c h i s o v e r s im p lif ie d and u n n e c e s s a r ily lim it in g. === [PDF page 164] === 157 I n d o n e s ia n p o li t ic a l s y s t e m b e tw e e n 1948 and 1966 w a s p r o v id e d b y th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e v a r io u s p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s and g r o u p s w ith m in im a l r e f e r e n c e to th e fo r m a l in s tit u tio n s o f g o v e r n m e n t. I n d o n e s ia n p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s a r e fo r m e d a ro u n d in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s and a r e th u s b u ilt fr o m th e to p dow n r a th e r th a n fr o m th e b o tto m 64 up. T he r e s u lt h a s b e e n a p tly s ta te d b y R o b e r t C. B o n e, J r.: I n d o n e s ia n p o lit ic a l lif e i s a k in d o f p o k e r g a m e p la y e d b y a f e w th o u sa n d p e o p le a ll o f w h o m h a v e know n e a c h o th e r m u c h to o lo n g and to o w e ll. F o r m a l g o v e r n m e n ta l in s t it u t io n s p e r s e a r e r e le g a t e d to a s u b s id ia r y r o le. A p r in c ip a l fa c to r w ith in t h is g r o u p i s P r e s id e n t S u k arn o h im s e lf. S o m e w h a t lik e D e G a u lle o f F r a n c e, S u k a rn o no lo n g e r id e n t if ie s h i m s e lf w ith an y s p e c if ic p o lit ic a l p a r ty. H e b la m e s the e x is t e n c e o f f a c tio n s on th e c o m p e titiv e n a tu r e o f m u lt i- p a r t y p o li t ic s. S u k arn o c r e d it s h im s e l f w ith b e in g th e s o le in s p ir a t o r o f th e o f f ic ia l ly s a n c tio n e d I n d o n e s ia n id e o lo g y. H o w e v e r, he h a s n e v e r b e e n a d ic ta to r in th e tr a d itio n a l s e n s e. H is p o w e r r e s t e d on both h i s c h a r is m a w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le and h i s a b ility to s u f f ic ie n t ly s a t i s f y an a d e q u a te c o m b in a tio n o f 64 G e o r g e M cT. K ah in, " In d o n esia, ” in M a jo r G o v e r n m e n ts o f A s ia 2nd E d itio n (Ith aca: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 5 4 9. 65 R o b e r t C. B o n e, J r., " T h e F u tu r e o f I n d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s," F a r E a s t e r n S u r v e y XXIII (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 4 ), p. 14. === [PDF page 165] === 158 the i n t e r e s t s o f th e m o s t p o w e r fu l p o lit ic a l g r o u p s in I n d o n e s ia. It i s o b v io u s th at a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e e v e n t s o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, h e h a s l o s t h i s a b ility to s a t is f y th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e a r m y and o t h e r s and th a t th e r e te n tio n o f h i s p r e s e n t p o s itio n i s due to h i s c o n tin u in g p e r s o n a l a p p e a l to la r g e n u m b e r s o f I n d o n e s ia n s a s th e " F a th e r o f th e In d o n e s ia n P e o p le. " A s r e c e n t ly a s Ju n e 1 5, 1 9 6 6, th e W eek ly I n d o n e s ia n H e r a ld in e d it o r ia liz in g a g a in s t the PK I s ta te d th e fo llo w in g: B ung K arn o b e in g a c h a r is m a t ic le a d e r a s w e ll, any m e n tio n o f h is b e in g abou t to b e d e p o s e d ca n h a v e / t h e / s a m e e f f e c t on a g r e a t p a r t o f ou r p o p u la tio n a s th e w a v in g o f a r e d fla g h a s on an ir a t e b u ll. A s u m m a r y of th e p o s it io n s o f th e p r in c ip a l g r o u p s a s o f D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 6, f o ll o w s. T he A r m y: T he A r m y i s n o w th e m o s t p o w e r fu l p o li t ic a l f o r c e in th e c o u n tr y. P r io r to th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, it w a s one o f th e th r e e m o s t p o w e r fu l a u to n o m o u s p o lit ic a l f o r c e s. T h is w a s due to: 1) i t s r o le in th e w a r fo r in d e p e n d e n c e; 2) i t s s i z e (a p p r o x im a te ly 325 th o u sa n d m en ); 3) i t s sta u n ch d e f e n s e o f th e g o v e r n m e n t d u rin g r e g io n a l r e b e llio n s, in c lu d in g th e 1948 C o m m u n ist r e v o lt a t M adiun; and 4) i t s in c r e a s in g a d m in is tr a tiv e r o le in th e c iv ilia n s e c t o r, in c lu d in g in d u s tr y, g a in e d 66 T he W eek ly In d o n e s ia n H e r a ld, I (W ed n esd a y, Ju n e 15, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 1. R e fe r a ls o to th e D ep u ty o f S ta ff fo r P r o m o tio n o f S e c u r ity and D e f e n c e, B r ig a d ie r G e n e r a l S u tjip to 's c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n o f S u k arn o a s th e "B apak (F a th e r ) o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le " in a s p e e c h to th e In d o n e s ia n J u r i s t s 1 A s s o c ia t io n (P E R S A H I). Ib id. (W e d n esd a y, Jun e 8, 1 9 6 6 ), p.I I. === [PDF page 166] === 159 d u rin g p e r io d s o f m a r t ia l la w and r e t a in e d t h e r e a f t e r. A s o f th e en d o f 1 9 6 6, i t a p p e a r e d th a t the C o m m a n d e r o f th e A r m y, G e n e r a l S u h a r to, a s V ic e P r e m ie r fo r D e fe n s e and S e c u r it y, w a s the p r in c ip a l p o li t ic a l fig u r e in I n d o n e s ia. B r o a d p o w e r s w e r e d e le g a te d to S u h a rto b y S u k arn o in a " L e tte r o f I n s tr u c tio n " d a te d M a rc h 11, 1 9 6 6. A s r e p o r t e d b y A m p e r a R e v ie w, th e l e t t e r a u th o r iz e d S u h a rto to ta k e any s t e p s h e c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to: 1. g u a r a n te e th e s e c u r it y and o r d e r a s w e ll a s th e s ta b ility o f th e c o u r s e o f th e r e v o lu tio n. 2. g u a r a n te e th e p e r s o n a l s e c u r it y and th e p r e s t ig e o f le a d e r sh ip o f th e P r e s id e n t /G r e a t L e a d e r o f th e R e v o lu tio n / S u p r e m e C o m m a n d e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n A r m e d F o r c e s / M P R S M a n d a ta ry. 3. g u a r a n te e th e u n ity and c o m p a c tn e s s o f th e s ta te and th e n a tio n. 4. c e r t a in ly im p le m e n t and f g llo w th e te a c h in g s o f th e G r ea t L e a d e r o f th e R e v o lu tio n. H o w e v e r, d u rin g 1 9 6 6, S u k arn o a p p e a r e d to h a v e r e t a in e d the 69 f o r m a l a u th o r ity to a p p oin t c a b in e t m e m b e r s; a lth o u g h i t i s q u ite c le a r th at a l l n o m in a tio n s fo r su c h p o s t s w e r e m a d e th ro u g h S u h a r to. S u h a r to 's s e le c t io n a s " S a v io u r o f th e R ev o lu tio n " b y the F e d e r a tio n o f In d o n e sia n W o m en 1s o r g a n iz a tio n (KOWANI) in d ic a te d th at an a tte m p t w a s b e in g m a d e C. f. D a n ie l S. L e v, " T h e P o l i t i c a l R o le o f th e A r m y in I n d o n e s ia," P a c if ic A ffa ir s X X X V IC (W in ter, 1 9 6 3 -1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 4 9 -3 6 4. 68 "T he M a rch 11th L e t te r of I n s tr u c tio n, " A m p e r a R e v ie w N o. 8 (A u g u st 17, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 4 -1 5. 69 S u k a rn o, "M y H e a r t F e e l s G r e a tly R e lie v e d, " A m p e r a R e v ie w N o. 7 (J u ly 17, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 0 -1 3. === [PDF page 167] === 160 to t r a n s f e r th e m a n tle o f p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y fr o m S u k a rn o to th e m i l i - 70 ta r y, i f n o t S u h a rto h i m s e l f. M ilita r y m e n w e r e a p p o in te d to m o s t o f th e p r in c ip a l p o lit ic a l p o s ts w ith in th e f o r m a l g o v e r n m e n ta l in s t it u t io n s, in c lu d in g the P r e s id e n c y o f th e P r o v is io n a l P e o p le 's C o n s u lta tiv e C o n g r e s s (M P R S ). H o w e v e r, th e A r m y m a y h a v e b e e n e x t e n s iv e ly w e a k e n e d b y " p u r g e s" w ith in th e M ilita r y e s t a b lis h m e n t. S u h a rto h a s r e p o r te d th a t a t le a s t: 40% o f th e A r m e d F o r c e s m e m b e r s in C e n tr a l J a v a had o w e d a lle g ia n c e to th e PKI p r io r to th e o u t b r e a ^ o f th e C o m m u n is t cou p a tte m p t o f O c to b e r 1 o f l a s t y e a r. T h is s ta te m e n t m a y b e an in d ic a tio n th a t th e m ilit a r y le a d e r s h ip h a s m o v e d a g a in s t " u n r e lia b le " e le m e n t s w ith in th e A r m e d F o r c e s. T h e P a r ta i N a s io n a lis I n d o n e s ia: R e o r g a n iz e d fo llo w in g in d e p e n d e n c e, th e n e w PN I h a s fou nd i t s su p p o r t w ith in the a d m in is t r a t iv e o r g a n s of th e g o v e r n m e n t. It h a s c la im e d to b e th e p a r ty o f S u k a rn o, a lth o u g h the la t t e r h a s d e n ie d i t on n u m e r o u s o c c a s io n s. T he PN I i s c o n s id e r e d to b e J a v a - C e n t r ic. D u rin g 1 9 6 5, th e PN I w a s s u b je c t to in c r e a s in g r e s t r ic t io n s and w e a k e n in g. A fte r a s tr o n g P N I fa c tio n in C e n tr a l J a v a to o k a p o s it io n 70 T h e W eek ly I n d o n e s ia n H e r a ld, I (W ed n esd a y, J u ly 15, 1 9 6 6 ), 71 Ib id., p. VIII. === [PDF page 168] === 161 s u p p o r tin g la n d h o ld e r s in t h e ir o p p o s itio n to the I9 6 0 a g r a r ia n r e fo r m a c t in N o v e m b e r o f 1 9 6 4, S u k a rn o o r d e r e d th e P N I to p u rg e i t s e l f o f 72 " fa ls e M a r h a e n is ts " w ith in i t s r a n k s. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e, th e P N I s p lit in to f a c t io n s. H o w e v e r, s in c e e a r ly O c to b e r, 1 9 6 6, th e c o r e o f the P N I h a s b e e n r e s t o r e d to s o m e e m in e n c e w ith in the p o lit ic a l s y s t e m. F o r e x a m p le, th e P N I g e n e r a l c h a ir m a n, O sa M a lik i, i s n ow V ic e C h a ir m a n o f th e N P R S. T h e M a s j u m i: T he M a sju m i h a s r e p r e s e n t e d the n a t io n a lis t ic a lly o r ie n te d M u s lim. W ith m u ch su p p o rt fr o m th e o u te r i s la n d s, the M a sju m i r e p r e s e n t e d a m o d e r a te a p p r o a c h to w a r d s n a tio n a l u n ity. Due to i t s p a r tic ip a tio n in a c t iv it i e s c o n s tr u e d to be c o u n te r to th e In d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c a l M a n ife s to o f 1 9 5 9, c o n s is t in g p r im a r ily o f an a tte m p t to d i s c r e d it th e PK I, th e M a sju m i w a s o u tla w ed in A u g u st, I 9 6 0, u n d er a r t ic le 9, e d ic t n u m b e r 7, e n tit le d " C o n d itio n s and S im p lif ic a t io n o f th e 73 P a r ty S y s te m " o f J a n u a r y 12, I 9 6 0. A r th u r J. D o m m e n, op. c i t., p. 16 1. 73 A r t ic le 9 r e a d s: 1) T he P r e s id e n t, a ft e r h a v in g h e a r d th e S u p r e m e C o u rt o f J u s t ic e, can b an a n d /o r d is s o lv e a p a r ty, 1. W hich i s c o n tr a r y to th e p r in c ip le s and a im s o f th e s ta te; 2. W hose p r o g r a m m e a im s a t r a d ic a lly ch a n g in g the p r in c ip le s and o b j e c t iv e s of th e sta te; 3. W hich i s c o n d u ctin g a r e b e llio n b e c a u s e i t s le a d e r s a r e ta k in g p a r t in r e b e llio n s o f h a v e c le a r ly g iv e n su p p o rt to r e b e llio n s w h ile th a t p a r ty h a s n o t o f f ic ia l ly c o n d e m n e d th e a c tio n s of th e s e m e m b e r s; 4. W hich do n o t f u lf il l th e o th e r r e q u ir e m e n ts s tip u la te d in th is === [PDF page 169] === 162 T he M a sju m i h ad not b e e n r e tu r n e d to le g a l s ta tu s a s o f Ju n e 15, 1966. T he N ah d atu l U la m a: T h e N a h d a tu l U la m a w a s th e o n ly o f f ic ia l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e of th e M o s le m co m p o n en t w ith in th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e r n m e n t fo llo w in g M asjum i* s b a n is h m e n t. T h e N U w a s c r e a te d w h en a f a c tio n b r o k e a w a y fr o m th e M a sju m i in A u g u st, 1 9 5 2. T h e N U w a s w illin g to c o o p e r a te w ith th e S u karno N a t io n a lis t s and C o m m u n is ts. By 1965, i t h ad the s e c o n d l a r g e s t r e p r e s e n t a t io n w ith in th e I n d o n e s ia n P a r lia m e n t. S in c e O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, i t s r o le w ith in th e g o v e r n m e n t a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n c u r t a ile d. F o r e x a m p le, A c h m e d S ja ich u o f th e N U h a s r e s ig n e d a s 75 M in is te r and S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t. P r e s id e n t ia l E d ic t. 2) T he p a r ty w h ic h i s d is s o l v e d b a s e d on c la u s e 1 o f th is a r t i c l e, m u s t b e d is s o lv e d w ith in a m a x im u m p e r io d o f 30 t i m e s 24 h o u r s, b e g in n in g fr o m th e d ate o f th e c o m in g in to f o r c e o f th e P r e s id e n t ia l D e c is io n d e c la r in g th a t d is s o lu t io n. Q u oted in S u k a rn o, " L ik e an A n g e l th a t S t r ik e s fr o m th e S k ie s " (A u g u st 17, I960) and r e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an, p. 95. 74 P r io r to O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, th e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f the v a r io u s g r o u p s in th e I n d o n e s ia n P a r lia m e n t w a s a s f o llo w s: T he P N I (44); N U (36); PK I (30); P r o t e s t a n t P a r t i e s (6); C a th o lic P a r t ie s (5); M o s le m A s s o c ia t io n (5); O th er P a r t ie s (4); A r m y (15); N a v y (7); A ir F o r c e (7); P o lic e (5); V illa g e G uard (1); F a r m e r s (25); L ab or (26); M o s le m S c h o la r s (24); P r o t e s t a n t S c h o la r s (3); C a th o lic S c h o la r s (2); B a li-H in d u s (2); Y outh (8); W om en (9); G e n e r a l S c h o la r s (5); C o - o p e r a t iv e s (3); 1945 G e n e r a tio n (2); V e te r a n s (2); A r t is t s (2); J o u r n a lis t s (2); W e st I r ia n In h a b ita n ts (1); N a tio n a l E n tr e p r e n e u r s (2 ). T he E u r o p a Y e a r B ook: 1 9 6 5, V o l. II (L ondon: E u ro p a P u b lic a tio n s L im ite d, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 521. 75 T he W eek ly I n d o n e s ia n H e r a ld I (W ed n esd a y, June 15, 1 9 6 6 ), p. VIII. === [PDF page 170] === 163 M o h a m m a d H a tta: A lth o u g h n o t a f f ilia t e d w ith any o r g a n iz a tio n, M o h am m ad H a tta, p a s t V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f th e R e p u b lic, m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d a s an im p o r ta n t p o lit ic a l p o w e r. T h e f a c t th a t M a sju m i h ad not b e e n a d m itte d to r e - e s t a b l i s h i t s le g a l e x is t e n c e and th a t th e N U had d e c r e a s e d in in flu e n c e le n d s su p p o rt to th e id e a th at M o h a m m a d H a tta m ig h t h a v e b e e n p r e p a r in g fo r a c o m e b a c k, w ith the b l e s s i n g s o f the M ilita r y le a d e r s h ip. H atta w a s r e f e r r e d to g r a tu ito u s ly a s one "who c o m m a n d s g r e a t r e s p e c t a m o n g th e c o u n tr y 1s M o s le m s " b y T he W eek ly 76 I n d o n e s ia n H e r a ld in an E d ito r ia l on Ju n e 15, 1966 and th a t s a m e i s s u e fe a tu r e d a s t o r y e n tit le d "N ew I s l a m ic P a r ty? T o b e h e a d e d by D r. 77 M oh am m ad H a tta. " H atta w a s p r e s e n t e d a s one w ho: W ould a llo w the C o m m u n is ts a p la c e o n ly in th e l e g i s l a tiv e b r a n c h o f g o v e r n m e n t a s a g a in s t P r e s id e n t S u k arn o w ho w a n te d th e m to b e r e p r e s e n t e d a ls o in the e x e c u t iv e. In a d d itio n, d u rin g 1 9 6 6, v is it in g fo r e ig n o f f ic i a l s su c h a s P a k is t a n 's F o r e ig n M in is te r Z u lfik a r A li B h u tto in c lu d e d a v i s i t w ith H a tta a t h is 78 h o m e a s p a r t o f an y s ta te v i s i t. T he G roup o f 1945: An in t e r - p a r t y g r o u p w h ic h f u lf ille d th e r o le o f S u k a r n o 's k itc h e n c a b in e t. A lth ou gh i t w a s o s t e n s ib ly c o m p o s e d o f v e t e r a n s o f th e 1945 r e v o lu tio n a r y w a r, in r e a lit y i t g e n e r a lly c o n s is t e d 77Ibid., pp. I ll and VIH. === [PDF page 171] === 164 o f th o s e in d iv id u a ls in S u k a r n o 's fa v o r a t any p a r tic u la r p o in t in t im e. T he P a r ta i K o m u n is I n d o n e s ia: T h e PKI s ta g e d an a b o r tiv e r e b e l lio n a g a in s t th e a u th o r ity o f S u k arn o and M o h a m m a d H a tta, in A u g u st, 1 9 4 8, d u rin g a c r i t i c a l t im e in th e r e v o lu tio n a r y w a r a g a in s t th e D u tch. 79 A s a r e s u lt, i t l o s t th e top e c h e lo n o f i t s le a d e r s h ip. H o w e v e r, th e PK I w a s a b le, by r e v a m p in g i t s p r o g r a m, to a c h ie v e r e s p e c t a b le 80 p r o m in e n c e w ith in th e In d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c a l s y s t e m b y 1 9 5 4 -5 5. T he P K I 's in c r e a s in g le g it im a c y in th e te n y e a r s b e tw e e n 1 9 5 5 - 1965 s te m m e d in p a r t fr o m tw o s o u r c e s: 1) i t s e x p r e s s id e n t if ic a t io n w ith th e a c c e p t e d s y m b o ls o f I n d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis m, in c lu d in g r e la t iv e ly n o n v io le n t b e h a v io r to w a r d s in d ig e n o u s o p p o n en ts and 2) i t s p o s itio n a s a p o lit ic a l s u p p o r te r o f Su k arn o w ith r e f e r e n c e to o u t e r - is la n d o p p o n e n ts, T he r o l e s o f th e C o m in fo r m, th e C a lc u tta C o n fe r e n c e o f F e b r u a r y, 1 9 4 8, and h e n c e th e S o v ie t U nion in th is r e v o lt a r e n o t c le a r. (J o s e p h F r a n k e l, " S o v ie t P o lic y in S o u th e a s t A sia ]' in M ax B e lo ff, S o v ie t P o lic y in th e F a r E a s t, 1 9 4 4 -1 9 5 1 /L o n d o n: 1 9 5 3 /, p. 2 0 9, and Ruth M c V e y, T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P e o p l e 's R ep u b l i c /C a m b r id g e: M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y P r e s s, 19547, p. 5 3, and T h e C a lc u tta C o n fe r e n c e and T h e S o u th e a s t A s ia n U p r is in g s /I th a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y, 1 9 5 8 7 ). H o w e v e r, F r a n k N. T r a g e r v ie w s th e r e tu r n fr o m M o sc o w to I n d o n e s ia o f M u s s o, in th e c o m p a n y of S u rip n o, a s e v id e n c e o f S o v ie t in s t r u c t io n s to th e PK I fo r r e v o lt. F r a n k N. T r a g e r, "T he I m p a c t o f M a r x is m, " in M a r x is m in S o u th e a s t A s ia (S tan ford: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 2 6 7. 80 F o r an a c c o u n t o f th is p e r io d, r e f e r to A r n o ld C. B r a c k m a n, I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 9 9 -2 1 4, and D on ald H in d le y, T he C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia 1 9 5 1 - 1963 (B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 6 9 -8 3. === [PDF page 172] === 165 n o n - r a d ic a l o p p o n en ts and th e A r m y. W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e la t t e r p o in t, D o n a ld H in d le y w r o te p r io r to th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1965: T h e g o v e r n m e n t c o a lit io n b e tw e e n S u k arn o and th e A r m y h a s b e e n m a r k e d b y b o th c o o p e r a tio n and c o n flic t. C o o p e r a tio n, b e c a u s e e a c h n e e d s th e o th e r in o r d e r to r u le: S u k arn o h a s le g it im a t e a u th o r ity a s th e le a d e r o f th e r e v o lu tio n, and th e a r m y h a s th e n ak ed p o w e r w ith w h ic h to m a in ta in o r d e r. B u t b e c a u s e S u k arn o la c k s h is ow n o r g a n iz e d b a s i s o f s u p p o r t o r p o w e r, h e h a s so u g h t a l l i e s to b o ls t e r h is ^ j o s it io n in th e g o v e r n in g c o a litio n. H is m a in a lly i s PK I. S u k a r n o ’ s d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n o f f ic ia l s e c u la r id e o lo g y a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n an a tte m p t to c r e a te and s u s t a in p o lit ic a l u n ity b a s e d on the a s s u m p tio n th a t th e p o lit ic a l le a d e r s h ip in D ja k a r ta c o n tr o lle d th e " e x e m p la r y c e n te r " and th u s w e r e the le g it im a t e r u le r s o f th e k in g d o m. R e - e x t e n s io n o f a d m in is tr a tiv e c o n tr o l fo r th e p u r p o s e s o f " M o d e r n iz a tio n " ^, e., in d u s t r ia liz a t io n and th e r e s u lt a n t u r b a n iz a tio n ) w o u ld fo llo w th e b u ild in g o f n a t io n a lis m. H e n c e, I n d o n e s ia 's F o r e ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio, in a s p e e c h a t A ir la n g g a U n iv e r s it y in S u ra b a y a on D e c e m b e r 19, 1 9 6 2, s ta te d: We f i r s t s tr u g g le fo r and w in th e fo u n d a tio n s of I n d o n e s ia 's n a tio n -b u ild in g, in h a r m o n y w ith th e fu n d a m e n t a ls o f th e n ew w o r ld. W h a tev er o b s tr u c ts th is o b j e c t iv e w e r e j e c t, w e b u r s t a s u n d e r. O nly a fte r w e h a v e f ir m ly im p la n te d th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f n a tio n -b u ild in g, o n ly a ft e r th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f th e n e w w o r ld h a v e b e e n f ir m ly im p la n te d w ill w e s u b s e q u e n tly b e a b le s i n c e r e l y and on a D o n a ld H in d le y, " P r e s id e n t S u karno and th e C o m m u n is ts: T he P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s t ic a t io n, " A m e r ic a n P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e R e v ie w LVI (D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 9 1 5. C.f. H e r b e r t F e ith, " I n d o n e s ia 's P o lit ic a l S y m b o ls and th e ir W ie ld e r s, " W orld P o l i t i c s XVI (O c to b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. === [PDF page 173] === 166 w id e s c a le to h e e d th e la w s o f e c o n o m ic s and te c h n iq u e s w h ic h a r e a ls o im p o r ta n t r e q u ir e m e n ts and t r a it s f o r n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. ^ T h u s S u k a rn o h a s d e v e lo p e d, o v e r m a n y y e a r s, an e x p lic it s e c u la r id e o lo g y w h ic h p u r p o r ts to e m b o d y, and s e r v e a s a g u id e to th e w ill o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le. A s S u k arn o p u ts it: I t i s c le a r th a t the h ig h e s t a u th o r ity i s n o t a p e r s o n, n ot th e P r e s id e n t, n o t th e G o v e r n m e n t, n o t a c o u n c il, but a c o n c e p t o f lif e w h ic h a n im a te s o u r R e v o lu tio n. In b r ie f, and to put i t s im p ly, e v e r y th in g th a t i s th e id e a l o f th e 1945 R e v o lu tio n, th a t i s th e h ig h e s t a u th o r ity, th a t i s the_ h ig h e s t p o w e r, th at i s th e T ja k r a w a ti /T h e R u le o r S w a y /. T h at i s w h at w e m u s t b e lo y a l to, and th a t i s w h a t w e m u s t s e r v e. We m u s t d ir e c t and su b o r d in a te a ll th e la y e r s o f our n a tio n a l l i f e to th e r e a li z a t io n o f th e i d e a ls o f th e R e v o lu tio n. And w h o e v e r r e f u s e s to b e d ir e c t e d t h e r e, o r w h o e v e r d o e s n o t w a n t to b e s u b o r d in a te d, i s an o b s tr u c te r o f th e R e v o lu tio n. ^ T he I n d o n e s ia n G o v e r n m e n t s t i l l d e v o te s im m e n s e r e s o u r c e s in an a tte m p t to s u s t a in th is r e v o lu tio n a r y id e o lo g y. S u k a rn o h a s e x p r e s s e d th e n e e d a s fo llo w s: "W ithout r e v o lu tio n a r y th e o r y, a r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t ca n n o t p o s s ib ly e x i s t, " s a id a g r e a t l e a d e r. W ithout a N a tio n a l Id e o lo g y c le a r l y s e t fo r th and a f ir m N a tio n a l C on c e p t, w e s a y, i t i s n o t p o s s ib le fo r a g iv e n n a tio n to s tr u g g le fo r and to b u ild up a w e ll-p la n n e d fu tu r e. S u b a n d rio, "T he I m p a c t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n on th e W orld: A C o n tr ib u tio n o f I d e a s, " I n d o n e s ia on th e M a r c h, V o l. II (D ja k a rta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 3 2 4. 83 S u k a rn o, "T he R e d is c o v e r y of Our R e v o lu tio n " (A u g u st 17, 1959) in T o w a r d F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an, p. 60. 84 S u k a rn o, " L ik e An A n g e l T h at S t r ik e s fr o m th e S k ie s, " p. 87, T he " g r e a t le a d e r " q u oted a b o v e i s, o f c o u r s e, L e n in. === [PDF page 174] === 167 I n d o n e s ia ’ s S ta te id e o lo g y c a n b e d iv id e d in to fo u r g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s, a lth o u g h th e s t r e s s pu t on e a c h o f th e p a r ts v a r i e s: 1) T h e a x io m s o f 1 9 2 7 -1 9 4 5; 2) T h e P a n tja S ila, 1945; 3) T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e P o l it ic a l M a n ife s to (M a n ip o l-U S D E K ), 1 9 5 3 -1 9 5 9 and 4) T h e c o n c e r n w ith th e I n te r n a tio n a l S p h e r e and the d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e tw o c a m p d o c tr in e. 85 T he A x io m s o f 1 9 2 7 -1 9 4 5 h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d a b o v e. In e s s e n c e, th e y w e r e s o c i a l i s t o r ie n te d and b a s e d up on a b e l i e f in th e n e e d fo r I n d o n e s ia n a u ta r c h y. T he P a n tja S ila w a s p r e s e n t e d b y S u karno a t a m e e tin g o f th e B o d y fo r I n v e s tig a tin g E ffo r ts in P r e p a r a tio n fo r In d e p e n d e n c e (D o k u r itsu Z yunbi T y o o k s a k a i) on Jun e 1, 1 9 4 5. T h is C o m m is s io n w a s e s t a b lis h e d b y th e J a p a n e s e n e a r th e end o f th e w a r in a n tic ip a tio n o f t h e ir d e fe a t. T he P a n tja S ila c o n s is t s of f iv e c o m p o n e n ts: 1). N a tio n a lis m: B r ie f ly, th e In d o n e s ia n N a tio n i s n o t m e r e l y a g r o u p of in d iv id u a ls w h o, h a v in g le d e s ir d’e t r e e n s e m b le, liv e in a s m a ll a r e a lik e M in an gk ab au o r M a d u ra o r J o g ja o r th e Sunda r e g io n o f th e B u g is r e g io n, but th e I n d o n e s ia n N a tio n i s th e to t a lity o f a ll th e h u m a n b e in g s w h o, a c c o r d in g to g e o p o lit ic s o r d a in e d by God A lm ig h ty, liv e th ro u g h o u t th e u n ity o f th e e n t ir e a r c h ip e la g o o f I n d o n e s ia fr o m th e n o r th e r n tip of S u m a tr a to I r ia n. A ll o f th e m, th ro u g h o u t th e i s la n d s! B e c a u s e a m o n g s t t h e s e s e v e n t y m il lio n h u m a n b e in g s le d e s ir d’e t r e e n s e m b le a lr e a d y e x i s t s, th e r e i s a lr e a d y C h a r a k te r g e m e in s c h a ft. T h e I n d o n e s ia n N a tio n, th e I n d o n e s ia n P e o p le, th e to ta l s e v e n t y m illio n p e r s o n s, bu t ^ S u p r a, PP* 1 5 0 -1 5 1. === [PDF page 175] === 168 s e v e n t y m illio n w h o h a v e a lr e a d y b e c o m e o n e, o n e, once a g a in o n e! ® 2 ). I n te r n a tio n a li sm B u t, b u t--u n d o u b te d ly th e r e i s a d a n g er in v o lv e d in th is p r in c ip le o f n a t io n a lis m. T h e d a n g e r i s th a t m e n w il l p o s s ib ly sh a r p e n n a t io n a lis m u n til i t b e c o m e s c h a u v in is m, and th in k o f " In d o n e sia u b e r A l l e s. " T h is i s th e d a n g e r. We lo v e one c o u n tr y, w e f e e l o u r s e lv e s on e n a tio n, w e h a v e one la n g u a g e. B u t ou r c o u n tr y, I n d o n e s ia, i s o n ly j u s t a s m a ll p a r t o f th e w o r ld. P l e a s e r e m e m b e r t h is! G andi sa id: "I a m a n a t io n a lis t, bu t m y n a t io n a lis m i s h u m a n ity. " T he n a t io n a lis m w e a d v o c a te i s n o t th e n a t io n a lis m o f is o la t io n, n o t c h a u v in is m a s b la z o n e d b y p e o p le in E u r o p e w ho s a y D e u ts c h la n d u b e r A l l e s, " w ho s a y th a t th e r e i s n o n e so g r e a t a s G e r m a n y, w h o s e p e o p le, th e y s a y, a r e s u p e r m e n, c o r n - h a ir e d and b lu e - e y e d " A r y a n s, " w h o m th e y c o n s id e r th e g r e a t e s t in th e w o r ld, w h ile o th e r n a tio n s a r e w o r t h le s s. D o n o t l e t u s h o ld b y su c h p r in c ip le s, g e n tle m e n, do n o t l e t u s s a y th a t th e I n d o n e s ia n n a tio n i s the m o s t p e r f e c t and th e n o b le s t w h ils t w e b e lit t le o th e r p e o p le s. We m u s t p r o c e e d to w a r d s the u n ity o f th e w o r ld, th e b r o th e r h o o d o f th e w o r ld. We h a v e n o t o n ly to e s t a b lis h th e s ta te o f I n d o n e s ia M e r d e k a, g^ but w e a ls o h a v e to p r o c e e d to w a r d s th e fa m ily h o o d o f n a tio n s. 3). D e m o c r a c y, d e fin e d a s u n a n im ity (M afak at), r e p r e s e n t a t io n (p e r w a k ila n ), and d e lib e r a tio n a m o n g r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s (p e r m u s ja w a r a ta n ): And n o w, w h a t i s th e th ir d p r in c ip le? T h at p r in c ip le i s the p r in c ip le o f M a fa k a t, u n a n im ity, th e p r in c ip le o f p e r w a k ila n, r e p r e s e n ta tio n, th e p r in c ip le o f p e r m u s ja w a r a ta n, d e lib e r a tio n a m o n g st r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s. T h e I n d o n e sia n s ta te s h a ll n o t be a s ta te fo r one in d iv id u a l, s h a ll n o t be a s ta te fo r on e g r o u p, a lth o u g h it b e a g r o u p o f th e w e a lth y. B ut w e s h a ll s e t up a s ta te " a ll fo r a l l, " "one fo r a ll, a ll fo r o n e. " I am c o n v in c e d th a t an a b s o lu te c o n d itio n fo r th e s tr e n g th o f th e I n d o n e s ia n S u k a rn o, "T he B ir th o f P a n tja S ila " (June 1, 1 9 4 5 ). R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an, p. 12. ^ I b i d., p. 14. === [PDF page 176] === 169 88 s t a t e i s p e r m u s ja w a r a ta n, p e r w a k ila n. 4 ). S o c ia l J u s t ic e, d e fin e d a s e c o n o m ic e q u a lity and the a b ility to liv e in c o m fo r t: I s a id a w h ile a g o th a t th e p r in c ip le s o f San M in Chu I a r e M in ts u, M in ch u an, M in sh e n g: n a t io n a lis m, d e m o c r a c y, s o c i a l i s m. T h en, o u r p r in c ip le s s h o u ld b e - - d o w e w a n t an in d e p e n d e n t I n d o n e s ia w h o s e c a p it a l is t s do th e ir u n sc r u p u lo u s w i ll, o r w h e r e th e e n t ir e p e o p le p r o s p e r, w h e r e e v e r y m a n h a s en o u g h to e a t, en o u g h to w e a r, l i v e s in c o m fo r t, f e e l s c h e r is h e d by h is M o th e r la n d w h ic h g iv e s h im s u ffic ie n t s a n d a n g -p a n g a n, th e b a s ic n e c e s s i t i e s? W hich do w e c h o o s e, B r o t h e r s and S is te r s? * ^ and, 90 5 ). B e l i e f in th e O n e, S u p r e m e God: T he p r in c ip le o f B e l ie f in G od! N o t o n ly sh o u ld the I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le b e lie v e in G od, bu t e v e r y I n d o n e s ia n sh o u ld b e lie v e in h is ow n G od. T he C h r is tia n sh o u ld w o r s h ip God a c c o r d in g to th e te a c h in g s o f J e s u s C h r is t, M o s le m s a c c o r d in g to th e te a c h in g s o f th e P r o p h e t M o h a m m a d, B u d d h ists sh o u ld p e r fo r m th e ir r e lig io u s c e r e m o n ie s in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the b o o k s th e y h a v e. B u t l e t u s a ll b e lie v e in G od. T he I n d o n e s ia n S ta te s h a ll b e a s ta te w h e r e e v e r y p e r s o n ca n w o r s h ip h i s God a s h e l i k e s. T he w h o le o f th e p e o p le sh o u ld w o r s h ip God in a c u ltu r e d w a y, th a t i s, w ith o u t r e lig io u s e g o is m. A nd the ^ I b i d., pp. 1 4 - 1 5. ^ I b i d., p. 16. 90 T h is i s th e w o r d in g o f I n d o n e s ia 1 s In d e p e n d en ce P r o c la m a tio n o f A u g u st 17, 1 9 4 5. T h e D ja k a r ta C h a r te r o f Jun e 2 2, 1 9 4 5, d if f e r s s o m e w h a t in i t s e m p h a s is on " B e lie f in G od, " w ith th e o b lig a tio n o f p r a c tic in g th e la w s o f I s la m fo r th e a d h e r e n ts fo r th a t r e li g io n. H o w e v e r, th a t w o r d in g w a s d ro p p ed in th e In d e p e n d e n c e p r o c la m a tio n b e c a u s e o f i t s d is c r im in a t o r y n a tu r e. H. R o e s la n A b d u lg a n, S p e e c h o f O c to b e r, 1 9 5 5, r e p r in te d in P a n tja S ila: T h e P r im e M o v e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n (Djakarta: Propan tja, 1965), p. 18. === [PDF page 177] === 170 S ta te o f I n d o n e s ia sh o u ld be a s ta te w h ic h h a s b e l i e f in G od! 9 1 S u k arn o w e n t on to in d ic a te th a t one c o u ld c o m b in e th e s e fiv e p r in c ip le s in to a tr ia d: 1) S o c io -N a t io n a lis m; 2) S o c io - d e m o c r a c y; and 3) b e l i e f in one G od. In a d d itio n, i f one c o u ld o n ly r e m e m b e r one c o n c e p t, th e c o r e o f th e P a n tja S ila c o u ld b e s u m m a r iz e d a s "the I n d o n e sia n 92 S ta te: A ll fo r A ll, g o to n g r o jo n g. " A c c o r d in g to S u k a rn o, n a t io n a lis m i s f o s t e r e d id e o lo g i c a l ly in th r e e w a y s: F i r s t w e p o in t o u t to the p e o p le th a t th e y h a v e a g lo r io u s p a s t, s e c o n d ly w e in t e n s if y th e n o tio n a m o n g the p e o p le th at th e p r e s e n t t im e i s d a r k, and th e th ir d w a y i s to sh o w th e m th e p r o m is in g, p u r e and lu m in o u s fu tu r e and h ow to g e t t h e r e. A n e x a m p le o f th is te c h n iq u e a p p e a r s in th e M a n ip o l s p e e c h: I f e e l lik e D a n te in h is D iv in a C o m m e d ia. I f e e l, th a t our R e v o lu tio n a ls o h a s s u ffe r e d a ll k in d s o f to r tu r e s fr o m a ll k in d s of d e v i l s, a ll th e k in d s o f s u ffe r in g s o f th e I n fe r n o, and th en, w ith our r e tu r n to th e 1945 C o n stitu tio n, n ow w e e x p e r ie n c e p u r if ic a tio n, so th a t la t e r w e c a n e n te r H e a v e n. A t p r e s e n t w e s t i l l a r e in P u r g a t o r y, w e a r e s t i l l b e in g p u r ifie d fr o m a ll k in d s o f u n c le a n lin e s s; w e a r e g o in g th ro u g h th e p r o c e s s o f p u r ific a tio n in a ll m a t t e r s, so th a t w h en w e h a v e b e e n p u r ifie d, a fte r w e h a v e b e e n c le a n s e d, 91 S u k a rn o, "T he B ir th o f P a n tja S ila, " p. 18. [Unreadable] 93 S u k a rn o, a s q u o ted in B a m b a n g D e to m, " S o m e R e m a r k s on M o d e rn I n d o n e sia n H is to r io g r a p h y " in D. G. E. H a ll ( e d.), H is to r ia n s o f S o u th e a s t A s ia (L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 7 5. === [PDF page 178] === 171 w e ca n e n te r th e h a p p in e s s o f th e P a r e d is o o f a j u s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie t y. T he " p a r a d ise " to w a r d s w h ic h th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n i s co n tin u in g h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s f o llo w s in "T he M e s s a g e o f th e S u ffe r in g o f th e P e o p le ": 1) to e s t a b lis h a j u s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie ty; 2) to e r e c t a u n ita r y s ta te b a s e d on th e p r in c ip le s o f u n ita r ia n is m; and 3) to fo llo w 95 th e s y s t e m o f m u s ja w a r a h in a u n ic a m e r a l b o d y o r s y s t e m. T h e P a n tja S ila r e m a in s th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l c o r e o f S u k a r n o 's id e o lo g y. It i s m o r e fr u it fu l to c o n s id e r th e fu r th e r id e o lo g ic a l a d d i t io n s c o n ta in e d in th e P o l i t i c a l M a n ife s to o f 1959 (i. e., th e M an ip ol) a s a m p lif ic a t io n s o f th e P a n tja S ila, r a th e r th a n a s a lt e r a t io n s o f it. S u k a rn o, so o n a ft e r th e a tta in m e n t o f p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e fr o m th e D u tc h, b e c a m e in c r e a s in g ly d is e n c h a n te d w ith th e m o r a s s o f I n d o n e s ia 's p a r ty p o li t ic s in i t s in s t it u t io n a liz e d p a r lia m e n ta r y fo r m. In M ay, 1 9 5 3, h e s ta te d: I h a v e n e v e r m e t th e w o r d d e m o c r a c y in I s la m ic te r m in o lo g y, I h a v e o n ly m e t " m u sja w a r a h. " M o r e o v e r, I n e v e r m e t th e te r m " v o tin g s" in th e I s la m ic v o c a b u la r y. W hat i s s u g g e s t e d 94 S u k a rn o, " T h e R e d is c o v e r y o f Our R e v o lu tio n," pp. 6 1 - 6 2. "A ju s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie t y i s a s o c ie t y w h ic h i s t e c h n ic a lly a d v a n c e d, c o m p le t e ly m o d e r n to th e m o u n ta in to p s, c o m p le t e ly m o d e r n m a t e r ia lly and c u ltu r a lly and i s e n jo y e d e q u a lly b y th e w h o le o f th e p e o p le. " (Ibid., p. 6 4 ). 95 S u k a rn o, R e s P u b lic a! O nce M o r e R e s P u b lic a! A d d r e s s to the C o n s titu e n t A s s e m b ly on A p r il 2 2, 1959 (N ew Y ork: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, P e r m a n e n t M is s io n to th e U n ited N a tio n s, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 9. Q u oted in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m a d, M a r x and M a r h a e n, pp. 1 6 3 ff. === [PDF page 179] === 172 b y I s la m i s " m u sja w a r a h, " d is c u s s io n, n e g o t ia t io n s. It d o e s n o t s u g g e s t v o t in g s, s o th a t on e c a n s a y: M y p a r ty h a s th e b ig g e s t n u m b e r, I sh o u ld w in, N o! D e m o c r a c y i s m u sja w a r a h... We do n o t w a n t a u to c r a c y... N o t th e h a lf p lu s on e i s a lw a y s in the r ig h t, n o t th e h a lf p lu s o n e i s a lw a y s w in n in g, n o, n o t at a ll! D e m o c r a c y i s n o t a n a im. D e m o c r a c y i s m e r e ly an in s tr u m e n t o f w is d o m, a m e th o d to a c h ie v e an o b je c t in w is e m a n n e r in s o c ia l and s ta te a f f a ir s. One m a n n e r, a m a n n e r w e a ll a g r e e w ith: our d e m o c r a c y w ith le a d e r s h ip. A d e m o c r a c y w ith w is d o m and n o t m e r e v o tin g.... D e m o c r a c y d o e s n o t m e a n m a j o r o c r a c y, o r m o r e c le a r l y our d e m o c r a c y d o es not m ea n m a jo r o c r a c y, b e c a u se w e ^ a r e o b lig e d to h o ld m u sja w a r a h and n o t m e r e v o tin g.... T h is a ttitu d e le d to an op en b r e a k b e t w e e n S u k arn o and H a tta. H a tta w a s \.o r e s ig n a s V i c e - P r e s i d e n t o f th e R e p u b lic and s e v e r h is c o n n e c tio n w ith the g o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 5 6. A lth o u g h S u karno d id o p p o se th e r o le o f p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s, he d id n o t s u g g e s t an y c o n c r e te c h a n g e s. H e s im p ly s u g g e s t e d, on O c to b e r 2 8, 1 9 5 6, th a t h e had " d rea m ed " th a t th e p a r ty le a d e r s h a d a g r e e d to "bury 97 a ll P a r t i e s, " On N o v e m b e r 10 o f th a t s a m e y e a r, S u k a rn o fo r the f i r s t tim e s u g g e s t e d th e n e c e s s i t y f o r a n e w g o v e r n m e n ta l s y s t e m e n tit le d G u ided D e m o c r a c y; h o w e v e r, h e d id not c la r if y i t s m e a n in g. ^ On F e b r u a r y 2 2, 1 9 5 8, S u k a rn o s e t fo r th s o m e c o n c r e te p r o p o s a ls. He c a lle d fo r th e fo r m a tio n o f a g o to n g r o jo n g c a b in e t and a n a tio n a l 96 S u k a rn o, S p e e c h, M a y, 1 9 5 3, to I s la m ic s tu d e n ts a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f I n d o n e s ia. E x c e r p te d and q u o te d in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m a d, M a rx, and M a r h a e n, pp. 1 6 5 -1 6 6. 97 A rnold B r a c k m a n, op. cit., pp. 2 2 6 - 2 2 7. 98 I b i d., p. 227. === [PDF page 180] === 173 c o u n c il c o m p o s e d o f " fu n ctio n a l g r o u p s, " i. e., la b o r, y o u th, p e a s a n t s, i n t e l le c t u a ls, n a tio n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s, and the g e n e r a t io n o f 1945 (w h ich 99 w a s r e c o g n iz e d a s a fu n c tio n a l g r o u p on A p r il 1, 1 9 5 9 ). E ig h te e n m o n th s la t e r, on J u ly 5, 1 9 5 9, S u k arn o d is s o lv e d th e r e la t iv e ly d e m o c r a tic C o n stitu e n t A s s e m b ly and d e c la r e d th a t th e n a tio n w o u ld r e tu r n to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y c o n s titu tio n o f 1945. C h a p ter 3: T he A tte m p te d R e - e s t a b lis h m e n t o f U n ity S u k a r n o 's j u s t if ic a t io n fo r th is d is s o lu t io n w a s b a s e d on th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e g o v e r n m e n ta l s y s t e m o f th e 1 9 4 9 -1 9 5 9 p e r io d h a d " le ft th e t r a c k s o f th e r e v o lu tio n, " h ad b e e n d iv o r c e d fr o m "the r e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r s h ip " and h a d th u s b e tr a y e d th e P a n tja S ila. T o r e m e d y th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th is d e v ia tio n, S u k arn o d e v e lo p e d th e M a n ip o l-U S D E K * ^ 99 Ib id., p. 2 3 3. * ^ T h e In d o n e s ia n P a r lia m e n t b e tw e e n 1950 and 1959 fu n c tio n e d a s a c o n s titu e n t a s s e m b ly due to th e fa c t th a t, in th a t t im e, th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s had n ot a g r e e d up on a p e r m a n e n t c o n s titu tio n. T he 1950 C o n s titu tio n, w h ic h e s t a b lis h e d th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia a s a u n ita r y s t a t e, w a s a c c e p t e d a s te m p o r a r y (H e r b e r t F e ith, T h e D e c lin e o f C o n s titu tio n a l D e m o c r a c y in I n d o n e s ia, pp. 9 2 -9 9 ) and w a s a m b ig u o u s c o n c e r n in g th e r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n P a r lia m e n t, th e C a b in et and th e P r e s id e n t (G e o r g e M cT. K a h in, " I n d o n e s ia," p p. 5 4 2 -5 4 5 ). ^ ^ U S D E K is an a c r o n y m w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s: 1) R e tu r n to the C o n stitu tio n o f 1945 (U n d an g -U n d a n g D a s a r 1945); 2) S o c ia lis m a la I n d o n e s ia ( S o s ia lis m e I n d o n e s ia ); 3) G u id ed D e m o c r a c y (D e m o k r a s i T e r p im p in ); 4) G uided E c o n o m y (E c o n o m i T e r p im p in ); and 5) Indone s i an id e n tity (K ep rib a d ia n I n d o n e s ia ). === [PDF page 181] === 174 and p r e s e n t e d i t to th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le in h is In d e p e n d e n c e D a y S p e e c h o f A u g u st 17, 1 9 5 9, w h e r e u p o n i t w a s a n n o ta te d and s y s t e m a t iz e d by 102 th e S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n c il. H o w e v e r, i t m u s t b e e m p h a s iz e d th a t th e te n e t s o f th e M a n ip o l- U SD E K d e a lt e s s e n t i a l l y w ith the o r g a n iz a tio n a l fo r m s e m b o d ie d in th e c o n c e p ts of G u id ed D e m o c r a c y and N A SA K O M. In o th e r w o r d s, S u k arn o d id n o t c la im th a t th e id e o lo g y, a s o r ig in a lly p ro p o u n d ed in th e P a n tja S ila, h ad f a ile d. On th e c o n tr a r y, th e id e o lo g y s t i l l r e p r e s e n te d th e,rtru th " fo r S u k a rn o, a s w e ll a s fo r th o s e m ilit a r y le a d e r s 103 w h o fo llo w e d h im. It w a s th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l f o r m s w h ic h h a d b e e n e n tr u s te d w ith th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e P a n tja S ila th a t h ad fa ile d; th a t o r g a n iz a tio n fo r m b e in g li b e r a l d e m o c r a c y o f th e " W e ste r n ” ty p e. R e fe r r in g to S u k a r n o 's M a n ip o l s p e e c h, o n e fin d s: T h e d e v il o f li b e r a l i s m, th e d e v il o f f e d e r a lis m, th e d e v il o f in d iv id u a lis m, th e d e v il o f s u k u - is m, th e d e v il o f g r o u p is m, th e d e v il o f d e v ia tio n, th e d e v il o f a d v e n tu r is m, th e d e v il o f th e fo u r k in d s o f d u a lis m s, th e d e v e l o f c o r r u p tio n, th e d e v il o f s c r a p in g up w e a lth a t one b lo w, th e d e v il o f th e m u ltip a r ty s y s t e m, th e d e v il o f r e b e l l i o n - - a l l k in d s o f d e v ils h a v e ju m p e d on u s in th e r e a lm o f th e in f e r n o, and n ow w e a r e u n d e r g o in g p u r g a to r y in a ll f i e l d s. R e -o r ie n ta tio n, r e - o r d e r in g, r e - t o o lin g, r e - s h a p in g, r e - m a k in g - a ll o f th a t i s n e c e s s a r y, so th a t w e w i l l be a b le to c o n tin u e o u r jo u r n e y 102 S u k arn o, "T he R e d is c o v e r y o f Our R e v o lu tio n " (A u g u st 17, 1 9 5 9 ), r e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an, pp. 3 9 - 7 6. T h e S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n c il's a n n o ta tio n i s r e p r in te d in i b i d., pp. 103 M o h am m ad S a id, " R e fle c tio n on P a n t j a s ila D a y, " T he W eek ly I n d o n e s ia n H e r a ld I (June 15, 1 9 6 6 ), p. V. === [PDF page 182] === 175 on th e r a ils o f th e rev y |ji|tio n, p r o c e e d in g to w a r d s th e o b j e c tiv e o f th e r e v o lu tio n. T h e s e p r o b le m s, a c c o r d in g to S u k a rn o, s te m m e d fr o m th e n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e D u tch in 1949: T h rou gh th e D u tch, v ia th e R ound T a b le c o n f e r e n c e, w e w e r e m a d e to d ilu te o u r r e v o lu tio n a r y s p ir it; in I n d o n e s ia i t s e l f, w e had to c o m p r o m is e w ith g r o u p s w h ic h w e r e n o n r e v o lu tio n a r y: D u tc h ifie d g r o u p s, r e f o r m i s t g r o u p s, c o n s e r v a tiv e g r o u p s, c o n t r a - ^ ^ o lu t io n a r y g r o u p s, c h a m e le o n and "cock roach" g ro u p s. R e fe r r in g b a c k to th is p e r io d in 1 9 6 4, S u k arn o w a s to r e it e r a t e h i s d i s d ain fo r c o m p e titiv e d e m o c r a c y: W hat i s th e a c c e p t e d p a tte r n o f d e m o c r a c y - - l i b e r a l, f r e e fig h t, h a lf - p lu s - o n e - m a j o r it y, o p p o s e - f o r - t h e - s a k e - o f - o p p o s itio n d e m o c r a c y? T h a t c a r ic a t u r e o f r e a l p a r tic ip a tio n by th e p e o p le in th e a c t o f g o v e r n in g? F o r s o m e y e a r s, in d e e d, w e d id fo llo w th a t p a tte r n o f lib e r a l d e m o c r a c y, and it b r o u g h t u s so n e a r to n a tio n a l d is a s t e r th a t w e w e r e a lm o s t o v e r w h e lm e d.... ... A nd s o, a t l a s t, w e r id o u r s e lv e s o f th is m i l l s to n e round ou r n e c k s, and th r e w out th is s y s t e m th a t i s b a s e d on in h e r e n t c o n f lic t, and s in c e h a v e t r ie d to lo o k fo r c o m m o n g ro u n d and to r e a c h c o n c e n s u s u n d er th e w i s e s t g u id a n c e w e co u ld g e t: T h e p r in c ip le s o f P a n tja S ila w e had 104 S u k a rn o, "T he R e d is c o v e r y o f Our R e v o lu tio n, " p. 6 2. Sukui s m i s a c o llo q u ia l e x p r e s s io n r e f e r r in g to s u b -n a tio n a l lo y a lt y. T he F o u r D u a lis m s a r e: 1) d u a lis m b e tw e e n th e g o v e r n m e n t and th e l e a d e r s h ip o f th e r e v o lu tio n; 2 ) d u a lis m b e tw e e n a ju s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie t y and a c a p it a lis t s o c ie ty; 3) d u a lis m b e tw e e n th e t h e s e s th a t th e r e v o lu tio n i s c o m p le te d and the r e v o lu tio n i s n o t y e t c o m p le te d; and 4) d u a lis m b e tw e e n d e m o c r a c y fo r th e p e o p le and th e p e o p le fo r d e m o c r a c y (p. 4 4 ). Ib id., p. 4 2. T ju tju n g u k, th e S u n d a n ese w o r d fo r c o c k r o a c h, w a s u s e d b y th e N a tio n a lis t f o r c e s in th e r e v o lu tio n to in d ic a te a sp y fo r th e D u tch. === [PDF page 183] === 176 e s t a b lis h e d a s the b a s is o f our s t a t e. In an a tte m p t to fin d " c o m m o n g ro u n d and to r e a c h c o n c e n s u s," a s y s t e m o f "G u ided D e m o c r a c y " w a s e s t a b lis h e d, b a s e d on the p r in c ip le o f go to n g r o jo n g a s e m b o d ie d in N A SA K O M. T he h e a r t o f th e M a n ip o l-U S D E K i s th e c o n c e p t o f g o to n g r o jo n g. It w a s to b e e m b o d ie d in th e p r in c ip le o f N A SA K O M, an a c r o n y m r e p r e se n d in g N a s io n a lis - A g a m a - K o m u n is. In e s s e n c e, NASAKOM p r o v id e d fo r th e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f n a t io n a lis t, r e lig io u s and C o m m u n ist o r g a n iz a tio n s in th e c o n s u lta tiv e p r o c e s s e s o f G u id ed D e m o c r a c y and r e q u ir e d 107 th a t th e y w o r k h a r m o n io u s ly t o g e t h e r. W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n NASAK OM and G uided D e m o c r a c y, S u k arn o h a s b e e n s o m e w h a t in c o n s is t e n t. On th e on e h an d, G u id ed D e m o c r a c y h a s b e e n d e fin e d s im p ly a s d e m o c r a c y p r a c t ic e d in S u k arn o, R e f le c t io n s U pon th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n (San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 6. I t i s p e r h a p s in t e r e s t in g to n o te th a t M oh am m ad H atta a p p e a r s to a g r e e w ith th is p o s t m o r te m on th e m u lt i- p a r t y p a r lia m e n ta r y s y s t e m. A s h e h a s w r itte n in " I n d o n e s ia 's M isg u id e d D e m o c r a c y, " N e w L e a d e r (N o v e m b e r 10, 1 9 6 0 ), p. 14: T he n u m e r o u s p o li t ic a l p a r t ie s h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d o n ly w ith t h e m s e lv e s w h ile th e c o m m u n ity h a s b e e n n e g le c t e d, fo r th e p a r ty h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s th e en d and th e sta n d o n ly a s th e m e a n s.... T h is in v it e s a n a r c h y. H a tta 's b a s ic c r i t i c i s m o f S u k a rn o i s th a t h e h a s n e g le c t e d th e P a n tja S ila to a g r e a t e r e x te n t th an h e h a s fo llo w e d i t. H is p r o p o s e d so lu tio n: th e g o v e r n m e n t sh o u ld a p p ly th e p r in c ip le o f "T he R ig h t M an in th e R ig h t P l a c e," ( ib id., p. 15). 107 D on ald H in d le y, T h e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, 1951 — === [PDF page 184] === 177 c o n fo r m ity w ith and w ith in th e r a th e r b r o a d ly d e fin e d l im it s s e t b y th e P a n tja S ila. T he " gu id an ce" th en i s im p e r s o n a l: I t i s c a lle d G u id ed D e m o c r a c y. T he g u id a n c e i s p r o v id e d b y th e s e t o f f iv e p r in c ip le s know n a s P a n tja S ila. One o f t h e s e p r in c ip le s i s i t s e l f S o v e r e ig n ty o f th e P e o p le, w h ic h, lik e e a c h o f th e o th e r S ila in tu r n, i s to be q u a lifie d fo r m e a n in g and lim it e d fo r a p p lic a tio n b y th e o th e r fo u r.... T h is m e a n s th at ou r d e m o c r a c y m u s t b e in s p ir e d b y r e lig io n, m u s t s e r v e th e b r o th e r h o o d o f m a n and m u s t e x e c u t e s o c ia l j u s t i c e. T h u s, w h en w e s a y th at ou r d e m o c r a c y i s g u id e d, w e m e a n s im p ly th at i t sh o u ld c o n fo r m to th o s e r e q u i r e m e n t s - - t ^ t g o u r d e m o c r a c y m u s t b e o f su c h a k in d and no o th e r. H o w e v e r, at th e s a m e t im e, h e c h a r a c t e r iz e s G uided D e m o c r a c y a s d e m o c r a c y w ith le a d e r s h ip; a d e fin itio n w h ic h r e la t e s to p e r s o n a l r a th e r th an im p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s: T h is id e a o f G u id ed D e m o c r a c y w a s g r e e t e d a t f i r s t w ith c o n s id e r a b le d e r is io n: A " d e m o c r a c y " th a t i s "guided" i s d ic ta t o r s h ip, p e o p le s a id. It i s no su c h th in g! T h e r e ca n b e th e g u id a n c e o f a la w y e r a t a u n io n m e e tin g w ith o u t an yon e c r y in g " d ic ta to r s h ip, " th e r e c a n b e the g u id a n c e o f an e ld e r s ta te s m a n in the c o u n s e ls o f a c a b in e t w ith o u t an yon e c r y in g " d ic ta to r s h ip, " th e r e c a n b e th e g u id a n c e o f a p a r e n t te a c h in g h is c h ild to w a lk w ith o u t a n y o n e c r y in g " d ic t a to r s h ip " -- I n r e a l lif e th e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f g u id a n c e and d e m o c r a c y g o in g h an d in h an d, th e g u id a n c e c o m p le m e n tin g and a id in g the d e m o c r a c y, n o t in fr in g in g or n e g a tin g i t. And th is i s w hat w e u s e d to p r a c t ic e in ou r I n d o n e s ia n s o c ie t y lo n g ago; p e o p le to o k th e a d v ic e o f an e x p e r t, th e y c a m e to a le a d e r fo r c o u n s e l, and th a t a d v ic e and c o u n s e l th e y in c o r p o r a te d in on e w a y o r a n o th e r in th e ir d e c is i o n. T h e r e w a s g u id a n c e w ith th e ir d e m o c r a c y, but i t w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s d e m o c r a c y fo r th a t. N ow th a t i s th e id e a w e to o k and w e m o d e r n iz e d it. 108 S u k arn o, R e fle c tio n s U pon the In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n, p. 3. 109 I b i d., p. 5. === [PDF page 185] === 178 T he q u e s tio n s t i l l r e m a in e d, h o w e v e r: w ho w a s th e a d v is o r and w ho th e a d v is e d? T h is q u e s tio n w a s e f f e c t iv e ly a n s w e r e d in m id - 1 9 6 0, w h e n S u k arn o in s t a ll e d th e n e w ly a p p o in te d G oton g -R o jo n g P a r lia m e n t: I c a ll u p on y o u to c o n c e n tr a te in y o u r d e lib e r a tio n s up on one th in g, n a m e ly, th e r e a liz a t io n o f I n d o n e s ia n S o c ia lis m. In y o u r d i s c u s s i o n s, do n o t ta lk to o m u c h a g a in s t e a c h o th e r but t r y to d ir e c t a ll d is c u s s io n to w a r d s th e r e a l i z a tio n o f th a t S o c ia lis m. I e v e n h o p e, i f p o s s ib l e, th e d e b a te s w i l l n o t en d in v o tin g.... W h e r e v e r p o s s ib l e, th e d e c is i o n s sh o u ld b e r e a c h e d th ro u g h M u sja w a ra h and m u fa k a t. I s a y "if p o s s ib le ".... I f, a t a c e r t a in t im e, w ith r e g a r d to a c e r t a in q u e s tio n, a s itu a tio n a r i s e s w h e r e no a g r e e m e n t c a n be r e a c h e d b e c a u s e o p in io n s a r e too w id e ly d iffe r e n t, I a s k th e le a d e r s h ip of th e G o to n g -R o jo n g D ew a n P e r w a k ila n R a k ja t /M u tu a l C o o p e r a tio n P a r lia m e n t / to c a ll up on m e in m y c a p a c ity a s P r e s id e n t - S u p r e m e C o m m a n d e r to m a k e a d e c is io n b a s e d on a ll th e o p in io n s e x p r e s s e d by the^ijr^embers o f th is G o to n g -R o jo n g D ew a n P e r w a k ila n R a k ja t. T h e o r e t ic a lly, h o w e v e r, fu n d a m e n ta l c o n f lic t s w o u ld n o t a r i s e b e c a u s e, in th e w o r d s o f th e S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n cil: W hat w ill e m e r g e and com e to th e fo r e a r e o n ly th e c o n f l i c t s b e tw e e n th e r e v o lu tio n a r y f o r c e s and th e i m p e r i a l i s t f o r c e s, and th e s e c o n f lic t s m u s t be c o n c lu d e d w ith th e v ic t o r y o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y f o r c e s.... / F o r a lth o u g h / e a c h p a r ty, o r g a n iz a tio n and in d iv id u a l m a y h a v e th e ir r e s p e c t iv e o u tlo o k, m a y h a v e th e ir ow n p r o g r a m... w h a t h a s a lr e a d y b e e n d e c id e d a s th e P r o g r a m o f th e R e v o lu tio n m u s t a ls o be th e ir S u k arn o. Q u o ted in J e a n n e M in tz, op. c i t., pp. 1 7 3 -1 7 4. W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e c o n c e p ts o f g o to n g r o jo n g and m u s ja w a r a h, J u s tu s M. V an d e r K r o e f c o n te n d s t i n t t h e s e c o n c e p ts r e f e r to p r a c t ic e s w h ic h e x is t e d o n ly in lim it e d a r e a s and th a t, e v e n in t h e s e a r e a s, th e y h a v e lo n g s in c e v a n is h e d o r h e a v ily e r o d e d a s a r e s u lt o f th e c o lo n ia l im p a c t and a tte m p te d m o d e r n iz a tio n. R e fe r to " In d o n esia: T he M y stiq u e o f P e r m a n e n t R e v o lu tio n, 11 South A tla n tic Q u a r te r ly L X IV (W in ter, 1 9 6 5 ), === [PDF page 186] === 179 p r o g r a m and th e y m u s t p a r tic ip a te in c a r r y in g out th is I t w a s, o f c o u r s e, a lw a y s on th e g r o u n d s th a t a p a r tic u la r p a r ty h a d f a ile d to w o r k in h a r m o n y w ith th e o t h e r s w ith in th e s p ir it o f th e r e v o lu tio n th a t i t w a s d e c la r e d i l l e g a l. S u k arn o and H atta h a d p r e v io u s ly d is a s s o c ia t e d t h e m s e lv e s fr o m th e PK I b e c a u s e: 1) th e y did n o t b e lie v e th a t th e C o m m u n is t's e m p h a s is on th e f i r s t - s t e p b o u r g e o is r e v o lu tio n and th e P K I 1 s lim it e d d e fin itio n o f th e p r o le t a r ia t w a s a p p r o p r ia te to I n d o n e sia n c o n d itio n s; 2) th e y did n ot w a n t to su b o r d in a te th e g o a l o f n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e to an e x t e r n a l a u t h o r it y - - i. e., th e C o m in tern; and 3) th e r e w a s th e q u e s tio n o f th e P K I's p o s itio n w ith r e g a r d to r e lig io n. S in c e I 9 6 0, S u k arn o had r e p e a te d ly s ta te d th a t h e no lo n g e r b e lie v e d the PK I to be bound by any o f th e s e th r e e lim it a t io n s. W ith t h is in m in d, h e h a s c a m p a ig n e d v ig o r o u s ly a g a in s t w h a t h e t e r m s " C o m m u n ist phobia"; A rou n d 1 9 5 0, a s on e o f th e m a n ife s t a tio n s o f th e in t e n s ify in g c o ld w a r, p r o g r e s s iv e tr e n d s w e r e v e r y r a p id ly b r a n d e d " C o m m u n is t." A n t i- C o lo n ia lis m - - C o m m u n is t. A n ti e x p lo ita tio n de l'h o m m e p a r l'h o m m e - - C o m m u n ist. A n ti c o m p r o m is e - - C o m m u n is t. C o n s is te n tly r e v o lu t io n a r y - - C o m m u n is t.... Up to t h is v e r y m o m e n t, th e r e a r e s t i l l p e o p le w ho a r e u n a b le to th in k in d e p e n d e n tly a b o u t w h a t i s g o o d fo r th e p e o p le o f I n d o n e s ia and w h a t i s w a n te d b y the p e o p le o f I n d o n e s ia, b u t on th e c o n tr a r y, a p r io r i th e y h a te and o p p o se S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n c il, D e c is io n R e s p e c tin g S p e c ific a tio n of the P o l it ic a l M a n ife s to o f th e R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s ia o f 17th A u g u st 1 959, p r e a m b le. === [PDF page 187] === 180 .112 w h a te v e r th e y s u s p e c t i s " left" and " C o m m u n ist. " On J a n u a r y 3 1, 1 9 6 5, in an in t e r v ie w on th e t e le v is i o n p r o g r a m " F a c e th e N a tio n, " S u k arn o w e n t e v e n f u r t h e r, w h en h e in d ic a te d th a t a C o m m u n is t P a r ty a c c e s s i o n to p o w e r th ro u g h p e a c e f u l m e a n s w o u ld b e a c c e p t a b le to h im: Q u e stio n: M r. S u k a rn o, r e p o r t e d ly w h en y o u sa w P r e s id e n t K en n ed y in 1961 y o u s a id to h im y o u a r e a g a in s t C o m m u n is m, th en g iv e m e y o u r su p p o r t. I a m the b e s t b u lw a r k in I n d o n e s ia a g a in s t C o m m u n is m. Do y o u r e m e m b e r i f y o u s a id th a t to M r. K en n ed y? Su k arn o: Y es. Q u e stio n: I s th is s t i l l tr u e? S u k arn o: I am a g a in s t C o m m u n ism i f C o m m u n ism i s m a k in g tr o u b le a g a in s t m y s t a t e, a g a in s t I n d o n e s ia. B ut I am n o t a g a in s t C o m m u n ism a s su c h. Q u e stio n: A r e yo u a g a in s t C o m m u n ism in I n d o n e s ia? S u k arn o: N o. I f C o m m u n ism m a k e s tr o u b le a g a in s t / t h e / I n d o n e s ia n S ta te, th en I s h a ll fig h t a g a in s t th a t C o m m u n is m. I fo u g h t a g a in s t I s la m. M y ow n r e lig io n i s I s la m, b u t if th e D a r u l I s la m m a k e s tr o u b le in I n d o n e s ia, a g a in s t th e I n d o n e s ia n S ta te, I s h a ll fig h t a g a in s t th e D a r u l I s la m. Q u e stio n: Y ou f e e l, th o u g h, you h a v e no tr o u b le w ith C o m m u n is ts in y o u r ow n c o u n tr y? Su karno: A t th e p r e s e n t m o m e n t, n o t. W hen in *48 th e y m a d e a r e b e llio n in M ad iu n, I w a s th e m a n w h o fou gh t a g a in s t C o m m u n ism, a g a in s t th e PK I. 112 S u k arn o, " L ik e an A n g e l th a t S t r ik e s fr o m th e S k ie s, " p. 9 0. === [PDF page 188] === 181 Q u e s tio n: M r. P r e s id e n t, s o m e a n a ly s is /_sic_/ h a v e th e f e e lin g th a t i f th e p r e s e n t tr e n d, in t e r n a l p o lit ic a l tr e n d, c o n tin u e d, and b a r r in g u n fo r s e e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s, i t i s p o s s ib le th a t th e C o m m u n is ts m a y e v e n tu a lly and g r a d u a lly ta k e o v e r c o n tr o l o f I n d o n e s ia. W hat i s y o u r e s t im a t e? S u k arn o: N o n s e n s e. N o n s e n s e. N o n s e n s e. I am n o t a fr a id. I t o le r a t e a ll i d e o l o g i e s. T he N a tio n a lis t i d e o l o g i e s, the R e lig io u s i d e o l o g i e s, th e C o m m u n ist id e o l o g i e s, so fa r th e y a r e n o t m a k in g tr o u b le o r d a m a g e to th e I n d o n e s ia n s t a t e. T h at i s w h y I m a k e th e NASAKOM p o lic y. Q u e stio n: I s n ’t i t t r u e, s i r, th a t the l a r g e s t p o lit ic a l p a r ty in I n d o n e s ia i s th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty, w h ic h i s a ls o th e l a r g e s t C o m m u n ist P a r ty o u ts id e th e C o m m u n is t B lo c. S u k arn o: Y es. W hat d o e s i t m e a n? W hat d o e s i t m e a n? Q u e stio n: W e ll, i t w o u ld m e a n, w o u ld n ’t i t, i f th a t p a r ty c o n tr o ls th is c o u n tr y, i t w o u ld e v e n tu a lly b e c o m e C o m m u n is t? S u k a rn o: I s a id I d o n 't c a r e a b ou t t h is s o lo n g a s th e y a r e n o t d a m a g in g o r m a k in g tr o u b le a g a in s t th e S ta te. Q u e stio n: M r. P r e s id e n t, I u n d e r s ta n d, in o th er w o r d s, i f i t e v o lv e d s lo w ly w ith o u t tr o u b le, i t w o u ld b e a ll r ig h t? 113 S u k arn o: Gf c o u r s e. Why n o t? T he q u e s tio n th en a r i s e s, w a s S u k arn o a C o m m u n ist, had h e b e e n " ca p tu red " b y th e C o m m u n is ts o r w a s he a C o m m u n ist " d u p e? " An a tte m p t to a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s tio n s w o u ld h a v e to c o n c e r n i t s e l f w ith tw o " T r a n s c r ip t o f P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's in t e r v ie w w ith C. B. S. N e w s C o r r e s p o n d e n ts, " t e l e v i s e d J a n u a r y 3 1, 1 9 6 5, on " F a c e th e N a tio n " (San F r a n c is c o: C o n s u la te o f I n d o n e s ia, n. d. ), pp. 6 - 7 (d itto ). === [PDF page 189] === 182 l e v e l s o f a n a ly s is: 1 ) th e l e v e l o f a c tu a l g o v e r n m e n ta l p o w e r and 2 ) the l e v e l o f id e o lo g ic a l and p o lic y a ffin ity. It i s w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e la t t e r th a t m a n y a n a ly s ts h a v e a tte m p te d to sh o w th at th e PKI e x e r c i s e d th e p r e d o m in a n t in flu e n c e on S u k a rn o. H o w e v e r, a s c o n c e r n s th e l e v e l o f a c tu a l g o v e r n m e n ta l p o w e r, D o n a ld H in d le y h a s p r e s e n t e d a s tr o n g c a s e s u g g e s tin g th a t th e PK I w a s th w a r te d b y S u k arn o fr o m a c h ie v in g th e a c c e s s i o n o f a u th o r ita tiv e p o w e r, w h ile a t th e s a m e tim e p r e s e r v in g fo r i t a lim it e d a m o u n t o f fr e e d o m 114 w ith in w h ic h s o m e o v e r t a c t iv it y w a s c o n d o n ed. T h is w a s n e c e s s it a t e d b y th e f a c t th a t, w h ile S u k a rn o r e p r e s e n t e d le g it im a t e a u th o r ity a s th e le a d e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n, th e A r m y le a d e r s h ip c o n t r o lle d th e c o e r c iv e p o w e r n e c e s s a r y f o r the m a in te n a n c e o f o r d e r. In a d d itio n to t h is, S u k arn o (a la D e G a u lle) h ad d is a s s o c ia t e d h i m s e lf fr o m any o r g a n iz e d p o lit ic a l p a r ty and th u s la c k e d h is ow n o r g a n iz e d b a s e o f s u p p o r t. T h e r e f o r e, h e h ad so u g h t a l l i e s to b o ls t e r h is p o s itio n v i s - a - v i s the a r m y. In th is s itu a tio n, th e PK I h a d in c r e a s in g ly b e c o m e h is m o s t im p o r ta n t a lly. H o w e v e r, the r e s u lt o f S u k a r n o 's p o lic y w a s th a t th e C o m m u n ist P a r t y "provid/_ed_/ S u k a rn o w ith su p p o rt b u t /c o u ld n o t / e x p l o i t the a llia n c e to w a r d s i t s ow n m a jo r g o a l, w h ic h i s g o v e r n - 115 m e n ta l p o w e r." T he lim it a t io n s th a t th e PK I h ad to a c c e p t fo r th e 114 D o n a ld H in d le y, " P r e s id e n t S u k arn o and th e C o m m u n is ts: T he P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s t ic a t io n, " A m e r ic a n P o l it i c a l S c ie n c e R e v ie w LXI (D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 9 1 5 -9 2 6. 115 Ibid., p. 918. === [PDF page 190] === 183 d u b io u s p r iv ile g e o f su c h p a r tic ip a tio n in the p o lit ic a l s y s t e m c o u ld a c c o u n t, in p a r t, fo r PKI p a r tic ip a tio n in th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5. ^ T h u s, th e PK I h a d b e e n g iv e n a " c o n s u lta tiv e " r o le a t h ig h g o v e r n m e n t l e v e l s, y e t n o n e o f th e PK I le a d e r s h ip h a d b e e n g iv e n a p o s itio n in 117 w h ic h he c o u ld c o n tr o l a M in is tr y. In a d d itio n, th o s e p o s it io n s w ith w h ic h th e y h a d b e e n a s s o c ia t e d h ad b e e n id e n t ifie d w ith th e e c o n o m ic s p h e r e, th e l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l and p o p u la r s e c t o r o f g o v e r n m e n ta l W h eth er th e e v e n t s o f O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, r e p r e s e n t e d a co u p, c o u n te r -c o u p o r c o u n te r c o u n te r -c o u p i s s t i l l, a t th e p r e s e n t t im e, d if fic u lt to a s c e r t a in. H o w e v e r, D. N. A id it, C h a ir m a n o f th e P K I, h a d r e p e a t e d ly c o m p la in e d ab ou t th e P K I 1 s d is p r o p o r tio n a te ly s m a ll r e p r e s e n t a t io n in th e C a b in et, R e fe r to D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in, p o li t ic a l r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d on F e b r u a r y 1 0, 1 9 6 3, to th e f i r s t p le n a r y s e s s i o n o f the s e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e PKI (P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 4 2 - 4 3, 4 9. 117 H igh l e v e l p o s it io n s w ith in th e G o v e r n m e n t h e ld b y th e PKI le a d e r s h ip, a s of A u g u st 2 8, 1 9 6 4, w e r e a s f o llo w s: 1). N jo to (S eco n d D ep u ty C h a ir m a n, P K I ); a p p o in ted a s on e o f fo u r M in is te r s (w ith ou t p o r tfo lio ) s e c o n d e d to th e P r e s id iu m. 2 ). D. N. A id it (C h a ir m a n, P K I ); a p p o in te d a s one o f th r e e v i c e - c h a i r m e n o f th e P e o p le 's C o n g r e s s w ith th e s ta tu s of M in is t e r c o o r d in a to r. 3). M. H. L ukm an ( F ir s t D ep u ty C h a ir m a n, P K I); a p p o in te d a s one o f fo u r v ic e - c h a ir m e n o f th e p a r lia m e n t w ith th e s ta t u s o f M in is te r (w ith ou t p o r tf o lio ). (D itto R e le a s e o f th e C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, I n fo r m a tio n and T r a d e S e c tio n, San F r a n c i s c o. ) In a d d itio n, D. N. A id it w a s a p p o in te d, on J a n u a r y 18, 1 9 6 3, a s on e o f th ir t e e n m e m b e r s o f th e C o u n c il o f A s s is t a n t s to th e R e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r s h ip. On J a n u a ry 2 4, 1 9 6 3, A id it and tw o o th e r C o m m u n is ts w e r e a p p o in te d to an e le v e n m e m b e r su b c o m m it te e o f th e S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n c il, to fo r m u la te p r o p o s a ls fo r S u k arn o on e c o n o m ic s ta b iliz a t io n. (D on ald H in d le y, T h e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, p. 2 8 2.) === [PDF page 191] === 184 a c *• •*y. 1 1 8 t iv it A lth o u g h S u k arn o w a s u n a b le to d is s o lv e a ll o f th e p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s c o m p le t e ly, h e w a s a b le to n e u t r a liz e th e m. It i s tr u e th a t in d iv id u a ls id e n t ifie d w ith the le a d e r s h ip o f v a r io u s p a r t ie s w e r e fou n d h o ld in g h ig h g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic e. H o w e v e r, w ith the e x c e p tio n o f th e C o m m u n is ts, th e y h e ld t h e s e p o s itio n s b e c a u s e o f S u k a rn o ’ s p e r s o n a l su p p o r t r a th e r 119 th an b e c a u s e o f t h e ir p a r ty p o s it io n s. In a d d itio n, P a r ty a c t iv it y h ad b e e n c h a n n e le d, th ro u g h N A SA K O M, in to th e n o n -g o v e r n m e n ta l U n ited F r o n t r a th e r th an in to P a r lia m e n t, th e m e m b e r s o f w h ic h a r e a p p o in ted b y th e P r e s id e n t. T he F r o n t N a s io n a l i s a m a s s o r g a n iz a tio n o f v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e, to e n c o m p a s s th e w h o le o f th e n a tio n. It i s in te n d e d to m o b ilis e th e r e v o lu tio n a r y f o r c e s o f th e p e o p le and to s tim u la te th e p o te n tia ls o f a ll th e l a y e r s o f s o c ie t y to w a r d s c o m p le tio n o f th e N a tio n a l R e v o lu tio n, e s p e c i a l l y w ith r e f e r e n c e to c o n s tr u c tiv e a c t iv i t i e s in th e f i e ld o f d e v e lo p m e n t and r e c o n s tr u c tio n. A lth ou gh not an o r g a n o f th e S ta te in th e c o n s titu tio n a l s e n s e of th e w o r d, i t s fu n c tio n s and ta s k s a s an a s s is t a n t to ^ th e E x e c u tiv e a r e s im ila r to th a t o f an a p p a r a tu s o f th e S ta te. T h e p r o g r a m o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t w a s a n n o u n ced on F e b r u a r y 13, 1 9 6 3, and c o n ta in e d fiv e p o in ts: 1) T o c o n s o lid a te p a s t v i c t o r i e s, in c lu d in g th e r e tu r n o f W e st I r ia n and th e m a in te n a n c e o f s e c u r it y /d u r in g 1 9 6 3 -1 9 6 6, Ib id. J 119 J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m a d, M a rx and M a r h a e n, p. 16 0. 120 T h e C o n stitu tio n a l and A d m in is tr a tiv e F r a m e w o r k (San F r a n c is c o: T he I n d o n e s ia n C o n s u la te, n. d. ), p. 7 (d itto ). === [PDF page 192] === 185 th is w a s d ir e c t e d to w a r d s th e M a la y s ia n c o n fr o n ta tio n /. 2) T o h e lp i n c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n. 3) T o c o n tin u e th e s tr u g g le a g a in s t im p e r i a lis m and n e o c o lo n ia lis m. 4) T o e f f e c t p o lit ic a l in d o c tr in a tio n and 121 5) T o c a r r y out a " r e - to o lin g " o f th e s ta te a p p a r a tu s. S u k a r n o ’ s a ttitu d e to w a r d s e x t e r n a l a f f a ir s i s n e a tly s u m m e d up in th e p r e a m b le to th e I n d o n e s ia n C o n stitu tio n: S in c e in d e p e n d e n c e i s in h e r e n tly th e r ig h t o f e v e r y n a tio n, an y fo r m o f c o lo n ia lis m in t h is w o r ld i s c o n tr a r y to h u m a n ity and j u s t i c e and m u s t t h e r e f o r e, be e r a d ic a t e d. T h is h a s b e e n r e it e r a t e d b y th e S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n cil: R e m e m b e r in g th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n w h ic h i s n a tio n a l and d e m o c r a t ic, th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n i s a c o m m o n r e v o lu tio n o f a ll --------------------- c l a s s e s and ga r o u p s w ho o p o se i m p e r i a l i s m - c o lo n ia lis m / i t a l i c s in o r i g i n a l /. T he I n d o n e s ia n p r o je c tio n o f t h e ir ow n r e v o lu tio n a r y e x p e r ie n c e onto th e w o r ld s c e n e h a s b e e n r e in f o r c e d b y th e r e l a t iv e l y a m o r p h o u s o u tc o m e 123 o f t h e ir ow n r e v o lu tio n. T h is h a s b e e n c o u p le d to th e I n d o n e s ia n 's p r o p e n s ity to a c c e p t L e n in 's t h e s i s on I m p e r ia lis m. A s Sutan S ja h r ir, a le a d in g I n d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n a r y, w r o te: T he b r a n d o f s o c i a l i s m w h ic h g a in e d in flu e n c e in p o li t ic a lly a w a k e n in g I n d o n e s ia w a s o f th e r a d ic a l and r e v o lu tio n a r y ty p e, w h ic h w a s g e n e r a ll y c o n s id e r e d to b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l.... H e n c e, fr o m i t s v e r y 121 H a r ia n R a k ja t, F e b r u a r y 1 4, 1 9 6 3. 122 S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n cil D e c is i o n, S e c tio n II. 123 J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m a d, M a r x and M a rh a en, p. 103. === [PDF page 193] === 186 b e g in n in g th e P a r ta i N a s io n a l I n d o n e s ia w a s in fu s e d w ith r e v o lu tio n a r y m in d e d s o c i a l i s t t e n d e n c ie s, and in i t s p r o p a g a n d a, th is p a r ty f r e e l y b o r r o w e d fr o m th e c o n c e p ts and te r m in o lo g y o f o f f ic ia l C o m m u n ism: T he C o m in te r n... i t a d o p ted a lm o s t e n t ir e ly th e th e o r y on I m p e r ia lis m o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. H o w e v e r, d u rin g the f i r s t y e a r s fo llo w in g p o li t ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e, I n d o n e s ia 's f o r e ig n p o lic y w a s " n o n -a lig n e d. " S u k a rn o and o th e r In d o n e s ia n n a t io n a lis t s b e lie v e d th a t th e r e e x is t e d in th e w o r ld th r e e p o w e r b lo c s; th e " W est" r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e U n ited S t a te s, th e C o m m u n is ts r e p r e s e n t e d b y the S o v ie t U nion and the n e u t r a lis t s r e p r e s e n t e d by I n d o n e s ia, In d ia and o t h e r s. M o h a m m a d H a tta h ad d e fin e d In d o n e sia n f o r e ig n p o lic y a s " in d ep en d en t and a c tiv e:" W e ste r n n a tio n s te n d to h o ld th a t th e r e i s no m id d le p o s itio n fo r th e w e a k e r c o u n t r ie s, and th a t th e y m u s t c h o o s e b e tw e e n th e one b lo c o r th e o th e r.... T h e p o lic y o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia i s n o t on e o f n e u t r a lity, b e c a u s e i t i s n ot c o n s tr u c te d in r e f e r e n c e to b e llig e r e n t s t a t e s bu t fo r th e p u r p o se o f s tr e n g th e n in g and u p h o ld in g p e a c e. I n d o n e s ia p la y s no f a v o r it e s b e tw e e n th e tw o o p p o s e d b lo c s and fo llo w s i t s ow n p ath th ro u g h the v a r io u s in t e r n a t io n a l p r o b le m s. It t e r m s th is p o lic y " in d ep en d en t" and fu r th e r c h a r a c t e r iz e s i t b y d e s c r ib in g i t a s in d e p e n d e n t and " a c tiv e. " B y a c tiv e i s m e a n t th e e ffo r t to w o r k e n e r g e t ic a lly fo r th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f p e a c e and th e r e la x a t io n o f t e n s io n g e n e r a t e d by the tw o b lo c s, th ro u g h e n d e a v o r s s u p p o r te d i f p o s s i b le b y th e m a j o r it y o f th e m e m b e r s o f th e U n ited N a tio n s. * ^ 124 S u ltan S ja h r ir, I n d o n e s ia n S o c ia lis m (R angoon: A s ia n S o c ia lis t P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 2 9, q u o ted in ib id., pp. 5 4 - 5 5. 125 M o h a m m a d H a tta, " I n d o n e s ia 's F o r e ig n P o lic y, " F o r e ig n A ffa ir s X X X X (1 9 5 3 ), p. 4 4 4 and, in e s s e n c e, r e p e a te d in " In d o n esia B e tw e e n th e P o w e r B lo c s, " F o r e ig n A f f a ir s (A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 4 8 0 - 4 9 0. === [PDF page 194] === 187 T h e I n d o n e s ia n s v ie w a s th e m o s t fu n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m n o t th e c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n th e tw o m a jo r p o w e r b l o c s, bu t r a th e r th e s tr u g g le o f d e p e n d en t p e o p le s fo r lib e r a t io n fr o m " W estern " im p e r ia l is m and n e o c o lo n ia lis m. H o w e v e r, S u k a rn o c o n c lu d e d th at th e t h r e e - c a m p d o c tr in e p r e s e n t e d a d is t o r t e d v ie w o f th e in t e r n a t io n a l b a la n c e o f f o r c e s in th e w o r ld and th a t th e c o r r e c t v ie w o f th e w o r ld sh o u ld b e b a s e d on a d ic h o to m y b e tw e e n th e N e w E m e r g in g F o r c e s (N E F O S) and th e Old E s t a b lis h e d F o r c e s (O L D F O S- - o r N e c o lim: n e o c o lo n ia lis t s, c o l o n ia lis t s and im p e r i a l i s t s ). R e fe r r in g to A r n o ld T o y n b e e, S u k a rn o e x p la in e d th a t T o y n b e e h ad d iv id e d th e w o r ld in to tw o b l o c s, in d ic a tin g th a t on e b lo c w a s c o m p o s e d o f th e p e o p le w ho sto o d fo r the A m e r ic a n D e c la r a tio n o f In d e p e n d e n c e and th e o th e r o f th o s e w h o sto o d fo r th e C o m m u n ist M a n ife s to o f K a r l M a rx and F r e d e r ic h E n g e ls: A fte r r e a d in g T o y n b e e, I c o r r e c t e d h is a n a ly s is. T h e r e i s a n o th e r b lo c, n u m b e r t h r e e, w h ic h d o e s n o t sta n d b e h in d T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n, n o r b eh in d K a r l M a rx. N a m e ly th e b lo c o f s o m a n y A s ia n and A fr ic a n n a tio n s w h ic h s ta y on a n e u tr a l sta n d p o in t. N e u tr a l b e tw e e n th e A m e r ic a n and C o m m u n ist b lo c. T h e b lo c o f A s ia n and A fr ic a n n a tio n s, w h ic h la t e r b e c a m e th e b lo c o f A s ia n, A fr ic a n and L a tin A m e r ic a n n a tio n s. B u t a g a in, a ft e r p o n d e r in g o v e r th e m a t t e r, I c a m e to th e c o n c lu s io n th a t m y a n a ly s is o f th r e e b lo c s i s a g a in n o t v e r y c o r r e c t. T he w o r ld i s n o t d iv id e d in to th r e e b lo c s. I th in k i t i s b e t t e r to s a y th a t th e w o r ld i s d iv id e d in to tw o b l o c s, th e b lo c o f th e n e w e m e r g in g f o r c e s and th a t o f th e o ld e s t a b lis h e d f o r c e s. B y th e n e w e m e r g in g f o r c e s I m e a n a ll th e f o r c e s in the w o r ld w ho a r e fig h tin g fo r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a n ew w o r ld, w ith o u t i m p e r i a l i s m, w ith o u t c o lo n ia lis m, w ith out n e o - c o lo n i a lis m, w ith o u t c a p it a lis m, a n ew w o r ld w ith o u t === [PDF page 195] === 188 126 e x p lo ita tio n de l'h o m m e p a r l'h o m m e. W hat c a u s e d S u k a rn o to ch a n g e h is v ie w s? H e c la im e d th a t i t w a s th e c o n s is t e n t ly a n t i - p r o g r e s s i v e, i. e., a n ti-I n d o n e s ia n a ttitu d e ta k e n b y the " W est": L e t th e r e be a m o le h ill, th e y w ill m a k e a m o u n ta in of i t. L e t th e r e be a m o te in our e y e, i t i s a b e a m to t h e m - - a b e a m put th e r e " a c c id e n ta lly on p u r p o s e. " If th e r e i s a m o r e / s i c / d if fe r e n c e o f o p in io n a m o n g u s, th e y c r y h a v o c. If th e r e i s d r o u g h t o r flo o d and a bad h a r v e s t, th e y c r y e c o n o m ic c o r r u p tio n and m is m a n a g e m e n t. I f th e r e i s an a tte m p te d co u p, th e y h a v e th e w h o le c o u n tr y r is in g a g a in s t s o m e b la ta n t a c t of n e o - c o lo n i a l d o m in a tio n, th e y h a v e D utch h e a d s r o llin g in th e g u t t e r s, o f B r it is h w o m e n and c h ild r e n in p e r il o f th e ir l i v e s. A nd a lw a y s, a t a ll t i m e s, on a ll o c c a s io n s and a t e v e r y o p p o r tu n ity, th e y chant: C o m m u n is m, C o m m u n ism, C o m m u n is m, - - a l l i s C o m m u n ism. T h u s, c lo a k e d by th e a n ti-C o m m u n is t c r y and a fu r io u s s m o k e - s c r e e n o f a b u se and m is r e p r e s e n t a t io n and o u tr ig h t l i e s, th e f o r c e s o f th e o ld o r d e r in th e w o r ld fig h t to o th and c la w to m a in ta in th e ir v e s t e d p r iv ile g e s and to p r o te c t th e in t e r e s t s th e y c la im a s t h e ir s a s th ou gh b y d iv in e r ig h t. And in t h is w a y, th e d if f ic u lt ie s n a tu r a l to our s itu a tio n b e e n w illf u lly co m p o u n d ed b y r e a c t io n m a n y t im e s o v e r. W hat d id S u k arn o g iv e a s th e r e a s o n fo r th e O LD FO S' a tta c k s up on th e N EFO S? B e c a u s e "the n e c o lim f e a r I n d o n e s ia a s a f o r c e m o r e th a n th e y 128 do th e S o v ie t U n ion and i t s p a r t n e r s. " A b su r d? Of c o u r s e. An 126 S u k arn o, s p e e c h on th e o c c a s io n o f th e la y in g dow n o f th e f i r s t fo u n d a tio n s to n e o f th e P o l it ic a l V e n u e s o f th e C o n fe r e n c e o f N e w E m e r g in g F o r c e s (C O N E F O ), A p r il 19, 1 9 6 5, e x c e r p te d and q u o ted in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia (San F r a n c is c o: T h e C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, A p r il 3 0, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 2 - 4 (d itto ). 127 S u k a rn o, R e fle c tio n s Upon th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n, p. 8. 128 N ew s on In d ones ia (June 4, 1965), p. 1. === [PDF page 196] === 189 e x t r e m e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n? Of c o u r s e. H o w e v e r, i t i s w h a t th e In d o n e s ia n le a d e r s h ip b e lie v e d and h a d fa ith in, and i t p r o v id e d th e m w ith th e a s s u m p tio n s upon w h ic h th e ir r e a s o n in g d e p e n d ed. T he p o s itio n o f th e S o v ie t U n io n w ith in t h is d ic h o to m y w a s s o m e w h a t a m b ig u o u s. H o w e v e r, S u k a rn o h a s le f t no doubt a s to w h ic h s id e th e D e m o c r a t ic P e o p le 's R e p u b lic o f C hin a w a s on: In v ie w o f D r. S u b a n d r io 's ( F i r s t D ep u ty P r im e M in is t e r / F o r e ig n M in is te r ) v i s i t to C hin a, s o m e c o r r e s p o n d e n t s a s k e d m e: w h e th e r I n d o n e s ia 's w ith d r a w a l fr o m th e U n ited N a tio n s w a s fo r th e p u r p o s e o f s e t tin g up a S in o -I n d o n e s ia n B lo c o r a S in o -I n d o n e s ia n m il it a r y a llia n c e. I r e p lie d: G e n tle m e n, y o u s h o u ld --b u t r e a lly y o u do n o t - - u n d e r s t a n d the a im s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n and th e C h in e s e r e v o lu t io n s. One o f th e a im s of th e C h in e s e r e v o lu tio n i s to w ip e i m p e r ia li s m fr o m th e g lo b e, and th is i s a ls o on e o f th e g o a ls o f th e I n d o n e sia n r e v o lu tio n. A n o th er a im o f th e I n d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n i s to s e t up a n e w w o r ld w ith o u t e x p lo ita tio n o f m a n b y m a n o r n a tio n b y n a tio n, n o t m e r e l y to s e t up a n ew A s ia and a n e w A f r ic a. T he p r e a m b le o f our c o n s titu tio n s tip u la te s th at c o lo n ia l r u le s h o u ld b e u t t e r ly e lim in a te d w h e r e v e r i t e x i s t s. A r e t h e s e n o t e x a c t ly th e g o a ls o f th e r e v o lu tio n s o f I n d o n e s ia and C h in a? 1 2 9 S in c e th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, I n d o n e s ia 's f o r e ig n p o lic y o r ie n t a tio n a p p e a r s to h a v e r e v e r t e d h a c k to th e " In d ep en d en t b u t A c tiv e " a p p r o a c h c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e p e r io d b e tw e e n 1 9 4 9 -1 9 6 3. A s s ta te d b y an In d o n e s ia n p r o f e s s o r w r itin g in an I n d o n e s ia n jo u r n a l: Our fo r e ig n p o lic y i s an " in d ep en d en t and a c tiv e " p o lic y w h ic h i s a lo g ic a l s e q u e l o f o u r n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e. I t i s, b e s id e s b e in g a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m and a n t i - im p e r ia l is m - - w h ic h S u k a rn o, S p e e c h a t th e I d u lfitr i F e s t i v a l, e x c e r p te d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia (M a rch 5, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 - 3. === [PDF page 197] === 190 i s h i s t o r i c a l l y v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b le - - in th e f i r s t p la c e s tr iv in g fo r the im p r o v e m e n t o f ou r ow n n a tio n a l and p e o p le 's i n t e r e s t s and i s u lt im a t e ly a im e d a t w o r ld p e a c e. T h is im p lie s th a t, p r in c ip a lly, w e a r e n o t in th e l e a s t a g a in s t th e W e st a t a ll, e x c e p t th a t w e a r e a g a in s t any tr e n d o f c o lo n ia lis m and r a c ia l is m th a t m ig h t s t i l l b e fou n d in t h e ir p o li c i e s in A s ia, A fr ic a o r e ls e w h e r e. S e c o n d, th a t w e do n o t w an t in v o lv e d in th e c o ld w a r b e tw e e n " E a st" and " W est. " B y m i d - 1 9 6 6, S u k arn o h a d id e n t ifie d h im s e l f w ith th e s y m b o l o f an " In d ep en d en t and A c tiv e " f o r e ig n p o lic y. H o w e v e r, h is v ie w s on th e s u b s ta n c e o f su c h a p o lic y a r e v a g u e. He h a s s ta te d h i s p o s itio n a s fo llo w s: W e ll, now a b ou t in d e p e n d e n t and a c tiv e fo r e ig n p o lic y. I h a v e e x p la in e d i t m a n y t im e s n o t o n ly h e r e but a ls o a b r o a d, s e v e r a l t i m e s.... O nce w ith John F o s t e r D u lle s, I ta lk e d ab ou t w h a t i s in d e p e n d e n t and a c tiv e f o r e ig n p o lic y? In th o s e s p e e c h e s, in m y t a lk s w ith th o s e p e r s o n a lit ie s, and in m y s p e e c h e s h e r e in I n d o n e s ia, I s ta te d v e r y c l e a r ly th a t in d e p e n d e n t and a c t iv e d o e s n o t m e a n n e u t r a lis m; o n c e a g a in i t d o e s n o t m e a n n e u t r a lis m. I n d o n e s ia i s n e ith e r n e u tr a l to s o m e s y s t e m, n o r to s o m e p o li t ic s o f p e r s o n s in t h is w o r ld. In d e p e n d en t and a c t iv e m e a n s th a t I n d o n e s ia sta n d s e r e c t on c e r ta in p r in c ip le s, in d e p e n d e n t and a c tiv e w ith o u t a b an d on in g th e a ttitu d e b a s e d on t h o s e c e r t a in p r in c ip le s. T he p r in c ip le s i s... fig h tin g a g a in s t a ll i m p e r i a l i s t s and a l l c o lo n ia lis m a s i t i s w r itte n in th e P r e a m b le o f th e 1945 C o n s titu tio n. In th e U.S. I s a id th a t w ith an in d e p e n d e n t p o lic y I n d o n e s ia i s n ot s ittin g on th e f e n c e. B e c a u s e I s a id in d e p e n d e n t and a c t iv e. It i s n o t o n ly in d e p e n d e n t, in th e s e n s e o f n o t ta k in g the one o r th e o th e r s id e, but a c t iv e. In d ep en d en t and a c t iv e. A c tiv e m e a n s, y e a h, i f n e c e s s a r y, h e lp a han d h e r e, o r g iv e a b lo w th e r e. D o n 't e v e r th in k th a t in d e p e n d e n t and a c t iv e m e a n s, th a t I n d o n e s ia i s ju s t lik e a m a n w h o i s s ittin g on th e f e n c e, lo o k s a ro u n d a t e v e r y h a p p e n in g s, a s s u m in g th a t in d e p e n d e n t, i s ju s t lo o k in g a t it! N o! N o! I s a id th is i n th e h e a r t o f th e A m e r ic a n a d m in is tr a tio n. In d ep en d en t and a c t iv e " d o e s n o t m e a n th a t w e a r e s ittin g on th e fe n c e " w h ile lo o k in g a ro u n d. It m e a n s " s ittin g " on c e r ta in p r in c ip le s and fig h tin g a c tiv e a g a in s t e v e r y th in g w h ic h i s a g a in s t S u n a r io, "T he S ig n ific a n c e o f I n d o n e s ia 's R e v o lu tio n to th e W orld at L a r g e, " A m p e r a R e v ie w, N o. 8 (A u g u st 17, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 2 1. === [PDF page 198] === 191 our p r in c ip le s, and g iv in g a s s i s t a n c e w h e n e v e r i t i s in a c c o r d a n c e w ith o u r p r i n c ip le s. W e ll, I a s k n ow to th e M P R S m e m b e r s; t h is i s m y vision ^ ^ d m Y c o n v ic tio n b e tw e e n y o u and m e in th e fu tu r e. T h e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n o f I n d o n e s ia 1 s n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s a s c o m p le m e n ta r y w ith th o s e o f C o m m u n ist C hin a w a s e f f e c t iv e ly d e s tr o y e d b y th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 965. C o m m u n is t C hin a h a s b e e n in t im a t e ly a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e d e s p is e d o v e r s e a s C h in e s e p o p u la tio n in I n d o n e s ia. T he p r o b le m o f th e o v e r s e a s C h in e s e h a s b e e n a c o n s ta n t s o u r c e o f f r ic t io n b e tw e e n D ja k a r ta and P e k in g. T h e C o m m u n is t C h in e s e h a v e c la im e d th a t th e p r in c ip le o f ju s s a n g u in is a p p lie s to th e c it iz e n s h ip of a ll o v e r s e a s C h in e s e and th u s, th a t a l l o v e r s e a s C h in e s e a r e c it iz e n s o f th e D e m o c r a tic P e o p le s R ep u b l i c o f C hina. T h is h a s b e e n co m p o u n d ed by th e fa c t th a t th e C h in e se r e s id e n t in I n d o n e s ia e x e r c i s e d e x t e n s iv e c o n tr o l o v e r th e I n d o n e sia n d o m e s t ic e c o n o m y and w e r e r e s e n t e d b y m a n y n a t io n a lis t s b e c a u s e o f t h is. 1 3 2 In an a tte m p t to s e t t le th is p r o b le m, a S in o -I n d o n e s ia n N a tio n a lity A g r e e m e n t w a s s ig n e d on A p r il 2 2, 1 9 5 5, p r o v id in g th a t the o v e r s e a s C h in e s e in I n d o n e s ia w o u ld h a v e tw o y e a r s w ith in w h ic h to c h o o s e e ith e r 131 S u k a rn o, "M y H e a r t F e e l s G r e a tly R e lie v e d, " A m p e r a R e v ie w (J u ly 17, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 2 -1 3. 132 R e m e m b e r th a t th e S a r e k a t I s la m, w h en fo u n d ed in 1 9 1 1, w a s o r ig in a lly d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e e c o n o m ic p o s it io n o f th e C h in e se in I n d o n e s ia. === [PDF page 199] === 192 133 I n d o n e s ia n o r C o m m u n ist C h in e s e c it iz e n s h ip. H o w e v e r, t h is t r e a ty w a s n ot put in to e f f e c t u n til D e c e m b e r o f I 9 6 0 and b y t h is tim e t e n s io n b e tw e e n th e tw o n a tio n s h a d c o n s id e r a b ly i n c r e a s e d. On M ay 1 4, 1959» th e I n d o n e s ia n G o v e r n m e n t b a n n ed a l l a lie n s fr o m b u s in e s s a c t i v it i e s o u ts id e o f th e m a jo r c i t i e s and th e P e k in g g o v e r n m e n t c la im e d th a t th is d is c r im in a t io n w a s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e o v e r s e a s C h in e s e. A s a r e s u lt, th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e r n m e n t c h a r g e d th a t th e C h in e s e w e r e in t e r f e r r in g in 134 th e ir in t e r n a l a f f a ir s. B y M a rch 3 1, I 9 6 0, a la r g e n u m b e r o f th e C h in e s e in I n d o n e s ia 135 w e r e r e p a tr ia te d to th e C h in e s e M a in la n d, and t h is, c o m b in e d w ith w h a t a p p e a r e d to be S u k a r n o 's d e s i r e to a v o id fu r th e r i n c r e a s e in t e n s io n, s e e m e d to s m o o th o v e r Si n o -I n d o n e s ia n f r ic t io n. B y 1 9 6 5, H atta w a s c o n te n d in g th a t th e r e w e r e no lo n g e r a n y C h in e s e r e s id e n t s in I n d o n e sia; o n ly I n d o n e s ia n s o f C h in e s e d e s c e n t. H o w e v e r, th e m o b v io le n c e b ro u g h t to th e s u r fa c e I n d o n e s ia n a n t i- C h in e s e s e n tim e n t. A s s ta te d by th e D ep u ty P r e m ie r fo r P o l i t i c a l I n s t it u t e s, R u s la n A b d u lg a n i, th e I n d o n e s ia n 133 R u s s e ll H. F i f ie ld, S o u th e a s t A s ia in U n ited S ta te s P o l i c y (N ew Y ork; F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 5 2, and R o b e r t G. B o y d, C o m m u n is t C h in a 's F o r e ig n P o l i c y (N ew Y ork; F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2 ), 134 R u s s e ll H. F i f ie ld, S o u th e a s t A s ia in U n ited S ta te s P o lic y and R o b e r t G. B o y d, op. c i t., p. 8. 135 T h e r e p o r te d n u m b e r o f th o s e r e p a tr ia te d v a r i e s. R u s s e ll H, F i f ie ld, l o c. c i t., c la im s th a t s e v e n th o u sa n d C h in e se w e r e r e p a tr ia te d, w h ile E d g a r Snow, T he O th e r S id e o f the R iv e r (N ew Y ork; R and om H o u se, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 4 9 5 - 4 9 7, p u ts th e fig u r e a t " m o r e th an one h a lf m il lio n." === [PDF page 200] === 193 g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n, in 1 9 6 6, to ta k e th e fo llo w in g s t e p s w ith reg a rd, to th e o v e r s e a s C h in e s e: 1. R e g is t e r in g a n ew and w ith th e u t m o s t c a r e a ll f o r e ig n e r s in I n d o n e s ia w ith in th e s h o r t e s t p o s s ib le t im e. It w ill e v e n tr y to c o m p le te th is r e - r e g i s t r a t i o n w ith in on e m o n th. 2. T he G o v e r n m e n t i s ta k in g s t e p s to d is c ip lin e o r g a n iz a tio n fo r a ll fo r e ig n C h in e s e, so th e y w ill a ll h a v e to b e lo n g to on e o r g a n iz a tio n, u n d er s u p e r v is io n o f th e G o v e r n m e n t. 3. T h e G o v e r n m e n t i s ta k in g s t e p s to d is c ip lin e a ll o r g a n iz a tio n s o f a r a c ia l ly e x c lu s i v e n a tu r e w ith in th e m a in b o d y o f th e I n d o n e s ia n P o p u la tio n and r e o r g a n iz e th e m s o a s to r e d u c e th e ir n u m b e r, i f p o s s ib le to w e ld th e m in to on e s in g le o r g a n iz a tio n u n d e r th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e I n s titu te fo r M a in ta in in g N a tio n a l U n ific a tio n and U n ity. 4. T he G o v e r n m e n t i s ta k in g s t e p s to im p r o v e in th e m o s t r ig o r o u s lim it a t io n s u p on th e r o le o f f o r e ig n f a c tio n s in th e f ie ld o f e c o n o m ic s, e d u c a tio n, in s t r u c t io n and c u ltu r e, to th e e x te n t o f e v e n c o n s id e r in g the c lo s in g dow n o f fo r e ig n s c h o o ls, in th e f i r s t g la c e f^ g C h in e s e, w h ic h w ill be a c tu a lly c a r r ie d ou t /_sic_/. T h is i s s u p p o s e d ly n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e: T he p e o p le o f C h in e se d e s c e n t s t i l l fo r m a p r o b le m th a t n e e d e s t / s i c / o u r f u l l e s t a tte n tio n and a l e r t n e s s. N o t o n ly b e c a u s e th e y a r e m a n y in n u m b e r, but a l s o b e c a u s e th e ir c o u n tr y o f o r ig in h a s s p lit in to P e k in g and T a iw a n, and b e c a u s e P e k in g to d a y, w ith i t s d o g m a tic id e o lo g y o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m o r "the th ou g h t o f M ao T s e T u n g " --th e te a c h in g s o f M ao T s e T u n g - - p la y a r o le in in te r n a tio n a l w o r ld a f f a ir s. T h a t i s m o s t a la r m in g, to s a y th e l e a s t, n o t o n ly fo r th e W e ste r n S t a t e s, bu t a ls o f o r th e U. S. S. R. and E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s, ^ 7 and h a s e v e n d is tu r b e d i t s r e la t io n w ith th e A f r o - A s ia n n a tio n s. A s a r e s u lt, v io le n c e w a s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t C h in e s e d ip lo m a ts and c o m m e r c i a l p e r s o n n e l a s w e ll. 136 R u s la n A b d u lg a n i, " T he I n s titu te fo r M a in ta in in g the U n ity o f th e N a tio n, " A m p e r a R e v ie w, N o. 6 (June 17, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 2 4. 137 I b i d., p. 23. === [PDF page 201] === 194 A s a r e s u lt, v io le n c e w a s d ir e c t e d a g a in s t C h in e s e d ip lo m a tic and c o m m e r c ia l p e r s o n n e l a s w e ll. A n o th er c a u s e fo r r e s e n tm e n t w a s th e C o m m u n ist C h in e se E m b a s s y 's r e f u s a l to f ly th e ir fla g a t h a lf m a s t fo llo w in g th e d e a th s o f s e v e n a r m y o f f ic e r s d u rin g th e "coup" and th is r e s u lt e d in a tta c k s by y o u th s on th e E m b a s s y. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e, p o li t ic a l r e la t io n s b e tw e e n 138 C o m m u n is t C hina and I n d o n e s ia r a p id ly d e te r io r a t e d. H ow ever, th o s e w ho a s s u m e th a t an a n t i-C h in e s e C o m m u n ist s ta n c e m e a n s a " p r o - W e ster n " a ttitu d e ough t to ta k e n o te o f th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t b y the I n d o n e s ia n P r o f e s s o r S u n a rio: I t w o u ld, h o w e v e r, b e a fa ta l m is t a k e, to a s s u m e, a s i f w ith th e c r u s h in g o f th e cou p w e in te n d e d to s w itc h o v e r o u r p o lic y to w a r d a " p r o -W e st" and "pro th e W e ste r n B lo c k " a ttitu d e. O nce a g a in, ou r n o n -a lig n m e n t m u s t b e ta k e n a s th e lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f ou r n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e, so th a t a ll ou r a c tio n s in in t e r n a t io n a l f ie ld sh o u ld b e in t e r p r e t e d on 139 t h is b a s ic id e a. T he c o u n tr y w h ic h h ad p r o b a b ly rea p ed th e m a jo r im m e d ia te b e n e fit s o f th e e v e n ts in I n d o n e s ia w a s th e S o v ie t U n ion. It w a s, a fte r a ll, th e S o v ie t U n ion w h ic h h ad ta k e n p o s it io n s in o p p o s itio n to b oth C o m m u n ist C hin a and A m e r ic a n " I m p e r ia lis m. " A d d itio n a lly, i t i s th e p r in c ip a l 138 E. g., "C hina L o d g e s S tro n g P r o t e s t w ith I n d o n e sia n G o v e r n m en t"; " H sinh ua S ta te m e n t C o n c e r n in g I n d o n e s ia n A r m y P a p e r 's A n ti- C hin a F a b r ic a tio n "; "Sudden, D r a s t ic C h a n g es in In d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c a l S itu a tio n "; and " R en m in R ib ao P u b lis h e s M a te r ia ls On C u r r e n t P o l it ic a l S itu a tio n in I n d o n e s ia, " a ll in P e k in g R e v ie w, 43 (O cto b er 2 2, 19 6 5 ), Sunario, l o c. cit. === [PDF page 202] === 195 f o r e ig n s u p p lie r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n A r m y. T he C h in e s e C o m m u n is ts s u g g e s t e d th is t h e m s e lv e s w h en th e y c r i t i c i z e d th e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t fo r th e ir a p p a r e n t su p p o rt o f th e M ilita r y G o v e r n m e n t in In d o n e sia; a c c u s in g th e m o f c h a r a c t e r iz in g th e S e p te m b e r 30 m o v e m e n t a s a " r e b e llio n " 140 and L t. - C o l. U ntung a s a r e b e l. S u k a rn o ’ s c o n c e p tio n o f G uided D e m o c r a c y, b a s e d on a c o a litio n o f p o w e r fu l but o p p o se d g r o u p s, w a s an a tte m p t to d e v e lo p u n ity b y c o m p r o m is e. It i s tr u e th at t h is c o m p r o m is e w a s b a s e d on an a c c e p ta n c e o f c e r t a in n a r r o w and c le a r ly d e lin e a te d id e o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s w h ic h c a r r ie d w ith th e m th e b a s e s o f a to t a lita r ia n p o lit ic a l s y s t e m. D o e s th is m e a n th en th a t th e s e c u la r id e o lo g y o f I n d o n e sia r e s u lt e d in a to t a lit a r ia n p o lit ic a l s y s t e m? In d r a w in g a d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n a u t o c r a c y and t o t a lit a r ia n is m, H a r r y E c k s t e in and D a v id A p te r co n ten d th a t " to t a lita r ia n is m i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a v i s i o n o f to ta l s o c i a l c o o r d in a tio n and a h ig h d e g r e e o f 141 s u c c e s s in b r in g in g i t a b o u t. " It i s c le a r by w h a t h a s b e e n d e ta ile d a b o v e th at S u k a r n o 's a tte m p te d s y n d ic a lis t r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e p o lit ic a l s y s t e m c o n ta in s th e n e c e s s a r y " v is io n. " It w a s an a tte m p t to d e v e lo p, r a p id ly and a r t if ic a lly, a s tr o n g f e e lin g o f c o m m u n ity in a ll f i e l d s. 140 "Sudden, D r a s t ic C h a n g es in In d o n e s ia n P o l it ic a l S itu a tio n, " pp. 1 1 -12. 141 H a r r y E c k s t e in and D a v id A p te r ( e d s. ), C o m p a r a tiv e P o l it i c s (G len co e: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 4 3 8. === [PDF page 203] === 196 H o w e v e r, i t w a s n o t to t a lita r ia n p r im a r ily b e c a u s e th e s u c c e s s f u l im p le m e n ta tio n o f su c h a s y s t e m w a s d if fic u lt, i f n o t im p o s s i b l e, d u rin g th at s ta g e o f I n d o n e s ia 1 s n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. A lth o u g h one m a y " o u t law " d is s id e n t p o lit ic a l g r o u p s and q u e ll o u te r is la n d r e b e ll i o n s, w ith o u t the m a in te n a n c e o f a " r e ig n o f t e r r o r " a n d /o r w ith o u t a h ig h ly e f f ic ie n t and w id e ly e x te n d e d and c e n t r a liz e d a d m in is tr a tiv e s y s t e m, one c o u ld n ot m a in ta in a to t a lita r ia n s y s t e m. T he I n d o n e s ia n p o li t ic a l s y s t e m h a s b e e n n o ta b ly la c k in g in b oth o f t h e s e f a c t o r s. H o w e v e r, o n e sh o u ld r e - e m p h a s iz e th e fa c t th a t th e " to ta lita r ia n v is io n " i s e m b o d ie d w ith in the o f f ic ia l id e o lo g y. T h is h a d b e e n sh ow n b y S u k a r n o 's c o n c e r n w ith r e la t iv e l y t r i v i a l m a t te r s; e. g., th e o u t la w in g o f B e a t le s t y le h a ir c u ts and th e e x p lic it m ix in g o f r e v o lu tio n a r y p o li t ic s w ith s p o r ts a c t i v i t i e s. T h e li m i t s p la c e d on t o t a lit a r ia n is m th en a r e l i m i t s im p o s e d b y th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s and an y g ro u p a tte m p tin g to im p o s e a to t a lita r ia n s y s t e m w o u ld b e s u b je c t to s im ila r lim it a t io n s. Su karno h a s s ta te d th at: " P a k B a n d r io h a s c le a r ly s a id th a t s p o r ts ca n n o t b e s e p a r a te d fr o m p o li t ic s. " S p e e c h by S u k a rn o, F e b r u a r y 12, 1 9 6 3, b e fo r e th e C o n fe r e n c e o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t C o m m it t e e, q u o ted in E w a T. P a u k e r, "G A N E FO I: S p o r ts and P o l i t i c s in D ja k a r ta, " A s ia n S u r v e y V (A p r il, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 17 3. === [PDF page 204] === 197 C h a p ter 4: T he I n d e p e n d e n c e o f th e P a r ta i K o m u n is I n d o n e s ia (PKI) In th e ir a tte m p t to s ta y w ith in th e la w, th e PK I c o n s titu tio n, a s o f A p r il, 1 9 6 2, c o n ta in s p r o v is io n s p r o c la im in g i t s a d h e r e n c e to th e P a n tja S ila (in c lu d in g th e b e lie f in one God) and th e c o n c e p t o f a g o to n g -r o jo n g (m u tu a l c o o p e r a tio n ) d e m o c r a c y. T h e s e a d ju s tm e n ts to th e o f f ic ia l s e c u la r id e o lo g y o f I n d o n e s ia h ad a ll b e e n p a r t o f D ip a N u s a n ta r a A id it1s a tte m p t to " I n d o n e s ia n iz e M a r x is m - L e n in is m." A lth o u g h r e c e n t e v e n ts m a y te n d to in d ic a te th e c o n tr a r y, th e PK I h a d b e e n s u c c e s s f u l in f o s t e r in g i t s n a t io n a lis t ic id e n tity am o n g s ig n ific a n t p o r tio n s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p o p u la c e. In D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 1, A id it to ld th e PKI C e n tr a l C o m m itte e: A b o v e a ll e l s e n a tio n a l u n ity! In c a r r y in g out our n a tio n a l s tr u g g le w e m u s t h o ld f ir m ly to th e b a s ic p r in c ip le: p la c e th e i n t e r e s t s o f c l a s s and o f th e p a r ty b e lo w th e n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t, th a t i s, p la c e th e n a t io n ^ l^ n te r e s t a b o v e th e i n t e r e s t s o f c l a s s and o f th e p a r ty. A g a in, in S e p te m b e r o f 1 963, he to ld a g r o u p o f C h in e s e C o m m u n is ts: In o r d e r th a t th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le ’ s r e v o lu tio n m a y b e v ic t o r io u s, th e PK I m u s t id e n t ify i t s e l f c o m p le te ly w ith th e p e o p le and m u s t f u lly in t e g r a t e th e u n iv e r s a l tr u th o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m w ith the c o n c r e t e p r a c t ic e o f th e In d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n, o r in o th e r w o r d s, i t m u s t " I n d o n e sia n iz e " M a r x is m - L e n in is m. O nly in th is w a y can th e PK I b r in g abou t D. N. A id it, P e r k u a t P e r s a t u a n N a s io n a l dan P e r s a t u a n K o m u n is! /S tr e n g t h e n N a tio n a l U n ity and C o m m u n ist U n ity 17 (D ja k a rta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 1 7, 2 6. Q u oted in H in d le y, T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, p. 2 8 6. === [PDF page 205] === 198 a h a r m o n io u s in t e g r a tio n o f s o c i a l i s t p a t r io t is m w ith s o c i a l i s t in te r n a ti o n a li s m. In o r d e r to c o m p le te ly id e n t ify i t s e l f w ith th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le and th e ir r e v o lu tio n, th e PK I m u s t f ir m ly and c o n s i s te n tly r a i s e h ig h th e b a n n er o f I n d e p e n d e n c e, m u s t h a v e c o n fid e n c e in i t s ow n s tr e n g th, b e a d ep t and b r a v e in d r a w in g up and c a r r y in g out i t s ow n s t r a t e g i c, p o lit ic a l, t a c t ic a l and o r g a n iz a tio n a l l i n e s. O nly in t h is w a y c a n th e PK I r e t a in i t s c r e a t iv e n e s s and i t s v it a lit y, m a k in g i t p o s s ib le fo r th e m a s s e s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le to lo o k up to i t i n c r e a s in g ly and p r o te c t i t a s th e ir ow n and n o t s o m e th in g f o r e ig n. O nly th u s ca n th e PK I le a d th e Indone^s|^n r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t fo r w a r d and e n s u r e i t s v ic t o r y. I t w a s, o f c o u r s e, tr u e th at ad a p tin g th e p r o g r a m o f th e PK I to th a t o f th e o f f ic ia l s t a t e id e o lo g y w a s r e la t iv e ly e a s y g iv e n th e r a d ic a l and 145 g e n e r a liz e d s u b s ta n tiv e n a tu r e o f b oth. H o w e v e r, a s D on ald H in d le y h ad in d ic a te d p r io r to th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1965: A p a r ty c o u ld s t i l l b e b a n n ed w h ic h a im s a t C o m m u n is m, in s t e a d o f s o c i a l i s m - o n - th e - I n d o n e s ia n -p la n, and w h ic h c o n te n d s th at th e C o m m u n ist m a d iu n r e b e llio n o f 1948 w a s a p a t r io t ic a c t o f s e l f - d e f e n s e. 144 D. N. A id it, "T he In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n i s an I n s e p a r a b le P a r t o f th e W orld S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n, " pp. 1 2 9 -1 3 0. It m ig h t a ls o be i n t e r e s t in g to n o te in p a s s in g, th a t in the p o li t ic a l r e p o r t to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e PK I in F e b r u a r y o f 1 9 6 3,.Aidit j u s t if ie d h is r e m a r k s w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e fo llo w in g p e r s o n s on th e n u m b e r o f o c c a s io n s in d ic a te d fo llo w in g th e ir n a m e s: K a r l M a r x (0); V. I. L e n in (0); J o s e p h S ta lin (0); M ao T s e -T u n g (0); N ik ita K r u s h c h e v (3), a ll w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e I9 6 0 M o s c o w s ta te m e n t and S u k arn o (2 8 ). D a r e, D a r e, and D a re A g a in!, p a s s i m. 145 C. f. J u s tu s M. v a n d er K r o e f, " In d o n esia: T he M y stiq u e o f P e r m a n e n t R e v o lu tio n. " D onald H in d ley, " P r e sid e n t Sukarno and the C o m m u n ists: The P o lit ic s o f D o m e s t ic a tio n,11 p. 921. === [PDF page 206] === 199 A lth o u g h th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a C o m m u n ism w h ic h i s " I n d o n e sia n - 147 iz e d " and s o c i a l i s m a la I n d o n e s ia i s p r im a r ily d e fin itio n a l r a th e r th an s u b s ta n tia l, th e PK I h ad b e e n g u ilty o f c o m m ittin g b o th o f th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d s in s. 147 " I n d o n e s ia n iz in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m " i s A id it’ s p h r a s e. E.g. D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in! P o l i t i c a l r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d on F e b r u a r y 10, 1 9 6 3, to th e f i r s t P le n a r y S e s s io n o f th e S e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty of I n d o n e s ia (P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 6 8 -6 9; " T h e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n i s an I n s e p a r a b le P a r t o f th e W orld S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n, " r e p o r t d e liv e r e d a t th e P a r ty S c h o o l o f th e K w angtung P r o v in c ia l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f C hina on S e p te m b e r 2 5, 1 9 6 3, in T h e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 129; 130 and S e t A fir e the B a n te n g S p i r i t! E v e r F o r w a r d N o R e t r e a t, P o l it ic a l R e p o r t p r e s e n t e d D e c e m b e r 2 2 - 2 6, 1 9 6 3, to th e S e c o n d P le n u m o f th e S e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia (P ek in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 117. 148 T he PK I d o e s n o t c o n s id e r th e M adiun r e b e llio n a s a r e v o lt a g a in s t th e n a t io n a lis t m o v e m e n t, bu t r a th e r a s a d e f e n s iv e a c tio n ta k e n in th e fa c e o f c o u n t e r - r e v o lu t io n a r y t r e a c h e r y. In the o r ig in a l "W hite P a p e r " on th e M adiun A ffa ir p u b lis h e d by th e PK I a s an a r t ic le by M ir a d s i in B in ta n g M e r a h VII (no. 1 2 /1 3 ), 1951 (c ite d in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m a d, M a rx and M a r h a e n, p. 146) b o th H a tta and S u k a rn o a r e h e ld r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e PK I. H o w e v e r, S u k arn o i s p u r p o r te d to h a v e a c te d on f a l s e in fo r m a tio n su p p lie d h im by T a n M a la k a and h is f o ll o w e r s. H o w e v e r, S u k a rn o ’ s a c c o u n ta b ility w a s so o n r e d u c e d to z e r o, H a tta th u s g a in in g a ll of th e b la m e, e. g. D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in?, p. 77; "T he In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, " r e p o r t d e liv e r e d a t th e h ig h e r p a r ty s c h o o l o f the C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f C hina on S e p te m b e r 2, 1 9 6 3, in T he I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f the C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, p. 7 and " Som e Q u e s tio n s C o n c e rn in g th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, " R e p o r t d e liv e r e d a t a m a s s r a lly in P e k in g on S e p te m b e r 4, 1 9 6 3, ib id., pp. 6 3 - 6 4. === [PDF page 207] === 201 d ir e c t ly to th e e f f e c t s o f th e S in o - S o v ie t d is p u te and th e p o s itio n o f th e PK I w a s m a d e c le a r: On th is o c c a s io n, I s h o u ld o n ly lik e to s t r e s s a fe w p o in t s, in p a r tic u la r r e g a r d in g th e n e c e s s i t y f o r u s e v e n m o r e f ir m ly to d e fe n d th e a ttitu d e o f in d e p e n d e n c e and e q u a lity o r e q u a l r ig h t s in r e la t io n s h ip w ith o th e r c o m m u n is t and W o r k e r s P a r tie s. T h e d o m e s t ic r e a c t i o n a r i e s, fr o m D a r u l I s la m e le m e n t s to th e b u r e a u c r a t c a p i t a l i s t s, in t h e ir a tte m p t to " d e n y ” th at th e PK I ta k e s an in d e p e n d e n t s ta n d, a r e fo n d o f s a y in g th at "the PK I i s n o t c r i t i c a l to w a r d s M o sc o w " th a t "the PK I t r a i l s b e h in d P e k in g, " bu t t o g e th e r w ith t h is, th e y a ls o s a y th a t th e PKI h a s a lr e a d y b e c o m e " n a tio n a lis t" a n d s o o n. T h e y h a v e g o t t h e m s e lv e s a ll m ix e d up. We h a v e d ra w n th e c o n c lu s io n th a t th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t i s n ow e x p e r ie n c in g a p r o c e s s o f s e l e c tio n, c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n and c o n s o lid a t io n and th a t t h e r e a r e to d a y in th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t fo u r ty p e s o f C o m m u n is t an d W o r k e r s 1 P a r t i e s n a m e ly: 1) M a r x is t - L e n in is t P a r t ie s; 2) P a r t i e s w h o s e le a d e r s h i p s a r e c o n t r o lle d by r e v i s i o n i s t s b u t w ith in th e m th e r e i s a M a r x is t - L e n in is t o p p o sitio n; 3) P a r t i e s w h ic h a r e c o m p le t e ly c o n t r o lle d b y th e r e v i s i o n i s t s and M a r x is t - L e n i n is t s w ho h a v e b e e n e x p e lle d h a v e s e t up M a r x is t - L e n i n is t c i r c l e s; and 4) P a r t i e s w h ic h a r e c o m p le t e ly c o n t r o lle d b y th e r e v i s i o n i s t s and b e s id e s w h ic h th e r e i s a lr e a d y a n e w C o m m u n is t P a r ty. Our p a r ty i s o f th e f i r s t ty p e. H ence: W h ile w a itin g fo r a s u ita b le m o m e n t to c o n v e n e an in t e r n a t io n a l m e e t in g o f C o m m u n is t and W o r k e r s' P a r t i e s, th e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f I n d o n e s ia w ill c o n tin u e to s tr u g g le a g a in s t r e v is io n is m b y u n fu r lin g th e s ix b a n n e r s, n a m e ly; 1) the b a n n e r o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m a g a in s t r e v is io n is m; 2) th e b a n n e r o f r e v o lu tio n a g a in s t c a p itu la tio n; 3) th e b a n n e r o f c o n c r e t e p e a c e a g a in s t a b s t r a c t p e a c e; 4) th e b a n n e r of p r o le t a r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m a g a in s t g r e a t - n a t io n e g o is m; 5) th e b a n n e r o f u n ity a g a in s t s p litt in g; and 6) th e b a n n e r of r e v o lu tio n a r y o p t im is m a g a in s t p e s s i m i s m. === [PDF page 208] === 200 W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e d is p u te b e tw e e n th e C P SU and th e C P C, the PK I to o k a c a u tio u s p o s itio n u n til a p p r o x im a te ly D e c e m b e r o f 1 9 6 3. F o r e x a m p le, in F e b r u a r y o f 1 9 6 3, A id it w r o te: T h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p le w h o, b e c a u s e o f th e f a c t th a t w e do n o t w a n t to ta k e p a r t in a ll th is c o m m o tio n in th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t, a c c u s e u s o f n o t w a n tin g to s o lv e m a t t e r s o f p r in c ip le in a M a r x is t - L e n in is t w a y. T h is i s to o f a r - f e t c h e d. T he im p e r i a l i s t s a r e a ls o tr y in g to p r o v o k e u s in to jo in in g in th e c o m m o tio n. A s la te a s O c to b e r 5, 1 9 6 3, h e w a s to w r ite: /t h e P K I/ w ill h a v e th e a ttitu d e o f b e in g a s p a tie n t a s p o s s ib le, a s o b je c tiv e a s p o s s ib le, and a s to le r a n t a s p o s s ib le in s e e k in g an end to th e d if f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n in th e i n t e r n a tio n a l c o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t.... * W ith r e f e r e n c e to the c r i t e r i a fo r C o m m u n ist P a r ty a ff ilia tio n, th e P K I1s o f f ic ia l p o s it io n w a s th e g e n e r a liz e d on e of: L o y a lty in p r a c t ic e to th e /M o s c o w / d e c la r a t io n / o f 1 9 5 7 / and s ta te m e n t / o f 1960 / i s th e m a in y a r d s t ic k o f a C o m m u n ist p a r ty. 151 H o w e v e r, i t i s p e r f e c t ly c le a r th a t th e I9 6 0 M o sc o w s ta te m e n t i s s e l f c o n tr a d ic to r y, a s e v id e n c e d b y th e d iffe r in g in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f th e s t a t e m e n t i s s u e d b y th e C h in e s e and S o v ie t C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s. H o w e v e r, in h is p o li t ic a l r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e PK I b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r 22 and 2 6, 1 9 6 3, A id it a d d r e s s e d h im s e lf 149 D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in!, pp. 6 2 - 6 3. 150 H a r ia h R a k ja t, O c to b e r 5, 1 9 6 3. 151 D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e and D a r e A g a in!, p. 60. === [PDF page 209] === 202 U n fu rlin g t h e s e s i x b a n n e r s m e a n s; 1) w e a r e fa ith fu l in w o r d s and in d e e d s to M a r x is m - L e n in is m and p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a lis m, to th e r e v o lu tio n a r y p r in c ip le s o f th e D e c la r a tio n and th e S ta te m e n t; 2) We a r e s e r io u s a b ou t th e t a s k o f c o m p le tin g th e w o r ld r e v o lu tio n in i t s e n t ir e t y, le a d in g to a c l a s s l e s s s o c ie t y; 3) w e d r a w to g e th e r a ll p r o g r e s s iv e f o r c e s a s th e c o r e o f a m ig h ty p e a c e m o v e m e n t a g a in s t th e i m p e r i a l i s t s, in p a r tic u la r th e U n ited S ta te s i m p e r i a l i s t s w h o a r e th e m a in b u lw a r k o f a g g r e s s io n and w a r; 4) w e r e j e c t th e b ig s t ic k o f an y s ta te o r p a r ty and d e fe n d th e p r in c ip le s o f in d e p e n d e n c e and e q u a lity in th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t; 5) w e p r e s e r v e u n ity in th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t b y g iv in g f i r s t p la c e to r e a l u n ity b a s e d on th e p r in c ip le s o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m and 6) w e o p p o se d e m o r a liz a tio n in th e in t e r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t a s a r e s u lt o f th e s p lit th a t h a s b e e n c a u s e d b y r e v is io n is m. And th u s: In c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s tr u g g le fo r n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e, t h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p le w ho in c e s s a n t l y p r o c la im th a t th is s tr u g g le ca n n o t be s u c c e s s f u l w ith o u t th e h e lp o f th e S o c i a l is t c o u n t r ie s. T h e p u r p o s e in d o in g th is i s to e n s u r e th a t th e C o m m u n is ts w h o a r e fig h tin g fo r n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e sh o u ld n o t d a r e to g iv e e x p r e s s io n to any o p in io n th a t d if f e r s fr o m th e o f f ic ia l sta n d p o in t o f a c e r t a in S o c ia lis t c o u n tr y f o r, w e r e th e y to d a r e to do s o, th e y w o u ld n o t g e t any h e lp and th e y w o u ld n o t b e v ic t o r io u s. It i s b e c a u s e o f th is fo r m o f p o lit ic a l b la c k m a il th a t ou r p a r ty n e e d s to s t r e s s m o r e s tr o n g ly th an e v e r a th in g th e tru th o f w h ic h i s v e r if i e d by d ia le c t ic a l m a t e r ia lis m and w h ic h h a s a lr e a d y b e e n p r o v e n b y L e n in. We m u s t s t r e s s th a t i t i s th e in t e r n a l f a c to r th a t c a u s e s a q u a lita tiv e c h a n g e to ta k e p la c e in a n y th in g, w h ile th e r o le of th e e x t e r n a l fa c to r i s o n ly o f a s u p p le m e n ta r y n a tu r e. A s fo r th e ’’c e r ta in S o c i a l i s t c o u n tr y, " th e r e i s no doubt th a t th e r e f e r e n c e w a s to th e S o v ie t U nion. 152 D. N. A id it, S et A fir e the B anteng S p irit! E v er F o rw a rd, No R e t r e a t, pp. 113, 1 1 5 -1 1 6, 114, 121, 98. === [PDF page 210] === T he S o v ie t U nion’ s p o s itio n a s r e g a r d s th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e e x te r n a l f a c t o r s and th e in t e r n a l f a c t o r s i s j u s t th e r e v e r s e o f th e P K I1s. S o v ie t t h e o r e t ic ia n s c la im th a t th e p o s s i b ilit y o f a c h ie v in g a " n o n -c a p ita lis t " c o u r s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t d e p e n d s upon th e e x is t e n c e o f a s o c i a l i s t w o r ld s y s t e m w illin g and a b le to a id th o s e a tte m p tin g su c h 153 a d e v e lo p m e n t. T he typ e o f su p p o rt th e S o v ie t U nion h a s in m in d i s e s s e n t i a l l y e c o n o m ic. T he S o v ie t te x tb o o k, F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m, in d ic a t e s t h is c le a r ly: T he s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s h a v e r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f h e lp in g th e A s ia n, A fr ic a n and L a tin A m e r ic a n c o u n t r ie s to d e v e lo p th e ir in d e p e n d e n t n a tio n a l e c o n o m y. B e in g w e ll a w a r e th at the w a y to c o n s o lid a te in d e p e n d e n c e i s th ro u g h in d u s t r ia liz a tio n and th a t i t i s in th is r e s p e c t th a t th e lib e r a t e d c o u n tr ie s a r e m o s t in n e e d o f s u p p o r t, th e S o v ie t U nion and o th e r s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s o r g a n is e e c o n o m ic c o - o p e r a t io n w ith th em on th e se lin e s. T he e r r o r in th e S o v ie t a p p r o a c h, a c c o r d in g to A id it, l i e s in th e fa c t th a t th e y e m p h a s iz e th e e c o n o m ic a s p e c t s of c h a n g e, r a th e r th an th e p o lit ic a l. A id it h a s t e r m e d th is f a ll a c io u s a p p r o a c h " M o d ern E c o n o m is m: T h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p le w ho s a y th a t w h a t a n e w ly in d e p en d en t c o u n try n e e d s in o r d e r to a c h ie v e S o c ia lis m i s e c o n o m ic a s s i s t a n c e. T h e y s a y th a t, w ith th e e c o n o m ic aid fr o m th e S o c ia lis t c a m p, th e n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r ie s in A s ia and A fr ic a w ill be a b le to m a k e th e t r a n s it io n to A. Y u r c h e n k o, " S o v iet P la n s fo r th e F u tu r e o f F o r m e r C o lo n ie s, B u lle tin, I n s titu te fo r th e Study o f th e U. S. S. R. IX (J u n e, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 3 4. Y u rch en k o r e f e r s to tw o S o v ie t jo u r n a l a r t i c l e s to s u b s ta n tia te th is v ie w: 1) E. P a n filo v, P o lit ic h e s k o e S a m o o b r a z o v a n ie N o. 6 (1 9 6 1 ), pp. 6 5 -6 6; and 2) A z iy a i A fr ik a S e g o d n y a N o. 11 (1 9 6 1 ), p. 11. 154 F u n d am en tals of M a r x is m -L e n in ism (M oscow: F o r e ig n L an g u a g es P u b lish in g H o u se, 1963). === [PDF page 211] === 204 S o c ia lis m. T h e r e f o r e, a b o v e a ll e l s e th e r e m u s t be " p e a c e " in th e w o r ld so th a t th e S o c ia lis t c o u n t r ie s can w in in th e e c o n o m ic c o m p e titio n w ith th e c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s.... T h is i s th e v ie w p o in t o f m o d e r n e c o n o m is m in th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t, a v ie w p o in t w h ic h b a s e s i t s e l f on th e sta n d th a t e c o n o m ic s and n ot p o li t ic s d e t e r m in e s e v e r y th in g, a v ie w p o in t w h ic h e m a s c u la t e s and u n d e r r a te s th e r o le o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y s tr u g g le o f th e p e o p le. T he v ie w p o in t o f m o d e r n e c o n o m is m a ls o m a n if e s t s i t s e l f in th e id e a o f s o m e p e o p le th a t th e n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r ie s w i l l m a k e th e t r a n s it io n to S o c ia lis m b e c a u s e th e y a r e e n c o u r a g e d b y th e e x a m p le o f s o c i a l i s t c o n s t r u c tio n in th e S o c ia lis t c o u n t r ie s. A c c o r d in g to t h is v ie w, e v e n th ou gh a c o u n try i s le d b y th e b ig b o u r g e o is ie, su c h a s In d ia a t th e p r e s e n t t im e, i t i s p o s s ib le fo r S o c ia lis m to b e b u ilt.... C la s s i c a l e c o n o m is m i s th e v ie w p o in t th a t r e j e c t s the n e e d fo r an in d e p e n d e n t p a r ty o f th e p r o le t a r ia t, a v i e w p o in t th a t m a k e s th e p r o le t a r ia t t r a i l p o li t ic a lly b e h in d th e b o u r g e o is ie. M o d ern e c o n o m is m a r o s e a f t e r th e in d e p e n d e n t p a r t ie s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t h ad c o m e in to e x is t e n c e and a fte r s o m e o f th e m h a d c o m e in to p o w e r. In su c h c ir c u m s t a n c e s, i t s r o le i s to r e le g a t e th e p o lit ic a l p a r t ie s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t in th e S o c ia lis t c o u n tr ie s in to b e c o m in g an " e c o n o m ic m a n a g e m e n t" and in the c a p it a lis t c o u n t r ie s to m a k e th em s e r v a n t s of th e b o u r g e o is ie, lik e fo r e x a m p le th e D a n g e c liq u e in the C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f In d ia, and o th e r C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s th a t h a v e b e c o m e a f f lic t e d w ith s o c ia l - d e m o c r a c y and r e v is io n is m. W ithin th e fr a m e w o r k o f o p p o sin g r e v is i o n is m, w e m u s t o p p o se th is m o d e r n e c o n o m is m w ith a p o lic y th a t g iv e s p r e - e m in e n c e to p o l i t i c s, on th e b a s is o f th e p r in c ip le th a t p o li t ic s i s th e g e n e r a l. A s r e g a r d s a id g iv e n by th e S o c ia lis t c o u n t r ie s to n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r ie s, th is sh o u ld n o t be a llo w e d to s tr e n g th e n th e p o s itio n o f a b o u r g e o is ie th a t o p p r e s s e s th e p r o le t a r ia t and the r e v o lu tio n a r y m o v e m e n t b e c a u s e su c h a id i s n o t in c o n fo r m ity w ith p r o le ta r ia n in t e r n a t io n a l srpg^Lt i s o n ly in c o n fo r m ity w ith b o u r g e o is in t e r n a t io n a lis m. 155 D. N. A id it, S et A fir e the B anteng S p ir it i E v e r F o r w a r d, No R e tr e a t, pp. 9?*-94. === [PDF page 212] === 205 'M o d e r n E c o n o m is m " i s an e x te n s io n o f a d o m e s t ic c o n c e p t, u s e d by b oth L e n in and S ta lin, to th e in t e r n a t io n a l s c e n e. S ta lin w r o te o f th e o r ig in a l " e c o n o m is m " a s fo llo w s: /T o p r a c t ic e " e c o n o m is m " w a s t o / d en y th e n e e d fo r an in d e p e n d e n t w o r k e r ’ s p a r ty in R u s s ia, to o p p o se th e r e v o lu tio n a r y s tr u g g le o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s fo r th e o v e r th r o w o f T s a r d o m, to p r e a c h a p u r e ly tr a d e u n io n is t p o lic y in th e m o v e m e n t, and, in g e n e r a l, to s u r r e n d e r th e L a b o u r m o v e m e n t to th e h e g e m o n y o f th e lib e r a l b o u r g e o is ie. ^ T h u s A id it’ s c o m p la in t a g a in s t th e U SSR i s b a s e d p r im a r ily on tw o p o in ts; 1) th e S o v ie t U nion i s n e g le c t in g th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e i n t e r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t by a tte m p tin g to r e a c h a d e te n te w ith th e c h ie f i m p e r i a l i s t - -!, e., th e U n ited S ta te s; and 2) th e S o v ie t U nion i s g u ilty o f " g r e a t p o w e r e g o is m " b y e it h e r n e g le c t in g o th e r p a r t ie s by fa ilin g to c o n s u lt w ith th e m a n d /o r b y a tte m p tin g to su b o r d in a te th e o th e r p a r t ie s to th e d e c is i o n s o f th e S o v ie t U n io n, u s in g the a r g u m e n ts o f " M od ern E c o n o m is m " a s i t s ju s t if ic a t io n. W ith r e f e r e n c e to the f i r s t p o in t, A id it w r o te: We C o m m u n is ts do n ot r e p r e s e n t t h e s e o ld, o u td a ted f o r c e s, w e r e p r e s e n t th e n e w e m e r g in g f o r c e s. * ^ H en ce, if it is n e c e ssa r y: We m u s t co n tin u e to sh o w w a r m f e e lin g s to w a r d s c o m r a d e s w ho a r e o f a d if fe r e n t o p in io n fr o m u s but w ho s t i l l 156 S ta lin, F o u n d a tio n s o f L e n in is m (N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 9 ), p. 3 1. 157 D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in!, p. 51. === [PDF page 213] === 206 o p p o se i m p e r ia lis m, b e c a u s e our f o r e m o s t ta s k to d a y i s to o p p o se i m p e r ia lis m. H o w e v e r b ad a C o m m u n ist o r a C o m m u n is t p a r ty m a y b e, so lo n g a s i t o p p o s e s im p e r ia lis m, i t i s s t i l l b e t t e r th an a b o u r g e o is p e r s o n o r p a r ty. It i s o b v io u s t h e r e f o r e th at: T h e p o lic y o f s p e a k in g fin e w o r d s a b ou t th e U.S. i m p e r i a l i s t s, a m o n g o th e r s b y p r a is in g the le a d e r s o f th a t i m p e r i a l i s t s t a t e, n o w b e in g p u r s u e d b y th e le a d e r s o f c e r t a in C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s in o th e r c o u n t r ie s h a s le d to a d if f e r e n c e o f o p in io n b e tw e e n o u r p a r ty and the le a d e r s o f th o s e C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. ^ ^ An e x a m p le o f t h is s in a s c o m m itte d by th e S o v ie t U nion w a s g iv e n b y A id it fo llo w in g th e d ea th o f P r e s id e n t K en n ed y. On N o v e m b e r 2 5, 1 9 6 3, H a r ia n R a k ja t e d it o r ia liz e d to th e e f f e c t th a t " a s w e a ll k n ow, 11 K en n ed y w a s the le a d e r o f th e le a d in g c a p it a lis t and i m p e r ia li s t sta te. On D e c e m b e r 5, 1 9 6 3, H a r ia n R a k ja t d e n o u n c ed th e S o v ie t U n ion fo r p r o p o s in g th a t th e W orld P e a c e C o u n cil M e e tin g in W a rsa w p a u se fo r a m in u te o f s ile n c e to h o n o r th e a s s a s s i n a t e d P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ited S t a te s. G iv en th e p o s s ib ilit y th a t the S o v ie t U nion and o th e r C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s m ig h t le a v e th e tr a c k s o f P r o le t a r ia n I n te r n a tio n a lis m a s d e fin e d by A id it, i t b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y th a t th e PK I b e p r e p a r e d to " sta n d on 15 8.. I b i d., p. 6Z. 159 D. N. A id it, S e t A fir e th e B a n te n g S p ir it! E v e r F o r w a r d, N o R e t r e a t, p. 82. ^ ^ D o n a ld H in d ley, China Q u a r te r ly, p. 110. Ibid., pp. 1 1 0 -1 1 1. === [PDF page 214] === 207 i t s ow n tw o f e e t. " A s an e x a m p le o f th e p r e d o m in a te im p o r ta n c e o f th e " in te r n a l f o r c e " th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f N o r th K o r e a i s c r e d it e d fo r a c c o m p lis h in g g r e a t f e a t s b y " sta n d in g on i t s ow n tw o f e e t. " On h is r e tu r n in O c to b e r o f 1 9 6 3, fr o m a v i s i t to C uba, E a s t G e r m a n y, th e S o v ie t U n ion, C h in a and N o r th K o r e a, A id it in d ic a te d th a t h e w a s m o s t i m p r e s s e d by the e c o n o m ic a c c o m p lis h m e n t s o f N o r th K o r e a. A id it1s i n s i s t e n c e on th e im p o r t a n c e o f th e " in te r n a l fa c to r " i s r e m in is c e n t o f S u k a r n o 's i n s i s t e n c e on th e n e c e s s i t y fo r I n d o n e s ia 's s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y. T h is e m p h a s is on I n d o n e s ia n iz in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m r a i s e s th e q u e s tio n of PK I n a t io n a lis m; a c o n c e p t n ot a c c e p ta b le to a C o m m u n is t. A id it h a d fou nd i t n e c e s s a r y to d e fe n d th e P K I's p o s it io n w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e q u e s tio n of n a t io n a lis m on m o r e th an on e o c c a s io n: T h e r e a r e c o m r a d e s a b r o a d w h o a c c u s e th e PK I o f b e in g " n a tio n a lis t. " T h e y r e g a r d th e s lo g a n o f " I n d o n e sia n iz in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m " a s b e in g a s lo g a n th a t i s in c o n flic t w ith M a r x is m - L e n in is m. I do n ot a p p r o v e o f a u th o r ita r ia n m e th o d s w h ic h, on th e s lig h t e s t p r e t e x t, s a y "If L en in w e r e s t i l l a liv e, he w o u ld b e a r u s ou t, " and s o o n, b u t s in c e th e th in g th a t w e a r e I n d o n e s ia n iz in g i s M a r x is m - L e n in is m and n o t an yth in g e l s e, and s in c e th e p r a c t ic e p r o v e s th a t th is i s a g o o d and u s e fu l th in g to d o, w e to o w o u ld lik e to a sk: I f M a r x, E n g e ls and L e n in w e r e s t i l l a l iv e, w o u ld th e y b e h ap p y o r s a d to s e e C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s a p p ly in g th e ir te a c h in g s fa ith fu lly and c r e a t iv e ly? W hat i s M a r x is m - L e n in is m fo r i f n o t to be I n d o n e s ia n iz e d in I n d o n e s ia, I n d ia n is e d in In d ia, A u s t r a lia n - i s e d in A u s t r a lia? W hat th en d id L e n in m e a n w h en h e s a id th a t M a r x is m m u s t b e " tr a n s la te d, " i f n o t b en d in g i t s g e n e r a l tr u th s w ith th e c o n c jg ^ e p r a c t ic e o f th e r e v o lu tio n in a p a r tic u la r c o u n tr y? 162 D. N. A id it, S et A fir e the Bandeng Spirit? E v e r F o r w a rd, No R e tr e a t, p. 117. === [PDF page 215] === 208 In a d d itio n, /T h e P K I /" I n d o n e s ia n is e s " M a r x is m - L e n in is m p r e c i s e l y fo r th e p u r p o se o f b e tt e r s e r v in g th e In d o n e s ia n r e v o lu tio n w h ic h i s a p ^ n s e p a r a b le p a r t o f th e w o r ld s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n. T h u s: E ith e r fr o m th e M a r x is t - L e n in is t p o in t o f v ie w w h ic h i s r e f le c t e d in the g e n e r a l p r o g r a m m e o f th e P K I, o r fr o m th e a n g le of th e c o m m o n p r o g r a m m e - - t h e P o l it ic a l M a n if e s t o - -. th e In d o n e s ia n revolu tion i s an in s e p a r a b le p a r t o f th e w o r ld s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n. T h is h a s b e e n a f f i r m e ^ i |i m a n y g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n ts o f th e In d o n e sia n R e p u b lic. H e n c e: It i s n e c e s s a r y to m a k e t h is q u ite c le a r to th e m a s s e s o f th e p e o p le o u ts id e the P a r ty in o r d e r to m a k e o u r p o s itio n to w a r d s th e in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t q u ite c le a r to th e m and so th a t th e q u e s tio n o f th e in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t a ls o b eco m e s th e q u e s tio n o f th e m a s s e s o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le and e s p e c ia lly s o th a t th e s tr u g g le a g a in s t r e v is io n is m i s n ot o n ly a q u e s tio n fo r th e C o m m u n is ts b u t a q u e s tio n fo r a ll p a t r io t s w ho a r e st^ yiggling a g a in s t i m p e r ia lis m, c o lo n ia lis m and n e o - c o lo n i a lis m. W ith t h is, A id it id e n t ifie d th e i n t e r e s t s o f I n d o n e s ia w ith th a t o f th e m o v e m e n t a s a w h o le. A s h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d ly sh o w n, t h is s o r t o f e x t r a p o la tio n on th e p a r t o f v a r io u s C o m m u n ist P a r ty le a d e r s h i p s h a s b e e n th e p r in c ip a l c a u s e o f th e in te r n a tio n a l a to m iz a tio n o f th e C o m m u n ist D. N. A id it, "The I n d o n e sia n R e v o lu tio n i s an I n s e p a r a b le P a r t o f the W orld S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n,11 p. 13 0. 164Ib id., p. 1 2 8. 165 D. N. A id it, S et A fir e the B anteng S p irit! E v e r F o rw a rd, No R e tr e a t, p. 115. === [PDF page 216] === 209 m o v e m e n t. In th is p a r tic u la r c a s e, A id it a r g u e s th a t th e S o v ie t U n ion n o t o n ly b e t r a y s th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t, i t b e tr a y s a ll a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s t s. What th en a r e th e g o a ls o f the P K I? In a n a ly z in g the s itu a tio n w ith in I n d o n e s ia, A id it d e c la r e d th at: T he s itu a tio n in I n d o n e s ia, w h ic h i s f u ll o f c o n tr a d ic t io n s, i s in d e e d e x t r e m e ly c o m p lic a te d. On th e on e h an d, a s s t a t i s t i c s sh o w, m o r e th an 90% o f th e I n d o n e s ia n p e o p le a r e I s la m ic f o ll o w e r s. On the o th e r h a n d, C o m m u n ist in flu e n c e h a s s t e a d ily g r o w n. T h e d o m e s t ic and f o r e ig n p o l i c i e s o f th e In d o n e s ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a v e a p o s it iv e and p r o g r e s s i v e s id e, th a t i s, o p p o s itio n to im p e r i a lis m and d e s i r e to w o r k w ith th e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r ie s to d e v e lo p th e " n ew e m e r g in g f o r c e s " but th e y a ls o h a v e a n e g a tiv e and r e a c t io n a r y s id e a s, fo r e x a m p le, th e a d o p tio n o f s o m e f in a n c ia l and e c o n o m ic m e a s u r e s d e tr im e n t a l to th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e p e o p le, and c o m p r o m is e and c o lla b o r a tio n w ith f o r e ig n c a p ita l. On th e on e h a n d, a b r o a d e x p a n d in g n a tio n a l u n ite d fr o n t h a s a lr e a d y b e e n e s t a b lis h e d.... On th e o th e r h an d, up to p r e s e n t a G oton g R ojon g g o v e r n m e n t in w h ic h C om m up^ gts s h a r e r e s p o n s ib le p o s it io n s h a s n o t y e t b een fo rm ed. T h u s, I n d o n e s ia w a s s t i l l in th e f i r s t s ta g e o f th e L e n in is t c o n c e p t o f th e t w o - s t a g e r e v o lu tio n: Our P a r ty h a s a d o u b le t a s k in le a d in g th e I n d o n e sia n R e v o lu tio n. F i r s t, u n d e r th e s lo g a n " C o m p le te th e d e m a n d s of th e A u g u st R e v o lu tio n in t h e ir e n tir e ty " w e c a r r y out to t h e ir c o m p le tio n th e t a s k s o f the b o u r g e o is d e m o c r a tic r e v o lu tio n; s e c o n d ly, a fte r th e f i r s t t a s k h a s b e e n c a r r ie d ou t, w e c a r r y out to th e ir c o m p le tio n th e ta slg s o f th e r e v o lu tio n, w h ic h i s p r o le t a r ia n and s o c i a l i s t in k in d. 166 D. N. A id it, " S om e Q u e s tio n s C o n c e r n in g th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, " p. 5 8. 167 D. N. A id it, P ilih a n T u l i s a n, V o l. II (D ja k a rta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 2 9 9 - 3 0 0. Q u oted in J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, === [PDF page 217] === 210 T h e f i r s t s ta g e o f th e R e v o lu tio n ca n o n ly b e a c h ie v e d th ro u g h " n a tio n a l u n ite d fr o n t g o v e r n m e n t le d b y th e w o r k in g c l a s s and b a s e d on the 168 W o r k e r -p e a s a n t a llia n c e. " A c c o r d in g to th e c o n c e p t o f th e tw o - s ta g e r e v o lu tio n, th e n a tio n a l and d e m o c r a t ic r e v o lu tio n m u s t be c o m p le te d b e fo r e th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f s o c i a l i s m c a n b e a c h ie v e d. A s A id it put i t on M ay 2 3, I9 6 0: We m u s t c o m p le te o u r r e v o lu tio n, a r e v o lu tio n th a t i s n a tio n a l and d e m o c r a t ic in c h a r a c t e r.... T o ta lk abou t S o c ia lis m i s a jo k e and a d e c e p tio n o f th e p e o p le i f a c tio n i s n o t ta k e n to c o m p le t e ly e lim in a t e th e in f lu e n c e s o f im p e r ia lis m and f e u d a lis m in e c o n o m ic, p o lit ic a l, s o c ia l and c u ltu r a l a f f a ir s. D u rin g th is f i r s t s t a g e, th e PK I ca n and d o e s c o o p e r a te w ith v a r io u s o th e r s o c i a l and e c o n o m ic c l a s s e s. A c c o r d in g to A id it, th e r e a r e th r e e " In d o n esia: L e n in, M ao, and A id it, " in W a lte r L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z ( e d s.), P o ly c e n t r is m (N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2 ), 168 D. N. A id it, " S om e Q u e s tio n s C o n c e r n in g th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e C o m m u n ist P a r t y o f I n d o n e s ia, " p. 8 7. A g r e e m e n t w ith th is p o in t, c o n c e r n in g th e le a d e r s h ip o f the w o r k e r s and th e f a r m e r s, i s a c k n o w le d g e d b y th e S u p r e m e a d v is o r y C o u n cil D e c is io n R e s p e c tin g S p e c if ic a t io n s o f th e P o l it ic a l M a n ife s to o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia o f A u g u st 17th, 1959, S e c tio n II: W ithout d is p a r a g in g th e m e a n in g o f th e o th e r c l a s s e s and g r o u p s, a s h a s b e e n e m p h a s iz e d r e p e a te d ly b y P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o, th e w o r k e r s and th e f a r m e r s, b e c a u s e o f th e ir v it a l it y a s w e ll a s b e c a u s e o f t h e ir v e r y g r e a t n u m b e r s, m u s t b e c o m e th e b a s ic s tr e n g th in th e r e v o lu tio n and m u s t b e c o m e th e p il la r s o f a j u s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie t y in I n d o n e s ia. 169 D. N. A id it, P e la d ja r a n d a r i S e d ja r a h PK I (D ja k a rta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, I 9 6 0 ), p. 2 4, q u o ted in J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, In d o - n e s ia: L e n in, M ao and A id it, p. 2 0 0. === [PDF page 218] === 211 f o r c e s in v o lv e d in th e c o m p le tio n o f th e d e m a n d s o f the A u g u st, 1 9 4 5, r e v o lu tio n: 1) th e d ie h a r d f o r c e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f th e r e a c t io n a r ie s w ho o n ly w a n t th e fa s c a d e o f in d e p e n d e n c e; 2) the p r o g r e s s i v e f o r c e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f th e w o r k e r s, p e a s a n t s, p e tty b o u r g e o is ie, r e v o lu tio n a r y in t e l le c t u a ls and o th e r d e m o c r a tic e le m e n t s, w h o s e i n t e r e s t s r e q u ir e th e c o m p le te e r a d ic a t io n o f p r iv ile g e and the fe u d a l o w n e r s h ip o f land; and 3) the m id d le - o f - t h e - r o a d f o r c e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f th e n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie w ho a r e a n t i- im p e r ia li s t and a n t i- f e u d a l, b u t w h o w a n t c h a n g e s in I n d o n e s ia "for th e p u r p o se o f d e fe n d in g th e ir ow n i n t e r e s t s 170 and f a c ilit a t in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a tio n a l c a p ita lis m:" T he q u e s tio n o f I n d o n e s ia n is in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m i s n o t o n ly a q u e s tio n o f in te g r a tin g o u r P a r t y w ith th e p e a s a n t s, th e q u e s tio n i s m u ch b r o a d e r, th a t i s, in t e g r a tin g th e P a r ty w ith e v e r y th in g th a t i s c o n n e c te d w ith th e c o n c r e t e p r a c t ic e o f th e r e v o lu tio n in o u r c o u n tr y, w ith th e w o r k e r s, th e y o u th, th e i n t e l le c t u a ls, the w o m e n, th e w r it e r s and a r t i s t s, th e p o o r u rb a n d w e lle r s and so on; w ith p o li t ic a l, e c o n o m ic, c u ltu r a l, s c ie n t if ic and o th e r a f f a i r s. B ut th e k e y to a ll th is i s th e to ta l in t e g r a t io n o f o u r M a r x is t - L e n in is t P a r t y w ith th e p e a s a n ts b e c a u s e ou r r e v o lu tio n at th e p r e s e n t s ta g e i s in e s s e n c e an a g r a r ia n r e v o lu tio n, a r e v o lu tio n o f th e p e a s a n t s. T h is i s th e r e a s o n w h y w e s a y th a t th e e s s e n c e and th e p r im a r y d a y - t o - d a y p r a c t ic e o f I n d o n e s ia n is in g l^ g ^ tjx ism -L e n in ism i s in t e g r a tin g o u r P a r ty w ith th e p e a s a n t s. A s fo r th e b o u r g e o is ie, A id it h a s s u b d iv id e d th e m in to th r e e d iffe r e n t g r o u p in g s: 1) th e c o m p r a d o r e s " s e r v e th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e b ig f o r e ig n 170 D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e and D a r e A g a in!, pp. 4 0 - 4 1. 171 D. N. A id it, S et A fir e the B anteng S p irit! E v er F o rw a rd, No R e tr e a t, p. 124. === [PDF page 219] === 212 c a p ita lis ts '* and a r e g e n e r a lly a p a r t o f th e d ie h a r d f o r c e s; 2) th e p e tty b o u r g e o is " s u ffe r fr o m th e o p p r e s s io n o f im p e r ia l is m f e u d a lis m and th e b ig b o u r g e o is ie.... / t h e r e f o r e / th e y a r e one o f th e f o r c e s p u sh in g th e r e v o lu tio n fo r w a r d and a r e a r e lia b le a lly o f th e p r o le t a r ia t.... T h e y c a n o n ly a tta in th e ir fr e e d o m u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f the p r o le ta r ia t;" and 3) the N a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie w h ic h h a s a d u al c h a r a c t e r. A lth o u g h v ic t im s o f im p e r ia l is m and fe u d a lis m, th e y do "not h a v e th e c o u r a g e fu n d a m e n ta lly to fig h t i m p e r ia lis m, b e c a u s e e c o n o m ic a lly and p o li t ic a lly i t i s w e a k, and i t h a s c l a s s t ie s w ith im p e r ia l is m and 172 f e u d a lis m." W ith th e c o m p le tio n o f th e f i r s t s ta g e o f th e R e v o lu tio n, th e g o a l o f th e s e c o n d s ta g e i s th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f S o c ia lis m and e v e n tu a lly C o m m u n is m. C h a p ter 5: T he P o s it io n a l A m b iv a le n c e o f th e PK I T he im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n to b e a s k e d a t th is p o in t i s: w o u ld th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e PKI* s g o a ls and the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f th e s e c o n d s ta g e h a v e r e q u ir e d an a d d itio n a l v io le n t p o li t ic a l r e v o lu tio n w ith in 173 I n d o n e s ia? An a d eq u a te a n s w e r to th e fo r e g o in g q u e s tio n m u s t 172 Q u o te s fr o m D. N. A id it, P ilih a n T u lis a n (D jak arta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, I 9 6 0 ), V o l. I, pp. 2 4 8 -2 4 9; V o l. II, pp. 2 9 0 -2 9 2; q u o ted in J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, " In d o n esia: L e n in, M ao and A idit," p. 2 0 6. * ^ F o r th e p u r p o s e o f th is p a p er an a d eq u a te d e fin itio n o f a p o lit ic a l r e v o lu tio n w ill n e c e s s i t a t e tw o th in g s: th e u s e o f v io le n c e to d e p r iv e o p p o n en ts o f p o w e r, and th e r a d ic a l tr a n s fo r m a tio n o f s o c ia l and p o lit ic a l in s t it u t io n s. T he p r e s e n c e o f o n ly on e o f t h e s e th in g s d o e s === [PDF page 220] === 213 c o n s id e r tw o l e v e l s o f g o a ls: 1) th e id e o lo g ic a l and p o lic y g o a ls and 2) p o s itio n a l g o a ls. A s fo r th e id e o lo g ic a l g o a ls, i t i s o b v io u s th a t th e r e i s a c l o s e id e o lo g ic a l a ffin ity b e tw e e n th e o f f ic ia l s e c u la r id e o lo g y o f I n d o n e s ia and th at o f th e P K I. If on e r e c a l l s S u k a r n o 's c r i t i c i s m o f th e PK I in the p e r io d b e tw e e n 1926 and 1 9 4 0, w e fin d th a t th e P K I's id e o lo g ic a l o r ie n ta tio n h a d s h ifte d to w a r d s th a t o f S u k arn o to a g r e a t e r d e g r e e th a n 174 th e r e v e r s e. D e fin in g in flu e n c e a s a r e la t io n s h ip a m o n g in d iv id u a ls a n d /o r g r o u p s in w h ic h one in d u c e s a n o th e r to a c t in a m a n n e r a n d /o r to w a r d s a g o a l th a t th e y w o u ld n o t o t h e r w is e a tte m p t and g iv e n Su karno*s a ttitu d e p r io r to th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e, it i s o b v io u s th at th e lib e r a l d e m o c r a tic w in g w ith in th e m o d e r n I n d o n e s ia n l e a d e r sh ip e x e r c i s e d the g r e a t e s t in flu e n c e upon h im, a s m a n if e s t e d b y th e p e r io d b e tw e e n 1945 and 1 9 5 3. It i s s u g g e s t e d h e r e th a t th e m a r k e d d e v ia tio n in th e h is t o r y o f S u k a r n o 's p o lit ic a l th o u g h t w a s d u rin g th e 1 9 4 5 -1 9 5 3 p e r io d and th a t th e p e r io d o f G uided D e m o c r a c y b e tw e e n 1958 and 1965 r e p r e s e n t e d a r e tu r n to th e g e n e r a l r e v o lu tio n a r y c h a r a c t e r of h is th o u g h t. It sh o u ld b e r e c o g n iz e d th at t h is i s a d ir e c t c o n tr a d ic tio n not c o n s titu te a r e v o lu tio n. (Hugh S e to n - W a tso n, N e ith e r W ar N o r P e a c e /N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 0 /, p. 1 8 8.) 174 In h is a n a ly s is o f th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r, 1 9 6 5, A rth u r C. D o m m e n, op. c it., p. 1 6 8, c a m e to th is s a m e c o n c lu s io n, a r r iv e d a t b y th e au th or o f th is d is s e r t a t io n in M a y, 1 9 6 5, fiv e m o n th s p r io r to [Unreadable] === [PDF page 221] === 214 o f m u c h r e c e n t a n a ly s is. M o st r e c e n t a n a ly s is h ad g e n e r a lly c o n te n d ed th a t S u k arn o h a d b e e n in flu e n c e d to a g r e a t d e g r e e, i f n o t t o t a lly, b y the PK I. T he p r o b le m o c c u r s b e c a u s e the p e r io d 1 9 4 5 -t o -1 9 5 3 i s u s e d a s the n o r m r a th e r than a s th e e x c e p tio n. T h u s, th is p a p e r s u g g e s t s th a t a r a d ic a l tr a n s fo r m a tio n o f s o c ia l and p o lit ic a l in s t it u t io n s w o u ld n o t b e n e c e s s a r y to a c c o m p lis h the id e o lo g ic a l and p o lic y g o a ls o f th e P K I. W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e p o s it io n a l g o a ls o f th e P K I, A id it h a s w r itte n: A t th e p r e s e n t t im e, th e p r o g r e s s iv e p o lit ic a l and e c o n o m ic c o n c e p ts a lr e a d y e x i s t, and h a v e e v e n b e c o m e o f f ic ia l s ta te p o lic y. W hat i s n e e d e d now i s th e p o lit ic a l p o w e r th a t c o n fo r m s w ith th e e c o n o m ic s tr u c tu r e th a t i s to b e c o n s tr u c te d. B ut th is i s p r e c i s e l y th e th in g th a t d o e s n o t y e t e x i s t and i t s a b s e n c e c r e a t e s th e f o r e m o s t o b s ta c le to th e e f f o r t s in o v e r c o m in g th e p r e s e n t e c o n o m ic d if f ic u lt ie s. And th e r e a s o n w h y t h is c o n d i tio n d o e s n o t y e t e x i s t, a s P r e s id e n t Su k arn o h a s fr e q u e n tly s ta te d, i s b e c a u s e th e d i s e a s e o f C o m m u n is t-p h o b ia, l e f t - p h o b ia, p e o p le -p h o b ia, w o r k e r -p h o b ia and p e a s a n t-p h o b ia s t i l l h a s a h e a v y h o ld on th e h e a d s and h e a r t s o f s o m e p a r ts of th e s ta te a p p a r a tu s. In s h o r t, th e r e i s a c o n tr a d ic tio n b e tw e e n the e c o n o m ic s tr u c tu r e th a t w e w a n t to b u ild and th e p o lit ic a l p o w e r th a t w e h a v e to d a y. T h is c o n tr a d ic tio n c a n o n ly b e s o lv e d i f a G otong R ojon g C a b in et b a s e d on b a la n c e d r e p r e s e n t a t io n i s fo r m e d in k e e p in g w ith w h a t i s d e m a n d e d b y P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's c o n c e p t (the s p e e c h o f F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1957) w ith w h a t i s d e m a n d e d by th e M a n ip o l and b y th e M P R S d e c is io n N o. II A p p en d ix A r e g a r d in g G o v e r n m e n t a f f a ir s. ^7 ^ D. N. A id it, D a r e, D a r e, and D a r e A g a in!, pp. 4 2 - 4 3. 176n [Unreadable] === [PDF page 222] === 215 T h u s, th e s h o r t ru n g o a l o f th e PK I w a s th e e x t e n s io n o f N ASAK OM fr o m th e la r g e, r a th e r u n im p o r ta n t P a r lia m e n t, to th e g o v e r n in g c a b in e t, in w h ic h th e PK I w a s d is p r o p o r tio n a te ly u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d. T h e d em a n d fo r th e fo r m a tio n o f a G otong R ojon g c a b in e t w ith NASAK O M a s th e fu lc r u m i s a s c ie n t i f ic, o b j e c t iv e, d e m o c r a tic and p a t r io t ic d e m a n d. A ll ta lk ab ou t P a n c h a S ila, th e 1945 c o n s titu tio n, th e M a n ip o l, G oton g R o jo n g, a j u s t and p r o s p e r o u s s o c ie t y, I n d o n e s ia n S o c ia lis m, G u id ed D e m o c r a c y, G u id ed E c o n o m y, th e p e a c e f u l and d e m o c r a t ic p ath fo r th e a tta in m e n t o f th e a im s o f th e r e v o lu tio n, and s o o n, i s j u s t a d e m o n s tr a tio n of h y p o c r is y i f i t i s n o t a c c o m p a n ie d by a g r e e m e n t to th e fo r m a tio n o f a NASAKOM c a b in e t. H o w e v e r, th e lo n g run p o s it io n a l g o a l r e q u ir e d th a t th e PK I n o t o n ly p a r tic ip a te in th e g o v e r n m e n ta l le a d e r s h ip, bu t th a t i t le a d it; i. e. - -t h e PK I m u s t b e th e d o m in a n t p o li t ic a l g ro u p w ith in th e g o v e r n - 178 m e n t. T he a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e P K I's i d e o lo g ic a l and p o lic y g o a ls b y a g o v e r n m e n t in w h ic h th e PK I d id n o t o c c u p y th e d o m in a n t p o lit ic a l p o s it io n w o u ld h a v e to be c o n s id e r e d a s a fa ilu r e f o r th e P K I. G iv en th e p o s itio n a l a n tip a th y of th e a r m y and m a n y o f th e o u t e r - i s la n d e r s, th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f su c h le a d e r s h ip m a y h a v e r e q u ir e d th e u s e o f v io le n c e to d e p r iv e o p p o n en ts o f p o w e r. H o w e v e r, a s Guy P a u k e r and o th e r s h a v e p r e v io u s ly in d ic a te d, it a p p e a r e d a s i f th e PK I le a d e r s h ip w a s p r e p a r e d to w a it fo r th e I n d o n e s ia n p o lit ic a l p u b lic to tu rn to w a r d i t fo r le a d e r s h ip w h en a ll o th e r s h ad f a ile d. T h u s, th e in i t ia l s ta te m e n t o f 177 I b i d., p. 4 9. 178 C.f. J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, " In d o n e sia, L e n in, M ao and A id it, " p. 2 0 3. === [PDF page 223] === 216 L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l U ntung, th e le a d e r o f th e S e p te m b e r 3 0 th m o v e m e n t (i. e., th e n a m e ta k e n b y th e " r e v o lu tio n a r ie s " ) r e a d on O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, s ta te d th at: T h is m o v e m e n t i s s o le l y a m o v e m e n t w ith in th e A r m y d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls w h ic h h a s s ta in e d th e n a m e o f th e A r m y and h a r b o r e d e v il d e s ig n s a g a in s t the R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia and P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o. L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l Untung p e r s o n a lly c o n s id e r s th is m o v e m e n t a s an o b lig a tio n fo r h im a s a m e m b e r o f th e T ja k r a b ir a w a w h ic h h a s th e duty to p r o te c t th e P r e s id e n t and th e R e p u b lic o f In d on e s i a. L t. C o lo n e l U ntung a p p e a le d to a ll A r m y o f f i c e r s, n o n - c o m m is s io n e d o f f ic e r s and s o ld ie r s to be r e s o lu t e and to a c t to e r a d ic a t e c o m p le te ly th e in flu e n c e o f th e C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls and i t s a g e n ts in th e A r m y. T h is th e m e w a s r e p e a t e d by " D e c r e e N o. 1 on th e E s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n c il, " r e a d o v e r th e r a d io la t e r th a t s a m e day: T he S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t i s a m o v e m e n t e n t ir e ly c o n fin e d w ith in th e bod y o f th e A r m y to put an en d to a r b itr a r y a c t io n s o f G e n e r a ls w h o w e r e m e m b e r s o f th e C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls and o th e r O ffic e r s w ho w e r e h e n c h m e n 180 and s y m p a t h iz e r s o f m e m b e r s o f th e C o u n cil o f G e n e r a ls. Of th e f o r t y - f iv e (45) e v e n tu a l m e m b e r s o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n 179 I n fo r m a tio n s e c t io n o f th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t (a s b r o a d c a s t o v e r th e I n d o n e s ia n R a d io in D ja k a r ta at a p p r o x im a te ly 7:15 a. m., O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5 ), r e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I, pp. 134 and 13 5. 180 C om m an d o f th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v em en t " D e c r e e N o. 1 on the E s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n C o u n cil" (R ead o v e r th e D ja k a r ta R a d io a t a p p r o x im a te ly 2:00 p.m., O c to b e r 1), r e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I, p. 136. === [PDF page 224] === 217 181 C o u n c il, tw e n ty (20) w e r e h ig h -r a n k in g m il it a r y o f f i c e r s. Of th e s e v e n (7) m e m b e r s o f th e C o u n c il b e lie v e d by th e e d it o r s o f I n d o n e s ia to h a v e ta k e n an a c t iv e p a r t in th e e v e n ts o f O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, a l l w e r e h ig h -r a n k in g m il it a r y o f f i c e r s. On O c to b e r 15, 1 9 6 5, M a jo r -G e n e r a l S u h a rto m a d e a s p e e c h to the C e n tr a l and R e g io n a l le a d e r s o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t (i. e., th e " lo y a lis ts " ) in w h ich h e c o n te n d e d th a t th e e v e n t s o f th e p r e v io u s tw o and a h a lf w e e k s w e r e n o t s im p ly an in t e r n a l a r m y a f f a ir, but w e r e 182 r a th e r a p o lit ic a lly c o n n e c te d coup a tte m p t. In th is s p e e c h, S u h a rto im p lic a t e d th e PK I in th e coup a tte m p t th ro u g h th e a r m e d p a r tic ip a tio n o f P e m u d a R ak jat ( i. e., P e o p le 's Youth) and G e r w a n i; th e C o m m u n ist 183 P a r t ie s Y outh and W o m en 's A f f ilia t e s r e s p e c t iv e ly. H o w e v e r, th e m a jo r e m p h a s is in t h is s p e e c h i s on th e t r e a s o n o u s a c t iv it i e s o f B a tta lio n 4 5 4, B a tta lio n 5 3 0, th e 1 s t T ja k r a b ir a w a B a tta lio n ( i. e., 184 C o lo n e l U n tu n g 's un it) and th e A ir F o r c e. S u h a r to e m p h a s iz e d th e f a c t th a t S u k arn o w a s n o t in c lu d e d a s a 185 m e m b e r o f th e S e p te m b e r 30th R e v o lu tio n C o u n c il. T h u s, a c c o r d in g 181 T h e l i s t o f m e m b e r s and th e ir a ff ilia tio n s w ith o th e r g r o u p s i s r e p r in te d in A p p en d ix IV, pp. 2 6 3 -2 6 8 o f th is r e p o r t. 182 R e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia, I, pp. 1 6 0 -1 7 8. I b i d., pp. 170, 175. *^ I b i d., p a s s i m, e s p e c i a l l y p. 1 6 6. 185 I b id., pp. 1 6 7 -1 6 8, 171. === [PDF page 225] === 218 to S u h a r to, U ntung1s c la im th a t th e S e p te m b e r 30th m o v e m e n t w a s a m o v e m e n t to s a fe g u a r d S u k a rn o, w a s f a l s e. T h u s, U n tu n g 's m o v e w a s 186 an a tte m p t to r e p la c e S u k arn o n o t p r o t e c t h im; h e n c e, a c o u p. H ow e v e r, th e PKI a s a w h o le and th e r e b y i t s le a d e r s h ip w a s e v e n tu a lly to b e b la m e d fo r th e p la n n in g, d ir e c t io n and s ta g in g o f th e " co u p a tte m p t. " T he P K I, p r io r to O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, w a s g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r e d by o b s e r v e r s to b e a r e la t iv e l y h o m o g e n e o u s u n it w ith o u t an y s ig n ific a n t s p lit s w ith in th e p a r ty. If th e PK I w a s a h ig h ly d is c ip lin e d h o m o g e n e o u s u n it, th e n th e p a r tic ip a tio n o f a r m e d m e m b e r s o f P e m u d a R a k ja t and G e rw a n i in th e S e p te m b e r 30th m o v e m e n t and th e ir r e p r e s e n t a t io n on th e R e v o lu tio n C o u n cil w o u ld m e a n th a t the PK I w a s in v o lv e d; a lth o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y th a t it w a s th e p r in c ip a l a g e n t. H o w e v e r, i t i s w ith in r e a s o n to s u p p o se th a t th e PK I a s th e l a r g e s t m a s s C o m m u n ist P a r t y out o f p o w e r in th e w o r ld, h a d f a c t io n a liz e d w h en fa c e d w ith s ig n ific a n t t a c t ic a l p r o b le m s c o n c e r n in g th e S in o - S o v ie t d is p u te, th e r e s u lt a n t p o ly c e n t r is m and, p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e im p o r ta n tly, th e a p p r o p r ia te t a c t ic a l a p p r o a c h to a c h ie v in g s u b s ta n tiv e d o m e s t ic p o li t ic a l p o w e r. T he a b s e n c e of a p u b lis h e d o r o v e r t d eb a te w ith in th e P a r ty d o e s n o t b e lie th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d p o s s ib ilit y. A s w e h a v e s e e n, th e n a tu r e o f p a r ty o r g a n iz a tio n w o u ld h in d e r s u c h a d e b a te. T h is m a y h a v e [Unreadable] === [PDF page 226] === 219 r e s u lt e d in a p ro fo u n d f e e lin g o f fr u s tr a tio n a m o n g th e y o u th fu l m ilit a n t s w ith in th e P a r ty w h ic h c o u ld o n ly be e x p r e s s e d th ro u g h p a r tic ip a tio n in a c tio n b e lie v e d to b e r e q u ir e d by the " c o n c r e te s itu a tio n, " bu t w h ic h w a s o p p o se d by th e e s t a b lis h e d ( i. e., e n tr e n c h e d ) m o d e r a te le a d e r s h ip of th e P a r ty. O ffic ia l s ta t e m e n t s b y v a r io u s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e PK I te n d to b e m o d e r a te in th e ir a n a ly s is o f th e e v e n t s. In an e d it o r ia l on O c to b e r 2, H a r ia n R a k ja t (i. e., P e o p l e 's D a ily, th e o f f ic ia l d a ily o f th e PKI) sta te d: It h a s h a p p e n e d th a t on th e 3 0 th o f S e p te m b e r m e a s u r e s w e r e ta k e n to s a fe g u a r d P r e s id e n t S u k arn o and th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia fr o m a coup b y a s o - c a l l e d C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls. A c c o r d in g to w hat h a s b e e n a n n o u n ced by th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t, w h ic h i s h e a d e d by L t. C o l. U ntung o f a T ja k r a b ir a w a b a tta lio n, a c tio n ta k e n to p r e s e r v e P r e s id e n t Su k arn o and th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia fr o m th e coup b y th e C o u n cil o f G e n e r a ls i s p a t r io t ic and r e v o lu tio n a r y. W h a tev er th e j u s t i f ic a t io n th a t m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d by th e C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls in i t s a tte m p t, th e s ta g in g o f a coup i s a c o n d e m n a b le and c o u n t e r -r e v o lu tio n a r y a c t. We th e P e o p le fu lly c o m p r e h e n d w h a t Lit. C o l. Untung h a s a s s e r t e d in c a r r y in g out h i s p a t r io t ic m o v e m e n t. B ut h o w e v e r th e c a s e m a y b e, th is i s an in t e r n a l A r m y a ff a ir. On th e o th e r h an d, w e th e P e o p le, w h o a r e c o n s c io u s o f th e p o lic y and d u tie s o f the r e v o lu tio n, a r e c o n v in c e d o f th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f th e a c tio n ta k e n by th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t to p r e s e r v e th e r e v o lu tio n and th e P e o p le. T he sy m p a th y and su p p o rt o f th e P e o p le i s s u r e ly o n th e s id e o f th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t. We c a l l on th e P e o p le to in t e n s if y th e ir v ig ila n c e and be p r e p a r e d to c o n fr o n t a ll e v e n t u a lit ie s. 187 T r a n sla te d and r e p r in te d in In d o n esia, I, p. 184. === [PDF page 227] === 220 T h e a b o v e s ta te m e n t, in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e a c t iv it y o f m e m b e r s o f P e m u d a R ak jat and G e r w a n i, d id th e m o s t, a t th a t t im e, to id e n tify th e PKI le a d e r s h ip w ith th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t. H ow ever, w h ile it p le d g e d su p p o r t fo r L ie u te n a n t G e n e r a l U ntung1s a c tio n, th u s a s s o c ia t in g i t s e l f w ith any n e g a tiv e p o li t ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t h e m ig h t s u ffe r at th e h an d s o f th e C o u n c il o f G e n e r a ls i f h e f a ile d, th e PK I ta k e s no c r e d it fo r th e a c tio n, th u s d e p r iv in g i t o f th e i n c r e a s e d p o lit ic a l le g it im a c y o f th e m o v e m e n t’ s le a d e r s h ip i f i t h ad s u c c e e d e d. A p o lit ic a l p a r ty w h ic h c o n c e iv e d o f i t s e l f a s u n p o p u la r m ig h t a v o id a s s o c ia t in g i t s e l f w ith an a c tio n w h ic h i t h ad s ta g e d i f i t f e l t th a t su c h an id e n t ific a tio n w o u ld c a u s e s ig n ific a n t n u m b e r s o f p e r s o n s, w h om o th e r w is e w ou ld su p p o rt i t, to o p p o se i t b y v ir tu e o f th e p a r t y 's s u p p o r t. H o w e v e r, r ig h tly o r w r o n g ly, th e P K I's le a d e r s h ip d id n o t p e r c e iv e i t s e l f a s u n p o p u la r. Q u ite th e c o n tr a r y, th e y b e lie v e d th a t th e PK I w a s th e m o s t p o p u la r p o lit ic a l p a r ty in I n d o n e s ia and th u s w o u ld lo g ic a lly h a v e a s s u m e d th at i t s id e n t ific a tio n w ith any m o v e m e n t w o u ld i n c r e a s e th a t m o v e m e n t's su p p o r t r a th e r th an d e c r e a s e i t. B y O cto b er 4, v a r io u s s t a te m e n ts b y PK I le a d e r s a tte m p te d to p r e s e n t th e P K I's p o s itio n a s one o f n e u t r a lity b e tw e e n th e f o r c e s o f Untung and th o s e o f S u h a r to, w h ile r e m a in in g fir m in th e ir su p p o rt o f S u k arn o. A s an e x a m p le, D ja la lu d in J u s u f N a s u tio n, F i r s t S e c r e t a r y o f th e N o rth S u m a tr a M a jo r R e g io n a l C o m m itte e o f th e P K I, sta te d: === [PDF page 228] === 221 I w o u ld lik e to s a y f i r s t o f a ll th a t i t w o u ld b e in a p p r o p r ia te to i s s u e a h a s ty o p in io n in a s s e s s i n g an e v e n t a s s e r io u s a s th e S e p te m b e r 3 0 th A ffa ir, e s p e c i a lly fo r u s h e r e, in an a r e a s o d is ta n t fr o m th e s c e n e o f th a t A ffa ir. T he im p o r ta n t th in g i s to ta k e an a ttitu d e o f s in c e r e ly jo in in g in h e lp in g to s e t t le th e A ffa ir b y e n s u r in g the v ic t o r y o f th e d e m a n d s o f th e R e v o lu tio n in a c c o r d a n c e w ith B ung K a r n o 's lin e in M a n ip o l. *88 One w o u ld th in k th a t i f th e PKI w a s d is c ip lin e d, D ja la lu d in J u s u f N a su tio n w o u ld n o t h a v e fou nd i t n e c e s s a r y to e m p h a s iz e h is ig n o r a n c e o f e v e n t s in D ja k a r ta. On th e fo llo w in g d a y, th e P o l i t ic a l B u r e a u o f th e CC o f th e PK I 2.tte m p te d to d i s a s s o c i a t e i t s e l f c o m p le t e ly fr o m th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t. I t s s ta te m e n t, i s s u e d on O c to b e r 5 th, sta ted: W ith r e g a r d to th e S e p te m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t, the C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e PK I c o n s id e r s i t to be an in t e r n a l p r o b le m o f th e A r m y and th e PK I d o e s not in v o lv e i t s e l f in it. / T id a k M e n tja m p u r in ja / W ith r e g a r d to th e n a m e s o f m e m b e r s o f th e PK I in c lu d e d in th e l i s t of th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n C o u n c il, i t c a n b e s ta te d, a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f q u e s tio n s put to th e m e m b e r s c o n c e r n e d, th a t t h e s e m e m b e r s w e r e n eith ^ ^ ^ in fo r m e d b e fo r e h a n d n o r a s k e d fo r t h e ir p e r m is s io n. On O c to b e r 9 th, a s ta te m e n t d r a fte d on e ith e r O cto b er 7th o r 8th b y th e C e n tr a l J a v a C o m m itte e o f th e PK I a p p e a le d to m e m b e r s o f th e " S ta te m e n t o f th e N o r th S u m a tr a C o m m itte e o f th e In d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r t y ” (I s s u e d on O c to b e r 4, 1 9 6 5 ), p r in te d in H a r ia n H arap an (O cto b er 5, 1 9 6 5 ). T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I, p. 186. 189 " S ta te m e n t of th e P o l it ic a l B u r e a u o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f the I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty " (I s s u e d on O c to b e r 5 ). P r in te d in A r iw a r ti W aspada (O c to b er 8 and 9 ). T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I, pp. 1 8 8 -1 8 9. === [PDF page 229] === 222 PK I to c e a s e v io le n t a c tiv ity: 1. T o h e lp c r e a te a c a lm and o r d e r ly a tm o s p h e r e in th e r e g io n s a s a c o n d itio n fo r sm o o th in g th e w a y to a p o li t ic a l s o lu tio n to th e p r o b le m o f th e " S e p te m b e r 3 0 th M o v em en t" a s s e t fo r th in th e M e s s a g e o f H is E x c e lle n c y th e P r e s i d e n t / S u p r e m e C o m m a n d e r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n A r m e d F o r c e s / G r e a t L e a d e r o f th e R e v o lu tio n B ung K a rn o. 2. T o im p le m e n t fa ith fu lly th e d ir e c t iv e o f H is E x c e lle n c y th e P r e s id e n t in th e p le n a r y s e s s i o n o f th e D w ik o r a C a b in e t, th a t w e n o t l o s e our h e a d s, th a t w e n o t be r u le d by p a s s io n s f o r i b y a c c u s a t io n s and c o u n t e r - a c c u s a t io n s w h ic h s e r v e to so w d is c o r d am o n g u s, b e c a u s e t h is i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t N e k o lim d e s ir e and a r e w a itin g f o r. 3. T o s a fe g u a r d and c o n tin u o u s ly to s tr e n g th e n N a tio n a l R e v o lu tio n a r y U n ity b a s e d on th e N a sa k o m a x is and s p ir it, to a v o id p h y s ic a l c la s h e s w h ic h m ig h t a r i s e a m o n g f e llo w r e v o lu tio n a r y f o r c e s in th e r e g io n s, to r e in t e n s if y th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e P a n tja A z im a t R e v o lu s i / i. e., th e fiv e c h a r m s o f th e r e v o lu t io n / and to e n s u r e th e v ic t o r y o f D w ik o r a b y c r u s h in g the n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t p r o je c t " M a la y s ia. " ^ A s la t e a s D e c e m b e r 2, 1 9 6 5, N jo to, th e S e c o n d D ep u ty C h a ir m a n o f th e PK I, w a s d is a s s o c ia t in g th e P a r t y w ith th e S e p te m b e r 3 0 th M o v e m e n t. In an in t e r v ie w c o n d u c te d b y R is u k e H a y a sh i and T a k e h ik o T a d o k o r o, D ja k a r ta c o r r e s p o n d e n t s fo r th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e A sa h i E v e n in g N e w s, N jo to r e s p o n d e d to th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s: Q u e stio n: H ow abou t the f o r e ig n in flu e n c e on th e /S e p t e m b e r 30th M o v e m e n t/ M o v e m e n t? N jo to: I d o n 't kn ow a n y th in g ab ou t fo r e ig n in f lu e n c e on th e 30 S e p te m b e r M o v e m e n t. A s y o u g e n tle m e n k n ow, th e PK I b e lie v e s th a t i t i s an in t e r n a l m a t t e r o f th e A r m y. If you a s k w a s th e r e a n y f o r e ig n " A p p eal of th e C e n tr a l J a v a C o m m itte e o f th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r t y," in G em a M a s s a (O c to b er 9, 1 9 6 5 ). T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I, pp. 1 8 9 -1 9 0. === [PDF page 230] === 223 in f lu e n c e o n th e 30 S e p te m b e r M o v e m e n t i t m e a n s th e s a m e th in g a s a s k in g i s th e r e any fo r e ig n in f lu e n c e in the a r m y?... Q u e stio n: W hat do y o u th in k a b ou t th e r e p o r t s o r a n n o u n c e m e n ts w h ic h r e la t e th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty w ith th is m o v e m e n t and th e m u r d e r s o f s e v e n g e n e r a ls? N jo to: C o n c e r n in g th e c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n th e PK I and th e 30 S e p te m b e r M o v e m e n t and th e m u r d e r s o f s e v e n g e n e r a ls, th e PK I le a d e r s h ip, a s w a s th e c a s e w ith m o s t o t h e r s, k n ew n o th in g o f e it h e r o f the s e u n til a fte r th e y h a p p e n e d. A t th a t t im e, I, to g e th e r w ith F i r s t D ep u ty P r e m ie r D r. S u b a n d rio and a n u m b e r o f a r m y, n a v y, a ir f o r c e, and p o lic e g e n e r a l s, w a s on a jo u r n e y in S u m a tr a fo r th e s ta te. We h e a r d ab ou t th e 30 S e p te m b e r a ff a ir to g e th e r w h e n w e w e r e in P a n g k a la n B ra n d a n, N o r th S u m a tr a, and w e w e r e a ll s h o c k e d in th e s a m e w a y. Q u e stio n: W hat do you th in k o f P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's a n n o u n c e m e n t th a t th e 30 S e p te m b e r M o v e m e n t w a s n o t j u s t w ith in th e a r m y, bu t a l s o a p r o b le m o f th e n a tio n? N jo to: P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o on on e s id e s a id th a t " th e r e h a v e ta k e n p la c e e v e n ts in th e a r m y and in th e T ja k r a b ir a w a R e g im e n t ( P r e s id e n t ia l G uard R e g im e n t), " and on th e o th e r s id e he s a id i t i s a " n a tio n a l q u e s tio n. " T h e PK I f e e l s th e s a m e. If i t i s s a id th a t i t i s an in t e r n a l m a t te r o f th e a r m y, t h is i s n o t m e a n t to s a y th a t i t i s n ot a n a tio n a l q u e s tio n. Or th a t i t ca n n o t b e c o m e a n a tio n a l q u e s tio n. T he PK I h a s n e v e r b e lie v e d th a t. N e ith e r P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's o p in io n n o r th e P K I's o p in io n w h ic h i s th e s a m e i s a c o n tr a d ic tio n in te r m in i s. Q u e stio n: W hat do y o u th in k a b ou t th e a r m in g o f y o u r p a r ty w h ic h m a n y p e o p le s a w? E s p e c ia lly, h ow abou t th e P e m u d a R a k ja t? N joto: I n d o n e s ia n s now g e ttin g m il it a r y tr a in in g, in c lu s iv e o f th e u s e o f s e v e r a l k in d s o f c o n v e n tio n a l w e a p o n s, a r e n o t r e s t r i c t e d to C o m m u n is ts and m e m b e r s o f th e P e m u d a R a k ja t, th e fo u r f o r c e s - - a r m y, n a v y, a ir f o r c e, and p o lic e f o r c e - - a r e a ll tr a in in g m a s s e s o f c it iz e n s and y o u th s. A s y o u know in I n d o n e s ia n ow, in fa c in g " M a la y s ia, " a b o u t 22 m illio n v o lu n t e e r s h a v e b e e n o r g a n iz e d and, i f I am n o t w r o n g, i t i s P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's p la n th a t a ll o f th e m m u s t h a v e m ilit a r y tr a in in g.... === [PDF page 231] === 224 Q u e stio n: H ow ab ou t th e r e la t io n s b e tw e e n y o u r ow n a r m y and th e p r e s e n t p r o f e s s io n a l a r m y? N jo to: T h e PK I h a s n e v e r h ad i t s ow n a r m y. T h is i s w hy th e r e i s no c o n n e c tio n in any w a y b e tw e e n th is th in g th a t n e v e r e x is t e d and th e N a tio n a l a r m y.... Q u e stio n: W hat do y o u th in k ab ou t th e f o r e ig n r e p o r t s or in fo r m a tio n ab ou t th e n e w C o m m u n ist p a r ty w h o s e p o lic y w ill b e p e a c e fu l c o e x is t e n c e su c h a s in th e S o v ie t C o m m u n ist P a r ty? N jo to: It i s n ot p o s s ib le in I n d o n e s ia to e s t a b l is h a n o th e r C o m m u n is t p a r ty e x c e p t th e PK I, u n le s s p e r s o n s w an t to f o r c e and b r in g a b o u t th e fo r m in g o f a p a r ty o f c r y p to -C o m m u n is m o r p s e u d o -C o m m u n is m. A b ou t " p e a c e fu l c o e x is t e n c e, " th is i s n o t the fo r e ig n p o lic y lin e o f th e r e p u b lic. N o t o n ly th e C o m m u n is ts o p p o se th is lin e, but a ls o e v e r y M a n ip o lis t in I n d o n e s ia. T he c o r r e c t PK I and R e p u b lic 's fo r e ig n p o lic y lin e i s a im e d a t b u ild in g a n ew w o r ld w h e r e n o i m p e r ia l is m e x i s t s. C o n se q u e n tly th e f o r e ig n p o lic y i s a n t i- N e k o lim, and m a k in g c o n fr o n ta tio n o f th e N e fo a g a in s t O ld efo, fo r b u ild in g a n e w w o r ld w ith o u t im p e r ia li s m. Q u e stio n: H ow d o e s y o u r p a r ty p la n to a v o id a c i v i l w a r? N jo to: It i s tr u e th a t th e PK I i s tr y in g a s m u ch a s p o s s ib le to p r e v e n t a c i v i l w a r in I n d o n e s ia. A lth o u g h s o m e a r e tr y in g to m is in t e r p r e t th e 5 O c to b e r s ta te m e n t o f th e P o litb u r o o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e P K I, f iv e d a y s a ft e r th e 30 S e p te m b e r a f f a ir, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s u n d e n ia b le th a t th e a ttitu d e o f th a t s ta te m e n t i s a s e r io u s a tte m p t to p r e v e n t c iv il w a r. If m u r d e r s in f a c t and o th e r a c ts o f v io le n c e h a p p e n, t h is i s n o t th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f th e P K I, th e y a r e fu lly th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f th e o n e s w ho g o a g a in s t th e c o m m a n d s o f P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o. B u t i f th e PK I c o n tin u e s to be a c te d a g a in s t u n ju s tly th e n, o f c o u r s e, i t w il l h a v e th e r ig h t to d e fe n d i t s e l f. On N o v e m b e r 2 2, 1 9 6 5, A id it w a s su p p o se d ly c a p tu r e d and, a fe w d a y s la t e r, " c o n fe s s e d " th at: 191 R ep rin ted in In d o n esia, I, pp. 1 9 2 -1 9 3, 1 9 6 -1 9 7. === [PDF page 232] === 225 I w a s th e on e w ith th e h ig h e s t r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e S e p te m b e r 30 in c id e n t and w a s s u p p o r te d b y o th e r PKI o f f ic ia l s and o f f ic ia l s o f th e p e o p le 's o r g a n iz a tio n s u n d er th e P K I.192 H o w e v e r, in t h is a u th o r 's v ie w, th e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f s ta te m e n ts w ith in th e " c o n fe s s io n " w h ic h m a k e i t s u s p e c t: F i r s t, th e " c o n f e s s io n c o n te n d s th a t th e cou p w a s o r ig in a lly s c h e d u le d fo r 1 9 7 0, a fu ll f iv e y e a r s l a t e r. T he C o m m u n is ts a r e g e n e r a lly s u s p e c t e d by n o n -c o m m u n is ts o f h a v in g d e ta ile d lo n g - r a n g e m a s t e r p la n s, bu t th e r e i s no e v id e n c e th a t in p r a c t ic e th e y d o. S e c o n d, th e " c o n fe s s io n " c o n te n d s th a t th e r e v o lu tio n f a ile d due to th e la c k o f in t e r n a t io n a l c o m m u n is m 's and s p e c if i c a l ly, C o m m u n ist C h in a 's s u p p o r t. G iv en A id it 's p r e v io u s c o n s is t e n t e m p h a s is on th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e " in te r n a l fa c to r " and, w h a t m u s t h a v e b e e n, h is k n o w le d g e o f C o m m u n ist C h in a 's m in im a l c a p a b ilit ie s in t h is r e g a r d, t h is e x c u s e a p p e a r s to s e r v e no o th e r p u r p o s e th a n to ju s t if y S u h a r to 's n e w a n t i- C h in e s e fo r e ig n and d o m e s t ic p o l i c i e s. T h ir d, "the C o n fe s sio n " c o n te n d s th a t i f th e PK I had b e e n s u c c e s s fu l, th e y p la n n e d to g r a d u a lly r e d u c e th e fiv e b a s ic p r in c ip le s o f In d o n e s i a ' s p o lit ic a l p h ilo s o p h y (i. e., r e lig io n, n a t io n a lis m, h u m a n is m, d e m o c r a c y and s o c ia lis m ) and "m ak e th em n o th in g m o r e than f ig u r e h e a d s. " Is i t p o s s ib le fo r A id it a s th e C h a ir m a n o f the CC o f th e PK I, 192 An a b r id g e d v e r s io n o f th is c o n f e s s io n i s r e p r in te d in A p p en d ix V, pp. 2 6 9 -2 7 4. === [PDF page 233] === to s e r i o u s l y o p p o se " s o c ia lis m " and " d e m o c r a c y " a s h e w o u ld d e fin e th e m? I s th e r e a s e lf - id e n t if ie d C o m m u n ist w h o o p p o s e s " d e m o c r a c y " a n d /o r " s o c ia lis m "? I s i t lik e ly th a t A id it w o u ld b e in o p p o s itio n to th e s u b s ta n c e o f " s o c i a lis m a la In d o n e sia " o r "G uided D e m o c r a c y " a s h e u n d e r s to o d th e m? T h is a u th o r b e l ie v e s th a t th e a n s w e r to e a c h o f t h e s e q u e s tio n s i s an e m p h a tic " N o!" T h is " C o n fe s s io n " p r e s e n t s A id it in a m a n n e r w h ic h m a k e s h im a p p ea r to o m u c h lik e a s p o k e s m a n fo r S u h a r to ’ s g o v e r n m e n t, r a th e r th an a s a d e fe a te d le a d e r o f a C o m m u n is t P a r ty. A id it m a y h a v e b e e n c a p tu r e d, w r itte n th e " C o n fe s s io n, " and th en b e e n e x e c u t e d. It i s p r o b a b le th a t h e w a s and d id. H ow ever, th a t d o e s n ot m e a n th a t a " c o n fe s s io n " w r itte n b y h is ow n h a n d, u n d e r th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s, r e p r e s e n t s th e tr u th. In f a c t, u n le s s on e b e lie v e s th a t a ll o f h is s p e e c h e s and w r it in g s p r io r to N o v e m b e r 2 2, 1 9 6 5, w e r e d e lib e r a t e l i e s or th at h e h ad su d d e n ly c h a n g e d h i s g e n e r a l id e o lo g ic a l p e r c e p t io n o f c o n d itio n s in I n d o n e s ia, th e " C o n fe s s io n " i t s e l f i s n o n s e n s e. H o w e v e r, th a t d o e s n o t m e a n th a t th e PKI d id n o t p a r tic ip a te in an a n t i-A r m y o r e v e n a n ti-S u k a r n o p u ts c h. I t i s o n ly to co n ten d th a t A id it 's " C o n f e s s io n ” d o e s n o t p r o v e th a t i t d id. T h is p a p e r h a s m a d e th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty d o e s f it th e c a te g o r y h e r e in d e fin e d a s In d e p e n d en t C o m m u n ism. J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f h im s e lf h a s r a is e d th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s: If, a s A id it h a s r e p e a te d ly a s s e r t e d th e PK I i s n ow p la c in g th e c l a s s s tr u g g le b e lo w "the n a tio n a l s tr u g g le "... === [PDF page 234] === 227 th en w h a t e x a c t ly r e m a in s o f th e p a r ty ’ s d is t in c t iv e p o lit ic a l o r ie n ta tio n in th e in t e r n a t io n a l s e n s e? I f in lin e w ith c u r r e n t S o v ie t p r o n o u n c e m e n ts and w ith th e g e n e r a l M a r x is t - L e n in is t p o lic y - e v id e n c e d fr o m th e e a r l i e s t C o m in tern d ir e c t iv e s th ro u g h M a o ’ s th o u g h t, to th e 1961 p r o g r a m o f th e C P S U - - o f a d o p tin g a c r i t i c a l a ttitu d e to w a r d th e n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie, C o m m u n is t c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie and th e n o n -c o m m u n is t n a t io n a lis t s, sh o u ld at b e s t p r o c e e d w ith g r e a t c a u tio n, w h a t th e n b e c o m e s o f th e p a r ty ’ s n a tio n a l lin e? I f A id it i s o u tsp o k e n in h is e n d o r s e m e n t o f th e " In d o n esia n S o c ia lis m " and c o u n s e ls a g a in s t " u top ian s o c ia lis t " t e n d e n c ie s w h ile a t th e s a m e tim e d ra w in g a d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n M a r x ia n S o c ia lia m and " In d o n esia n S o c ia lis m, " w h at b e c o m e s o f th e e s s e n t i a l M a r x is t c o m p o n e n t in th e PK I p r o g r a m and id e o lo g y? T he a n s w e r s to t h e s e th r e e q u e s t io n s, in r e v e r s e o r d e r, a r e a s fo llo w s: 1) "W hat b e c o m e s o f th e e s s e n t i a l M a r x is t c o m p o n e n t in the PK I p r o g r a m and id e o lo g y? " A id it 's d is tin c t io n b e tw e e n M a r x ia n S o c ia lis m and " In d o n esia n S o c ia lis m " w a s m o r e a p p a r e n t th an r e a l, b e in g b a s e d p r im a r ily on th e n e c e s s i t y o f C o m m u n ist P a r ty le a d e r s h ip in th e fo r m e r. 2) "W hat... b e c o m e s o f th e p a r t y 's n a tio n a l lin e? " It r e m a in e d u n s c a th e d, s in c e th e P K I's n a tio n a l fr o n t s t r a t e g y r e c o g n iz e s the " w a v e rin g " lo y a lt y o f th e n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie. In an y e v e n t, the PK I i s n o t bou n d by th e 1961 p r o g r a m o f th e C P S U n o r th e p o lit ic a l th ou gh t o f M ao T s e - T u n g. 3) "T hen w h a t e x a c t ly r e m a in s o f th e p a r ty 's d is t in c t iv e p o lit ic a l o r ie n ta tio n / i. e., d is t in c t iv e w ith r e f e r e n c e to th a t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e r n m e n t p r io r to th e "coup'jV in th e in te r n a tio n a l sen se? " N o t v e r y m u c h, and th a t i s an e s s e n t i a l p o in t! J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, " D ile m m a s o f I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is m, " P a c ifi1c _ A ffa ir s X X X V (S u m m e r, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 15 8. === [PDF page 235] === CONCLUSION M O N O C EN T R ISM, B IC E N T R ISM, P O L Y C E N T R ISM OR N O N C E N T R ISM? A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e S e c o n d W orld W ar and th e in d e p e n d e n t s u c c e s s e s o f th e Y u g o s la v, C h in e s e and V ie tn a m e s e C o m m u n ist l e a d e r s h ip s, th e a u th o r ita tiv e in t e r p r e ta tio n of M a r x is t - L e n in is t th e o r y h a s b e e n d iffu s e d. M o st n o n -C o m m u n is t a n a ly s is o f th e d is in te g r a tio n o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t i s b a s e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism h a s fo u n d e r e d on th e r o c k o f n a t io n a lis m. * S in c e C o m m u n is m, a s a th e o r y, ra n c o u n ter to the in c r e a s in g n a t io n a lis t s e n tim e n t o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y a g e, it h a s b e e n a s s u m e d th a t i t w a s r en t by th is tid e of p a r t ic u la r is m. E v e n ts in Y u g o s la v ia, C h in a, V ie tn a m and an in c r e a s in g n u m b e r o f o th e r l o c a l e s h a v e b e e n c ite d a s e v id e n c e fo r t h is v ie w. It i s th e c o n te n tio n o f t h is p a p er th a t in m o s t i n s t a n c e s, th is v ie w c o n fu s e s e f f e c t fo r c a u s e. A lth o u g h the I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t h a s fo u n d e r e d and, in f a c t, d is in te g r a te d, i t w a s n o t n a t io n a lis m. ^E. g., a s e a r ly a s 1 9 3 8, F r a n z B o r k e n a u, T he C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l (L ondon: F a b e r and F a b e r, L t d., 1 9 3 8 ). An e x c e p tio n to t h is s ta te m e n t m a y b e found in th e c a s e o f the C o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t in V ie tn a m. R e fe r to Ho Chi M inh, MT h e P a th W hich L ed M e T o L e n in is m, " in Ho Chi M inh, S e le c t e d W orks (H an oi, F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 6 0 -1 9 6 2 ), IV, pp. 4 4 8 - 4 5 0. H o w e v e r, the c a s e o f C hina and I n d o n e s ia a r e e x p lic it ly n o t e x c e p t io n s. 228 === [PDF page 236] === 229 per se w h ic h c a u s e d th a t r e s u lt. R a th e r, i t h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y th e p r a c t ic a l n e c e s s i t i e s o f r u le m a k in g /a d m in is tr a tio n on the p a r t o f n o n - R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty le a d e r s. P r io r to th e end o f W orld W ar II and the e s t a b lis h m e n t o f n o n - R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s in p o w e r w ith in n a t io n - s t a t e s, th e R u s s ia n s w e r e th e o n ly C o m m u n is ts r e s t r ic t e d by th e d ay by d a y n e c e s s i t i e s o f fo r m u la tin g and im p le m e n tin g r u le s a m o n g n o n -C o m m u n is t p e r s o n s n ot a lr e a d y c o m m itte d to th e l e a d e r s 1 id e o lo g ic a l p r e - s u p p o s it io n s. T he n o n -R u s s ia n C o m m u n is ts g e n e r a lly a g r e e d w ith th e fu n d a m en ta l i d e o lo g ic a l a s s u m p tio n s o f th e R u s s ia n C o m m u n is ts. In a d d itio n, th e y w e r e in m o s t c a s e s d iv o r c e d fr o m th e m a j o r it y o f th e " W e ster n " or " W e ster n " e d u c a te d n a t io n a lis t o r ie n te d e l i t e s a m o n g th e lo c a l p o p u la tio n in t h e ir ow n n a t io n - s t a t e s o r th e c o lo n ia l p o s s e s s i o n s o f o th e r n a t io n - s t a t e s. T h u s, n o n -R u s s ia n le a d e r s o f lo c a l C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s w e r e, in e s s e n c e, n o t le a d e r s, but f o llo w e r s. S in c e th e y h ad v e r y l i t t l e, i f a n y, s u b s ta n tiv e p o w e r, th e y did n o t m a k e d e c is i o n s, th e y o b e y e d d e c is io n s m a d e e ls e w h e r e. T h u s, th e d e m a n d s o f th e p o p u la tio n r e s id in g w ith in th e n a t io n - s t a t e o f th e S o v ie t U n ion w e r e m o r e d iv e r g e n t fr o m and m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e on th e C o m m u n ist le a d e r s h ip th an w e r e th o s e T h e te r m r u le m a k in g /a d m in is tr a tio n i s a p a r t o f the s tr u c tu a lfu n c tio n a l m o d e l d e v e lo p e d by G a b r ie l A lm o n d, " In tro d u ctio n: A F u n c tio n a l A p p ro a ch to C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t i c s, " in G a b r ie l A lm o n d and J a m e s C o le m a n ( e d s.), T he P o l it ic s o f th e D e v e lo p in g A r e a s (P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 3 - 6 4. === [PDF page 237] === 230 o f th e in t e r n a t io n a l p o p u la tio n o f n o n -R u s s ia n C o m m u n is ts. An e x c e p t io n to th e a b o v e a n a ly s is m a y b e fou n d in th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e C h in e se C o m m u n is t P a r ty b e tw e e n 1927 and 1 9 4 9. D u r in g th is p e r io d, M ao T s e -T u n g c a r r ie d o u t a s u c c e s s f u l c a m p a ig n a g a in s t the e x p o n e n ts o f th e C o m in te r n /M o s c o w p o s itio n w ith in th e C P C and e s t a b - l i s h e d a r e la t iv e l y in d e p e n d e n t p o s itio n. H o w e v e r, t h is e x c e p t io n su p p o r ts th e t h e s i s o f t h is p a p e r, s in c e th e C h in e s e P a r ty w a s th e o n ly n o n - R u s s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty d u rin g the p r e - w a r p e r io d b e g in n in g to a s s u m e th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f r u le m a k in g /a d m in is t r a t io n o v e r n o n - C o m m u n is t e le m e n t s. T h e g r o w in g a ttitu d in a l d is p a r it y b e tw e e n th e Y u g o s la v and S o v ie t C o m m u n is t le a d e r s h ip s a ls o d e v e lo p e d a s th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n is t p a r ty a s s u m e d s im i la r r e s p o n s ib ilit i e s d u rin g and a fte r th e S e c o n d W orld W ar. P o p u la r a ttitu d e s w ith in n a t io n - s t a t e s v a r y s ig n if ic a n t ly fr o m c u ltu r e to c u ltu r e. T h u s, th e ty p e s o f su p p o rt r e s t r i c t i o n s p la c e d upon p o lit ic a l le a d e r s v a r y fr o m c u ltu r e to c u ltu r e. T o the e x te n t th a t th e d e s i r e s o f th e p o lit ic a lly c o n s c io u s p e r s o n s w ith in n o n -in d u s tr ia l n a tio n s t a t e s r e v o lv e a ro u n d th e tw in p o le s o f in d u s t r ia liz a t io n and a n t i- c o lo n ia l n a t io n a lis m, th en to th a t e x te n t r e s p o n s ib le C o m m u n ist P a r ty le a d e r s h a v e h ad to s o adap t t h e m s e lv e s. It i s a t t h is p o in t th a t C o m m u n ists John R u e, M a o ism in C hin a! M aot s E a r ly J u d g e m e n ts o f S ta lin, (D itto ). P a p e r p r e s e n t e d b e fo r e th e in a u g u r a l m e e tin g o f A s ia n s tu d ie s on th e P a c if i c C o a st a s p a r t o f a p a n e l e n tit le d, P o ly c e n t r is m in A s ia C o m m u n is m, San F r a n c is c o S ta te C o lle g e, Ju n e 18, 1 9 6 6. === [PDF page 238] === 231 b e c o m e N a t io n a lis t s, n o t b e f o r e. T h a t i s, i t i s a t th is p o in t th a t C o m m u n is t le a d e r s m a y b e g in to c o n s c io u s ly id e n t ify th e p a r t y 's i n t e r e s t s w ith th o s e o f th e n a t io n - s t a t e w ith in w h ic h th e y a r e d o m ic ile d. H ow ever, th is c o n s c io u s id e n t if ic a t io n w ith n a t io n a lis m i s s t i l l d iffic u lt and, h e n c e, C o m m u n ist le a d e r s m a y b e r e lu c ta n t to id e n t ify t h e m s e lv e s a s su c h. T h u s, th e m o tiv a tio n o f C o m m u n ist le a d e r s fo r m a k in g a d a p ta tio n s to lo c a l n a t io n a lis t p r e s s u r e s w a s n o t (w ith s o m e e x c e p t io n s - - n o t a b ly th a t o f th e N o r th V ie tn a m e s e ) n a t io n a lis t ic o r fo r p u r p o s e s o f n a t io n a lis m. T he p u r p o s e w a s to s e c u r e p o w e r in o r d e r to im p le m e n t in t e r n a t io n a lis t g o a ls. T he C o m in te r n /C o m in fo r m p e r io d w a s m o n o c e n t r ic ( i. e., s in g le c e n te r e d ), d o c tr in e b e in g a u t h o r ita tiv e ly in t e r p r e t e d b y th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e C P S U. In d iv id u a l C o m m u n is ts o r, in th e c a s e o f Y u g o s la v ia, C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s w h ic h d id not s u b s c r ib e to th e S o v ie t le a d e r s h ip 's in t e r p r e ta tio n o f th e d o c tr in e, w e r e e x p e lle d fr o m th e in te r n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t. T h is, o f c o u r s e, im p lie d th a t th e r e w a s an o r g a n iz e d in te r n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t fr o m w h ic h one c o u ld b e e x p e lle d. T he c a s e o f th e N o r th V ie tn a m e s e m a y a g a in b e v ie w e d a s an e x c e p tio n. ^E. g., th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty e x p r e s s e d a n e g a tiv e a t t i tu d e to w a r d s th e " T h e s is on th e N a tio n a l and C o lo n ia l Q u estio n " a d o p ted b y th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s of th e C o m in te r n in J u ly, 1 9 2 0, due to th e ir b e lie f th at i t w a s o r ie n te d to o m u ch to w a r d s N a tio n a lis m. R uth T. M cV e y, T he R is e o f I n d o n e sia n C o m m u n ism (Ith aca: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, === [PDF page 239] === 232 F o llo w in g th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M e e tin g o f 1 9 5 7, d iv e r g e n c ie s b e tw e e n f r a t e r n a l p a r t ie s b e g a n to b ecom e e v id e n t. H ow ever, n o n - M a r x is t a n a ly s t s h a v e n o t a g r e e d on w h a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h is i s fo r C o m m u n is t I n t e r - P a r t y p o lit ic a l r e la t io n s h ip s. T h e m o s t p o p u la r a p p ro a c h a p p e a r s to be th a t o f d iv id in g C o m m u n is t P a r t ie s a c c o r d in g to th e ir p o s itio n a s p r o - S o v ie t o r p r o - C h in e s e. T o the e x te n t th a t th e r e a r e tw o g e n e r a liz e d in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f w h a t th e c r e a t iv e a p p lic a tio n o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m r e q u ir e s d u rin g the p r e s e n t e p o c h, a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a ll C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s a c c o r d in g to w h ic h o f t h e s e tw o in t e r p r e t a t io n s th e y s u b s c r ib e m a y b e a p p r o p r ia te. H ow ever, su c h an a p p r o a c h le n d s i t s e l f m o r e to c o n fu s io n th an i t d o e s to e n lig h te n m e n t, T h is i s due to the p r o p e n s ity to c o n fu se a g r e e m e n t on g e n e r a l p r in c ip le s w ith th e e x is t e n c e o f d o m in a n t/s u b o r d in a te r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. T h u s, C o m m u n is t P a r t ie s w h ic h sou n d o r ad op t p o s it io n s s im ila r to th o s e o f th e C P SU a r e " p r o -S o v ie t, " w h ile th o s e w h ic h so u n d o r ad op t p o s it io n s s i m i l a r to th o s e o f th e C P C a r e " p r o - C h in e s e. " T h u s, th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t i s v ie w e d E. g., " C h e c k lis t o f C o m m u n ist P a r ty P o s it i o n s in th e S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, a s o f J a n u a r y 1965" (F u r n is h e d b y the D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te in a d v a n c e o f i t s p u b lic a tio n in m o r e c o m p le te fo r m in th e 17th A n n u al R e p o r t on W orld S tr e n g th o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty O r g a n iz a tio n s ), in s u b c o m m itte e on th e F a r E a s t and th e P a c i f i c, C o m m itte e on F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, U n ited S ta te s H o u se o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s, S in o -S o v ie t C o n flic t; R e p o r t on S in o -S o v ie t C o n flic t and i t s I m p lic a t io n s (W a sh in g to n, D. C.: U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffic e, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 7 R -1 9 R. === [PDF page 240] === 233 a s b ic e n t r ic (i. e., h a v in g tw o c e n t e r s ). A n e x a m p le o f t h is v ie w can be fou nd in P. J. H o n e y 's b o o k, C o m m u n ism in N o r th V ie tn a m, w h e r e he w r it e s: T h e s itu a tio n o f th e /D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b lic o f V ie tn a m / h a s g r o w n e x t r e m e ly p r e c a r io u s, f o r, a lth o u g h no fo r m a l b r e a k h a s y e t c o m e a b ou t b e tw e e n C hina and th e S o v ie t U nion, Ho Chi M inh h a s b e e n fa c e d w ith th e n e c e s s i t y o f m a k in g a c h o ic e b e tw e e n th e tw o w h ic h e v e n h e, c o n s u m a te p o lit ic ia n though h e i s, co u ld n o t e s c a p e. S in c e a ll s t a t e s w e r e in v ite d to s ig n th e p a r tia l n u c le a r t e s t ban tr e a ty, th e DRV w a s o b lig e d to s ta te p u b lic ly w h e th e r s h e w o u ld o r w o u ld n o t s ig n. N o e v a s io n w a s p o s s ib le, n o r w a s th e r e an y r o o m fo r doubt th a t, in th e c a s e o f C o m m u n ist s t a t e s, to s ig n w a s to a lig n o n e s e lf w ith th e S o v ie t U nion and to r e f u s e to ta k e th e s id e o f C h in a. N o r th V ie tn a m h a s n o w p u b lic ly r e f u s e d to s ig n. B y t h is a c tio n s h e h a s b o w e d to th e in e v it a b le and a lig n e d h e r s e l f w ith C h in a. ® H o w e v e r, th e N o r th V ie tn a m e s e did s e n d a d e le g a tio n to the T w e n ty - T h ir d C o n g r e s s o f th e C P S U in M a r c h, 1966; e v e n though th e C P C r e f u s e d to a tte n d and a tte m p te d to d i s c r e d i t th e S o v ie t U n io n th e r e b y. I s one to a s s u m e t h e r e f o r e th a t th e N o r th V ie tn a m e s e le a d e r s h ip h a s s w itc h e d a llia n c e s and b ecom e p r o - S o v ie t? D o w e f o llo w t h is p r o c e s s w ith e a c h and e v e r y p o s itio n ta k e n b y th e N o r th V ie t n a m e s e? One day p r o - S o v ie t, a n o th e r day p r o - C h in e s e and s o fo r th? It i s n o t lik e l y th a t e v e n a C o m m u n is t w o u ld c h a n g e p o lit ic a l a ll e g ia n c ie s s o o fte n. One m a y ch a n g e p o s itio n due to a d e s i r e to b e o b e d ie n t to th e le g it im a t e le a d e r s h ip. A s the le a d e r s h ip c h a n g e s p o s itio n, so do t h e ir P. J. H o n e y, C o m m u n ism in N o r th V ie tn a m: I t s R o le in th e S in o -S o v ie t D is p u te (C a m b rid g e: T h e M. I. T. P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 ), e p ilo g u e. === [PDF page 241] === 234 su p p o rter s. H o w e v e r, i f on e a p p e a r s to b e s w itc h in g lo y a lt i e s b a c k and fo r th, th e o b s e r v e r c a n b e e x c u s e d i f h e c o n c lu d e s th a t th e s u b je c t i s n o t lo y a l a t a ll, but r a th e r th a t he i s b e in g tr u e t o h is ow n s e l f. T h u s, a p o lit ic a l a n a ly s is o f th e s u b s ta n tiv e p o lit ic a l n a tu r e o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t b a s e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t i t i s b ic e n t r ic i s in a d e q u a te. It f o r c e s u s to a d ju st th e f a c t s to f it a p r e c o n c e iv e d m o d e l, r a th e r th an c o m m ittin g u s to d e v e lo p a m o d e l w h ic h c o n fo r m s to th e e v id e n c e. A s im ila r c r i t i c i s m m u s t b e m a d e o f th e m o d e l p r e d ic a te d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e m o v e m e n t i s p o ly c e n t r ic. It i s p r o b a b ly tr u e th a t m a n y a n a ly s ts w ho s p e a k o f p o ly c e n t r is m do n o t m e a n b y i t w h a t i t m u s t m e a n, te c h n ic a lly s p e a k in g. A s h a s b e e n in d ic a te d a b o v e, th e te r m p o ly c e n t r is m h a s c o m e to im p ly th e e x is t e n c e o f a m u lt ip lic it y o f c e n t e r s; b u t c e n t e r s n e v e r t h e le s s. In a d d itio n, e a c h o f t h e s e c e n t e r s i s p e r c e iv e d o f a s v y in g fo r th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t a s a w h o le, or c e r t a in r e g io n a l g r o u p s t h e r e o f. T h u s, on e m ig h t id e n tify th e S o v ie t and C h in e s e a s c o m p e tit o r s fo r g e n e r a l le a d e r s h ip p o s it io n s and th e N o rth V ie tn a m e s e and C ubans a s " m id d le -m e n " fo r th e ir r e s p e c tiv e g e o g r a p h ic a l a r e a s. T h e r e i s, no d ou b t, tr u th in su c h a c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n, a s fa r a s i t g o e s. It i s p o s s ib le th a t s o m e C o m m u n ist P a r t i e s, e s p e c i a l l y th o s e fou n d ed s in c e 1956 in n o n - in d u s t r ia l a r e a s (e. g., A fr ic a ), Supra., pp. 2 9 - 3 0. === [PDF page 242] === 235 a r e s u b s e r v ie n t to one o f the m a jo r C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. H o w e v e r, the c o n te n tio n s e t fo r th in t h is p a p er i s th a t one ca n no lo n g e r s im p ly a s s u m e th a t a C o m m u n ist P a r ty i s by d e fin itio n, n ot in d e p e n d e n t. T h u s, one i s le f t w ith an I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t w h ic h i s " n o n c e n tr ic, M c o m p o s e d (to th e e x te n t th a t it i s c o m p o s e d a t a ll) o f in d e p e n d e n t f a c t io n s, e a c h in t e r p r e t in g th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e m o v e m e n t a s a w h o le in i t s own h ig h ly p a r t ic u l a r is t ic t e r m s. T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e d is in t e g r a t io n o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t in to in te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n ts a n d /o r l o c a lly d ir e c t e d and fo c u s e d in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s h a s b e e n th e l o s s to th e t e r m " C o m m u n ist" p e r se o f a n y s u b s ta n tiv e d e fin itio n a l u s e. What d o e s i t m e a n to id e n t ify a p e r s o n o r o r g a n iz a tio n a s " C o m m u n is t? " It m e a n s, at m o s t, th a t one c o n fo r m s to th e fo llo w in g n in e c r it e r ia: 1) an e x p r e s s id e n t ific a tio n w ith M a r x is t - L e n in is t th e o r y (h o w e v e r id io s y n c r a ti c a lly d efin ed ); 2) the b e l i e f in s o m e fo r m, p r io r to th e a tt a in m e n t o f th e fin a l C o m m u n ist s ta g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t, o f c l a s s c o n flic t ( s o c ia l c o n tr a d ic tio n s ); 3) th e b e l i e f in th e L e n in is t a p p lic a tio n o f th e th e o r y o f im p e r ia lis m; 4) an e x p r e s s id e n t if ic a t io n w ith p r o le t a r ia n - in t e r n a t io n a lis m (h o w e v e r i d i o s y n c r a t ic a lly d efin ed ); 5) a b e lie f in s o m e fo r m o f S o c ia lis m a s th e a p p r o p r ia te in t e r m e d ia t e fo r m o f e c o n o m ic and g o v e r n m e n ta l o r g a n iz a tio n; 6) a b e l i e f in th e n e c e s s i t y fo r a d is t in c t p a r ty, le d b y C o m m u n is ts, to s e r v e a s th e v a n g u a r d and in th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t (h o w e v e r id io s y n c r a ti c a lly d efin ed ); 7) a b e lie f in th e === [PDF page 243] === 236 n e c e s s i t y o f a C o m m u n ist le d p a r ty d ic ta t o r s h ip in c o n tr o l o f th e s ta te a p p a r a tu s d u rin g th e s t a g e s le a d in g up to and in c lu d in g th e s o c i a l i s t s ta g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t; 8) th e b e lie f in th e e v e n tu a l u n iv e r s a l a c c e p ta n c e of th e C o m m u n ist fo r m o f s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n; and, 9) (a lth o u g h th is c r i t e r i a m a y b e c o m e l e s s im p o r ta n t), th e r e c o g n it io n a s su c h by o th e r C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. It i s r e c o g n iz e d, o f c o u r s e, th a t t h e s e m in im u m c r i t e r i a la c k p r e c is io n. T h at th e y la c k p r e c is io n i s th e p o in t to b e e m p h a s iz e d. T here w a s a tim e w h e n th e t e r m " C o m m u n is t, " w h en a p p lie d to a p e r s o n or g r o u p, m e a n t th a t th e p e r s o n o r g ro u p b e lie v e d in c e r t a in s p e c if ic p o l i c i e s and a ttitu d e s w h ic h c o u ld b e c le a r ly id e n t ifie d a t a n y g iv e n p o in t in t im e. ^ N ow, on e m u s t id e n t ify a C o m m u n ist b y typ e; i t i s no lo n g e r s u f f ic ie n t to s im p ly id e n t ify on e a s a C o m m u n ist. What r e m a in s a m o n g m a n y C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s in n o n -in d u s tr ia l n a t io n - s t a t e s i s a p a r tic u la r a p p r o a c h to in d ig e n o u s p r o b le m s o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t c o u p le d to a h ig h ly n a t io n a lis t ic a n ti-" W e ste r n " a ttitu d e. ^ ^ T h e r e w e r e, o f c o u r s e, c e r t a in e x c e p t io n s to t h is s ta te m e n t, due to th e ig n o r a n c e o f c e r ta in p o s it io n s on th e p a r t o f C o m m u n is ts in r e m o te a r e a s o r s p e c ia l d is p e n s a tio n b y th e R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip. ^ C. f. "T he W e ste r n, in t e r n a t io n a l, p o s t - in d u s t r ia l, a n a r c h is t ic, p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n h ad b e c o m e th e E a s t e r n, n a tio n a l, in d u s t r ia liz in g, to t a lita r ia n, m i d d l e - c l a s s - i n t e l l e c t u a l r e v o lu tio n. " R o b e r t V. D a n ie ls ( e d.), A D o c u m e n ta r y H is to r y o f C o m m u n ism (N ew Y ork: R and om H o u s e, I 9 6 0 ), p. ix i. === [PDF page 244] === 238 p a r tic u la r p a r ty w ill b e su p p o r te d b y any o t h e r s. N o lo n g e r b e in g a b le to a s s u m e th a t th e y w i l l b e su p p o r te d, th e r e la t io n s h ip s b e t w e e n th e v a r io u s p a r t ie s w ill b e c h a r a c t e r iz e d in c r e a s in g ly b y t r a d it io n a l f o r m a lit y, i. e., w r itte n b i - l a t e r a l a n d /o r m u lt i- l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s o r t r e a t i e s. T he W a rsa w P a c t a n d /o r COM ECON m a y b e in t e r p r e t e d a s f o r e r u n n e r s o f th e ty p e o f a r r a n g e m e n ts e n v is a g e d h e r e. H o w e v e r, a d if f e r e n c e m ig h t b e fou n d in s o f a r a s th e W a r sa w P a c t and C O M EC O N w e r e b a s e d p r im a r ily on g e o g r a p h ic a l c o n s id e r a t io n s, w h ile th e t r e a t y a r r a n g e m e n t s e n v is io n e d h e r e w o u ld be b a s e d p r im a r ily on c o n s id e r a t io n s o f p o li t ic a l and id e o lo g ic a l a ffin ity. H e n c e, one m ig h t fin d p o lit ic a lly and i d e o l o g i c a l l y m o t iv a t e d r e l a tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s s i m i l a r to th o s e w h ic h h a v e c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e n a t io n - s t a t e s y s t e m s in c e th e C o n g r e s s o f V ie n n a (1813) and th e e x is t e n c e o f th e C o n c e r t o f E u r o p e. T h u s, th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f C o m m u n ist n a t io n - s t a t e s c o u p le d w ith th e d is c r e d it in g o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l A u th o r ity s t r u c t u r e b y D e s t a l in i z a - tio n and th e p o s t - S t a lin is t S o v ie t le a d e r s h i p ' s v a c c i l a t in g a ttitu d e to w a r d Y u g o s la v ia, h a s r e s u lt e d in C o m m u n ist P a r t y l e a d e r s h i p s d e fin in g M a r x is m - L e n in is m in th e ir ow n t e r m s. H o w ev er, it i s s u g g e ste d h e r e th at th e t e r m " in d ep en d en t" C o m m u n ism i s a m o r e a p p r o p r ia te t e r m th a n i s " n a tio n a l" C o m m u n ism f o r th e p u r p o se o f c h a r a c t e r iz in g n o n -s u b o r d in a te C o m m u n is t P a r t ie s. === [PDF page 245] === 237 T h is p h e n o m e n a m a y b e s t b e t e r m e d th e e m e r g e n c e o f " n a tio n a l a n t i c o lo n ia l L e n in is m. " A s in d ic a te d a b o v e, th is s h o u ld n o t be ta k en to b e a r e j e c t io n o f th e M a r x is t - L e n in is t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e p a r t i e s. H o w e v e r, M a r x is t- L e n in is t th e o r y h a s b e e n a d a p ted to th e a to m iz a tio n o f th e m o v e m e n t. T h u s, th e M a r x is t - L e n in is t c h a r a c t e r o f a p a r ty i s n o t a t i s s u e. T he o n ly r e le v a n t p o in t w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f " in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ism " i s a p a r tic u la r C o m m u n ist P a r t y 's a u to n o m y fr o m e x te r n a l c o n tr o l. H e n c e, p r o lo n g e d a tte m p ts to " p ro v e" th a t th e r e i s r e a lly n o th in g n e w in r e c e n t C o m m u n ist p r o n o u n c e m e n t s - - s u c h a s v a n d e r K r o e f 's s ta te m e n t th a t " n a tio n a l d e m o c r a c y, lik e n e w d e m o c r a c y, i s o ld w in e in n e w b o t t le s, and i t i s n o t th e n o v e lty o f th e c o n c e p t w h ic h m e r i t s a tte n tio n but i t s s im ila r it y w ith th e te n e t s o f tr a d itio n a l M a r x is m - 12 L e n in is m " - - m a y b e o f i n t e r e s t to th e s c h o l a s t i c s. H ow ever, it h as v e r y l i t t l e, i f a n y, r e le v a n c e to th e q u e s tio n o f in d e p e n d e n t C o m m u n ism. W hat th en d o e s th e fu tu r e h o ld w ith r e g a r d to a n in t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n is t m o v e m e n t? P r e s e n t tr e n d s in d ic a te th a t th e v a r io u s d is p u te s am o n g the C o m m u n is t p a r t ie s w i ll i n c r e a s e, i f th e y h a v e n o t a lr e a d y done s o, to th e p o in t th a t i t w ill not b e p o s s ib le to a s s u m e th a t any one 12 J u s tu s M. v a n d e r K r o e f, "On 'N a tio n a l D e m o c r a c y ': II. E v o lu tio n o f a C o n c e p t, " S u r v e y, N o. 47 (A p r il, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 1 4 3. === [PDF page 246] === APPENDICES 239 === [PDF page 247] === A P P E N D IX I P A R T IE S, G R O U PS A N D T R E N D S IN V IT E D T O T H E F IR ST C O M IN T E R N CONG RESS 1. T h e S p a rta k u sb u n d (C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f G erm a n y ) 2. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty (B o ls h e v ik s ) o f R u s s ia 3. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f G e r m a n -A u s tr ia 4. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f H u n g a ry 5. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f P o la n d 6. T he C o m m u n ist P a r t y o f F in la n d 7. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f E s to n ia 8. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f L a tv ia 9. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f L ith u a n ia 10. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f W hite R u s s ia 11. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f th e U k r a in e 12. T he r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s in th e C z e c h S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r ty 13. T h e " n arrow " B u lg a r ia n S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r ty (T e sn ia k i) 14. T he R u m a n ia n S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r ty 15. T he le f t w in g o f th e S e r b ia n S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r t y 16. T he le f t S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r ty o f S w ed en 17. T h e N o r w e g ia n S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic P a r ty 18. T h e " K la s s e n sa m p e n " g r o u p in D e n m a r k 240 === [PDF page 248] === 241 19. T he C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f H o lla n d 20. T h e r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s in th e B e lg ia n L a b o u r P a r ty 2 1. and 2 2. T h e g r o u p s and o r g a n iz a tio n s w ith in th e F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t and s y n d ic a lis t m o v e m e n t w h ic h b y and la r g e su p p o rt L o r io t 23. T h e le f t s o c ia l - d e m o c r a t s o f S w itz e r la n d 24. T h e I ta lia n S o c ia lis t P a r ty 25. T h e le f t e le m e n t s in th e S p a n ish S o c ia li s t P a r ty 26. T h e le f t e le m e n t s in th e P o r tu g u e s e S o c ia l is t P a r ty 27. T h e l e f t e le m e n t s in th e B r it is h S o c ia lis t P a r ty (in p a r tic u la r th e g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a clea n ) 28. T h e S o c ia lis t L a b o u r P a r ty (E ngland) 29. T h e I. W. W. (E ngland) 30. T h e I. W. o f G r e a t B r ita in 31. T h e r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s am o n g th e Shop S te w a r d s (G r e a t B r ita in ) 32. T he r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n t s in th e I r is h w o r k e r s ' o r g a n iz a tio n s 33. T h e S o c ia lis t W o r k e r s ' P a r ty o f A m e r ic a 34. T h e le f t e le m e n t s in th e A m e r ic a n S o c ia li s t P a r ty (in p a r tic u la r th e g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d b y D e b s and th e L e a g u e fo r S o c ia lis t P r o p a g a n d a ) 35. T h e I. W. W. (A m e r ic a ) 3 6. T h e I. W. W. (A u s tr a lia ) 37. T h e W o r k e r s' I n te r n a tio n a l I n d u s tr ia l U nion (A m e r ic a ) 3 8. S o c i a l i s t g r o u p s in T o k y o and Y o k o h a m a (r e p r e s e n t e d b y c o m r a d e K ata y a m a ) === [PDF page 249] === 242 39. T he S o c ia lis t Y outh I n te r n a tio n a l (r e p r e s e n t e d b y c o m r a d e M u n zen b erg ) SO U R C E: J a n e D e g r a s ( e d.), T h e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l 1 9 1 9 - 1943: D o c u m e n ts I (L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6 ), pp. 3 - 4. === [PDF page 250] === A P PE N D IX II S T A T U T E S O F T H E COM M UNIST IN T E R N A T IO N A L A D O P T E D A T T H E SE C O N D C O M IN T E R N CONGRESS T h a t th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s m u s t b e c o n q u e r e d b y th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s t h e m s e lv e s; th a t th e s tr u g g le fo r th e e m a n c ip a tio n of th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s m e a n s n o t a s tr u g g le fo r c l a s s p r iv ile g e s and m o n o p o lie s, b u t fo r e q u a l r ig h ts and d u t ie s, and th e a b o litio n of a ll c l a s s r u le; T h a t th e e c o n o m ic a l s u b je c tio n o f th e m a n o f la b o u r to th e m o n o p o liz e r o f th e m e a n s o f la b o u r, th a t i s th e s o u r c e s o f l i f e, l i e s a t th e b o tto m o f s e r v itu d e in a ll i t s f o r m s, o f a ll s o c i a l m i s e r y, m e n ta l d e g r a d a tio n, and p o lit ic a l d e p e n d en ce; T h a t th e e c o n o m ic a l e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s i s th e r e fo r e th e g r e a t en d to w h ic h e v e r y p o lit ic a l m o v e m e n t o u gh t to b e s u b o r d in a te a s a m e a n s; T h a t a ll e ffo r ts a im in g a t th a t g r e a t en d h a v e h ith e r to fa ile d fr o m the w an t o f s o lid a r it y b e tw e e n th e m a n ifo ld d iv is io n s o f la b o u r in e a c h c o u n tr y, and fr o m th e a b s e n c e o f a f r a t e r n a l bond o f u n io n b e tv e e n th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s o f d if fe r e n t c o u n tr ie s; T h a t th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f la b o u r i s n e ith e r a lo c a l n o r a n a tio n a l, but a s o c ia l p r o b le m, e m b r a c in g a ll c o u n t r ie s in w h ic h m o d e r n s o c ie t y 243 === [PDF page 251] === 244 e x i s t s, and d ep en d in g fo r i t s s o lu tio n o n th e c o n c u r r e n c e, p r a c t ic a l and t h e o r e t ic a l, o f th e m o s t a d v a n c e d c o u n tr ie s; T h a t th e p r e s e n t r e v iv a l o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s e s in th e m o s t in d u s tr io u s c o u n tr ie s o f E u r o p e, w h ile i t r a i s e s a n ew h o p e, g iv e s s o le m n w a r n in g a g a in s t a r e la p s e in to th e o ld e r r o r s and c a l l s fo r th e im m e d ia t e c o m b in a tio n o f th e s t i l l d is c o n n e c te d m o v e m e n t s. T h e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l, fo u n d ed in P a r is in 1 8 8 9, u n d e r to o k to c a r r y on the w o r k o f th e F i r s t I n te r n a tio n a l. B ut in 1 9 1 4, a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e w o r ld s la u g h t e r, it s u f f e r e d c o m p le te b r e a k d o w n. U n d e r m in e d b y o p p o r tu n is m, and s h a tte r e d by th e t r e a c h e r y o f i t s l e a d e r s, w ho w en t o v e r to th e s id e o f th e b o u r g e o is ie, th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l c o lla p s e d. T h e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, fo u n d ed in M a rc h 1919 in th e c a p ita l o f th e R u s s ia n F e d e r a l S o v ie t R e p u b lic, M o sc o w, s o le m n ly d e c la r e s b e fo r e th e e n t ir e w o r ld th a t i t u n d e r ta k e s to c o n tin u e and to c a r r y th ro u g h to th e en d th e g r e a t w o r k b e g u n b y the F i r s t I n te r n a tio n a l W o r k in g m e n 's A s s o c ia t io n. T he C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l w a s fo r m e d a fte r th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e im p e r i a l i s t w a r o f 1 9 1 4 -1 8, in w h ic h th e i m p e r i a l i s t b o u r g e o is ie of th e d iffe r e n t c o u n t r ie s s a c r i f ic e d 20 m il lio n m e n. " R e m e m b e r th e i m p e r i a l i s t w a r! " T h e s e a r e th e f i r s t w o r d s a d d r e s s e d b y th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l to e v e r y w o r k in g m a n and w om an; w h e r e v e r th e y liv e and w h a te v e r la n g u a g e th e y sp e a k. R e m e m b e r th a t === [PDF page 252] === 245 b e c a u s e o f th e e x is t e n c e o f c a p it a l is t s o c ie t y a h a n d fu l o f im p e r ia li s t s w e r e a b le to f o r c e th e w o r k e r s o f th e d if fe r e n t c o u n t r ie s fo r fo u r lo n g y e a r s to cu t e a c h o th e r s th r o a t s. R e m e m b e r th a t th e w a r o f th e b o u r g e o is ie c o n ju r e d up in E u r o p e and th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld th e m o s t fr ig h tfu l fa m in e and th e m o s t a p p a llin g m i s e r y. R e m e m b e r, th a t w ith o u t th e o v e r th r o w o f c a p it a lis m th e r e p e t itio n o f s u c h r o b b e r w a r s i s n ot o n ly p o s s i b l e, but in e v it a b le. It i s th e a im o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l to fig h t b y a ll a v a il a b le m e a n s, in c lu d in g a r m e d s t r u g g le, fo r th e o v e r th r o w of th e i n t e r n a tio n a l b o u r g e o is ie and fo r th e c r e a t io n o f an in te r n a tio n a l S o v ie t r e p u b lic a s a t r a n s it io n a l s ta g e to the c o m p le te a b o litio n o f th e S ta te. T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l c o n s id e r s th e d ic ta t o r s h ip of th e p r o le t a r ia t th e o n ly p o s s ib le w a y to lib e r a t e m a n k in d fr o m th e h o r r o r s o f c a p it a lis m. A nd th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l c o n s id e r s th e S o v ie t p o w e r th e h i s t o r ic a lly g iv e n fo r m of t h is d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t. T h e i m p e r i a l i s t w a r bound th e d e s t i n ie s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t o f e a c h c o u n tr y v e r y c l o s e l y to th e d e s t in ie s o f th e p r o le t a r ia t o f a ll o th e r c o u n t r ie s. T he i m p e r i a l i s t w a r o n c e a g a in c o n fir m e d w h at w a s w r itte n in th e s ta tu te s of th e F i r s t I n te r n a tio n a l; th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e w o r k e r s i s n o t a l o c a l, n o r a n a tio n a l, b u t an in t e r n a t io n a l p r o b le m. T h e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l b r e a k s o n c e and fo r a ll w ith the tr a d it io n s o f th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l, fo r w h o m in fa c t o n ly w h it e - sk in n e d p e o p le e x is t e d. T h e ta s k o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l i s to === [PDF page 253] === 246 lib e r a t e th e w o r k in g p e o p le o f th e e n t ir e w o r ld. In i t s r a n k s th e w h ite, th e y e llo w, and th e b la c k - s k in n e d p e o p l e s - - t h e w o r k in g p e o p le o f th e e n t ir e w o r l d - - a r e f r a t e r n a lly u n ite d. T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l su p p o r ts to the fu ll th e c o n q u e s ts o f th e g r e a t p r o le t a r ia n r e v o lu tio n in R u s s ia, th e f i r s t v ic t o r io u s s o c i a l i s t r e v o lu tio n in w o r ld h is t o r y, and c a l l s on th e p r o le t a r ia t o f th e e n tir e w o r ld to ta k e th e s a m e p a th. T h e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l u n d e r ta k e s to su p p o r t e v e r y S o v ie t r e p u b lic, w h e r e v e r i t m a y b e fo r m e d. T he C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l r e c o g n iz e s th a t in o r d e r to h a s te n v ic t o r y, the W o r k in g m en 1s A s s o c ia t io n w h ic h i s fig h tin g to a n n ih ila te c a p it a lis m and c r e a t e c o m m u n is m m u s t h a v e a s tr o n g ly c e n t r a liz e d o r g a n iz a tio n. T h e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t, in f a c t and in d e e d, b e a s in g le c o m m u n is t p a r ty o f th e e n tir e w o r ld. T he p a r t ie s w o r k in g in th e v a r io u s c o u n tr ie s a r e b u t i t s s e p a r a t e s e c t io n s. T he o r g a n iz a tio n a l m a c h in e r y o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t g u a r a n te e th e w o r k e r s of e a c h c o u n try th e o p p o rtu n ity o f g e ttin g th e u t m o s t h e lp fr o m th e o r g a n iz e d p r o le t a r ia t o f o th e r c o u n tr ie s a t any g iv e n m o m e n t. F o r th is p u r p o s e th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l r a t if i e s th e f o llo w in g s ta tu te s: 1. T h e n ew in te r n a tio n a l a s s o c ia t io n o f w o r k e r s i s e s t a b lis h e d to o r g a n iz e jo in t a c tio n b y th e p r o le t a r ia t o f th e d iffe r e n t c o u n t r ie s w h ic h p u r su e th e o n e g o a l: the o v e r th r o w o f c a p it a lis m, th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e d ic ta to r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t and o f an in t e r n a t io n a l S o v ie t r e p u b lic === [PDF page 254] === 247 w hich, w ill c o m p le t e ly a b o lis h a ll c l a s s e s and r e a li z e s o c i a l i s m, th e f i r s t s ta g e o f c o m m u n is t s o c ie t y. 2. T h e n e w in te r n a tio n a l a s s o c ia t io n o f w o r k e r s i s c a lle d "T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. " 3. A ll p a r t ie s b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l b e a r th e n a m e " C o m m u n ist P a r t y o f su c h and su c h a c o u n try ( s e c t io n o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l). " 4. T h e s u p r e m e a u th o r ity in th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l i s th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s o f a ll th e p a r t ie s and o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ic h b e lo n g to i t. T he w o r ld c o n g r e s s m e e t s r e g u la r ly o n c e a y e a r. T h e w o r ld c o n g r e s s a lo n e i s e m p o w e r e d to ch a n g e th e p r o g r a m m e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. T h e w o r ld c o n g r e s s d i s c u s s e s and d e c id e s th e m o s t im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n s o f p r o g r a m m e and t a c t i c s c o n n e c te d w ith th e a c t iv i t i e s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. T he n u m b e r o f v o t e s to w h ic h e a c h p a r ty o r o r g a n iz a tio n i s e n tit le d s h a ll b e fix e d b y s p e c ia l c o n g r e s s d e c is io n. 5. T h e w o r ld c o n g r e s s e l e c t s th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, w h ic h i s th e d ir e c t in g b o d y o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l in th e p e r io d b e tw e e n i t s w o r ld c o n g r e s s e s. T h e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e i s r e s p o n s ib le o n ly to th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s. 6. T h e s e a t o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l s h a ll b e d e te r m in e d on e a c h o c c a s io n b y the w o r ld c o n g r e s s of th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. === [PDF page 255] === 248 7. A n e x tr a o r d in a r y w o r ld c o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l m a y b e c o n v e n e d e it h e r b y a d e c is i o n o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o r a t th e r e q u e s t o f h a lf th e p a r t ie s w h ic h b e lo n g e d to th e C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l a t th e tim e o f i t s p r e c e d in g w o r ld c o n g r e s s. 8. T h e c h ie f w o r k o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e f a l l s on th e p a r ty of th a t c o u n tr y w h e r e, b y d e c is io n o f th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s, th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e h a s i t s s e a t. T he p a r ty o f th e c o u n tr y in q u e s tio n s h a ll h a v e fiv e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s w ith fu ll v o tin g p o w e r s on th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e. In a d d itio n th e te n to t h ir t e e n m o s t im p o r ta n t c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s, th e l i s t to be r a t if ie d b y th e r e g u la r w o r ld c o n g r e s s, s h a ll e a c h h a v e one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e w ith fu ll v o tin g p o w e r s on th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e. O th er o r g a n iz a tio n s and p a r t ie s a c c e p t e d by th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h a v e th e r ig h t to d e le g a te to th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e e a c h, w ith c o n s u lta tiv e v o ic e. 9. T h e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e c o n d u c ts th e e n tir e w o r k o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l fr o m one c o n g r e s s to th e n e x t, p u b lis h e s, in at le a s t fo u r la n g u a g e s, th e c e n tr a l o r g a n o f th e C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l (the p e r io d ic a l C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l), i s s u e s any n e c e s s a r y a p p e a ls in th e n a m e o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, and i s s u e s in s tr u c tio n s w h ic h a r e b in d in g on a ll p a r t ie s and o r g a n iz a tio n s b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. T h e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h a s th e r ig h t to d em a n d th at p a r t ie s b e lo n g in g to th e In te r n a tio n a l s h a ll e x p e l g r o u p s o r p e r s o n s w h o o ffen d a g a in s t in te r n a tio n a l d is c ip lin e, === [PDF page 256] === 249 and i t a ls o h a s th e r ig h t to e x p e l fr o m th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l th o s e p a r t ie s w h ic h v io la t e d e c is io n s o f th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s. T h e s e p a r t ie s h a v e th e r ig h t to a p p e a l to th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s. S h ou ld th e n e e d a r i s e th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e s h a ll s e t up in th e v a r io u s c o u n t r ie s i t s t e c h n ic a l and o th e r a u x ilia r y b u r e a u s, w h ic h a r e w h o lly su b o r d in a te to th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e. T he r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m it te e s h a ll c a r r y ou t th e ir p o lit ic a l t a s k s in c l o s e s t c o n ta c t w ith the p a r ty c e n tr e o f th e c o u n tr y c o n c e r n e d. 1 0. T he E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l h a s th e r ig h t to c o - o p t on to th e c o m m it t e e, w ith c o n s u lta t iv e v o i c e, r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and p a r t ie s w h ic h, w h ile n o t b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, s y m p a th iz e w ith and sta n d n e a r to i t. 11. T h e p r e s s o r g a n s o f a ll p a r t ie s and a ll o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ic h b e lo n g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, and th o s e w h ic h a r e r e c o g n iz e d a s s y m p a th iz in g p a r t ie s and o r g a n iz a t io n s, a r e bou nd to p u b lis h a ll o f f ic ia l d e c is io n s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l and i t s E x e c u tiv e C o m m it t e e. 12. T h e g e n e r a l s itu a tio n a ll o v e r E u r o p e and A m e r ic a c o m p e ls C o m m u n is ts th ro u g h o u t th e w o r ld to c r e a t e i l l e g a l c o m m u n is t o r g a n iz a tio n s s id e by s id e w ith th e le g a l o r g a n iz a tio n. T h e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e i s o b lig e d to s e e th a t t h is i s put in to e f f e c t e v e r y w h e r e. 13. A s a r u le p o lit ic a l c o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n th e in d iv id u a l p a r t ie s b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l w ill b e c o n d u c te d th ro u g h === [PDF page 257] === 250 th e E C C I. In u r g e n t c a s e s c o m m u n ic a tio n s m a y be d ir e c t, bu t th e EC CI s h a ll b e s im u lt a n e o u s ly in fo r m e d. 14. T r a d e u n io n s a d h e r in g to c o m m u n is t p la tfo r m and o r g a n iz e d in t e r n a t io n a lly u n d er th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, s h a ll fo r m a tr a d e u n io n s e c t io n o f the C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. T h e s e tr a d e u n io n s s h a ll se n d t h e ir r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s to th e w o r ld c o n g r e s s e s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l th ro u g h th e c o m m u n is t p a r t ie s o f th e c o u n tr ie s concerned. T h e tr a d e u n io n s e c t io n o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l s h a ll h a v e one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e w ith fu ll v o tin g p o w e r s on th e E C C I. T he EC C I h a s the r ig h t to se n d one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e w ith f u ll v o tin g p o w e r s to th e tr a d e u n io n s e c t io n o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. 15. T he C o m m u n ist Y outh I n te r n a tio n a l i s, lik e a ll o th e r m e m b e r s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, su b o r d in a te to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l and i t s E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e. T h e E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e o f the C o m m u n ist Y outh I n te r n a tio n a l h a s one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e w ith fu ll v o tin g p o w e r s on th e E C C I. T he ECCI h a s th e r ig h t to s e n d one r e p r e s e n t a t iv e w ith fu ll v o tin g p o w e r s to th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist Y outh I n te r n a tio n a l. 16. T he ECCI c o n fir m s th e a p p o in tm e n t o f th e in te r n a tio n a l s e c r e t a r y o f th e c o m m u n is t w o m e n ’ s m o v e m e n t and s h a ll o r g a n iz e the w o m e n ’ s s e c t io n o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. 17. W hen m o v in g fr o m one c o u n tr y to a n o th e r e v e r y m e m b e r of th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l s h a ll r e c e i v e th e f r a t e r n a l h e lp o f th e lo c a l === [PDF page 258] === 251 m e m b e r s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. SO U R C E: J a n e D e g r a s ( e d.), T he C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l 1 9 1 9 - 1943: D o c u m e n ts I (L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6 ), pp. 1 6 2 -1 6 6. === [PDF page 259] === A P PE N D IX III C O NDITIO NS O F ADM ISSION T O T H E COM M UNIST IN T E R N A T IO N A L A P P R O V E D B Y TH E SE C O N D C O M IN T E R N CONGRESS (A d op ted at th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h e ld in M o s c o w, J u ly 17th to A u g u st 7 th, 1920) T he F i r s t In a u g u ra l C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l did n o t d r a w up p r e c i s e c o n d itio n s fo r th e a d m is s io n o f s e p a r a t e p a r t ie s to th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. A t th e tim e th e F i r s t c o n g r e s s w a s c o n v e n e d th e r e w e r e o n ly C o m m u n is t tr e n d s and g r o u p s in th e m a jo r ity o f c o u n t r ie s. T he S e c o n d W orld C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h a s m e t u n d er d if fe r e n t c o n d itio n s. T h e r e a r e now in m o s t c o u n t r ie s n o t o n ly C o m m u n ist tr e n d s and t e n d e n c ie s, b u t C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s and o r g a n iz a t io n s. T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l i s n ow m o r e and m o r e o fte n r e c e iv in g a p p lic a tio n s fr o m p a r t ie s and g r o u p s w h ic h, but a s h o r t tim e a g o, b e lo n g e d to th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l and n ow d e s ir e to jo in th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l, b u t w h ic h h a v e n o t r e a ll y b e c o m e C o m m u n ist o r g a n iz a tio n s. T he S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l h a s c o m p le te ly c o lla p s e d: T h e in t e r m e d ia r y p a r t ie s and g r o u p s o f th e " C e n te r, " r e a liz in g th a t th e S e c o n d I n t e r n a tio n a l i s u t te r ly h o p e le s s, a r e tr y in g to le a n upon th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, w h ic h i s g r o w in g e v e r s tr o n g e r; a t the s a m e t im e, h o w e v e r, 252 === [PDF page 260] === 253 th e y h op e to p r e s e r v e su c h " au ton om y" a s w o u ld e n a b le th e m to p u r s u e t h e ir f o r m e r o p p o r tu n is t o r " C e n tr is t" p o lic y. T he C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l i s, to a c e r t a in d e g r e e, b e c o m in g th e fa s h io n. T h e d e s ir e o f s o m e o f th e le a d in g g r o u p s o f th e " c e n te r " to jo in th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l i s a n i n d ir e c t c o n fir m a tio n o f th e fa c t th a t th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h a s g a in e d th e sy m p a th y o f th e o v e r w h e lm in g m a j o r it y o f th e c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s w o r k e r s o f th e w h o le w o r ld, and th a t it i s b e c o m in g a g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r f o r c e e v e r y d ay. U n d er c e r t a in c ir c u m s t a n c e s, th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l m a y b e th r e a te n e d w ith th e d a n g e r o f d ilu tio n b y w a v e r in g, v a c illa t in g g r o u p s th a t h a v e n o t y e t a b a n d o n ed th e id e o lo g y o f th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l. M o r e o v e r, in s o m e o f th e la r g e p a r t ie s (Ita ly, S w e d e n, N o r w a y, Y u g o s la v ia and o th e r s ) th e m a j o r it y o f w h o s e m e m b e r s ad op t th e C o m m u n is t p o in t of v ie w, th e r e s t i l l r e m a in s a c o n s id e r a b le r e f o r m i s t and s o c i a l - p a c i f i s t w in g, w h ic h i s o n ly w a itin g fo r th e o p p o rtu n e m o m e n t to l i f t it s h e a d to b e g in an a c t iv e s a b o ta g e o f th e p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n, and th u s h e lp th e b o u r g e o is ie and th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l. N o C o m m u n ist sh o u ld f o r g e t th e l e s s o n s o f th e H u n g a ria n S o v ie t R e p u b lic. T h e a llia n c e b e tw e e n th e H u n g a ria n C o m m u n is ts and th e s o - c a lle d " L eft" s o c ia l - d e m o c r a t s c o s t th e H u n g a ria n p r o le t a r ia t d ea r; H e n c e, the S e c o n d W o rld C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l c o n s id e r s i t n e c e s s a r y to la y dow n th e m o s t p r e c i s e c o n d itio n s fo r th e a d m is s io n o f n ew p a r t ie s, and a ls o to p o in t out to th o s e p a r t ie s w h ic h === [PDF page 261] === 254 h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n a c c e p te d a s m e m b e r s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l, th e o b lig a tio n s th a t r e s t up on th e m. T h e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l r e s o l v e s th a t th e c o n d itio n s fo r m e m b e r s h ip in th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l s h a ll b e a s fo llo w s: 1. T h e d a ily p r o p a g a n d a and a g ita tio n m u s t b e a r a tr u ly C o m m u n i s t c h a r a c t e r and c o r r e s p o n d to th e p r o g r a m and a ll th e d e c is i o n s o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. A ll th e o r g a n s o f th e p r e s s th a t a r e in th e h a n d s o f th e P a r ty m u s t b e e d ite d by r e li a b le C o m m u n is ts w ho h a v e p r o v e d t h e ir lo y a lt y to th e c a u s e o f th e p r o le t a r ia n r e v o lu tio n. T he d ic ta t o r s h ip o f th e p r o le t a r ia t sh o u ld n o t b e sp o k e n o f s im p ly a s a c u r r e n t h a c k n e y e d fo r m u la; it s h o u ld be a d v o c a te d in su c h a w a y th a t i t s n e c e s s i t y sh o u ld b e a p p a r e n t to e v e r y r a n k - a n d - f ile w o r k in g m a n and w o m a n, e a c h s o ld ie r and p e a s a n t, and s h o u ld e m a n a te fr o m th e f a c t s o f e v e r y d a y lif e s y s t e m a t ic a l ly r e c o r d e d by o u r p r e s s d a y a fte r d a y. T he p e r io d ic a l and n o n - p e r io d ic a l p r e s s and a ll P a r ty p u b lis h in g o r g a n iz a tio n s m u s t b e w h o lly su b o r d in a te to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e P a r t y, ir r e s p e c t i v e a s to w h e th e r th e P a r ty a s a w h o le, a t th e g iv e n m o m e n t, i s le g a l or i l l e g a l. T h a t p u b lis h in g o r g a n iz a t io n s, a b u sin g th e ir a u to n o m y, sh o u ld p u r s u e a p o lic y th a t d o e s n o t c o m p le t e ly c o r r e s pon d to th e p o lic y of th e P a r t y, ca n n o t b e t o le r a t e d. In th e c o lu m n s o f th e n e w s p a p e r s, a t p u b lic m e e t in g s, in the tr a d e u n io n s, in th e c o - o p e r a t iv e s o c i e t i e s - - w h e r e v e r th e a d h e r e n ts o f th e === [PDF page 262] === 255 T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l g a in a c c e s s, th e y m u s t s y s t e m a t ic a l ly and m e r c i l e s s l y d e n o u n c e n o t o n ly th e b o u r g e o is ie, but a ls o i t s a s s i s t a n t s, th e r e fo r m is ts of e v e r y sh ad e. 2. E v e r y o r g a n iz a tio n d e s ir in g to b e lo n g to th e C o m m u n ist I n t e r n a tio n a l m u s t s t e a d ily and s y s t e m a t ic a l ly r e m o v e fr o m a ll r e s p o n s ib le p o s ts in th e L a b o r m o v e m e n t in th e P a r ty o r g a n iz a tio n, e d it o r ia l b o a r d s, tr a d e u n io n s, p a r lia m e n ta r y f r a c t io n s, c o - o p e r a t iv e s o c i e t i e s, m u n ic ip a lit ie s, e t c., a ll r e f o r m i s t s and f o llo w e r s o f th e " C e n te r, " and h a v e th e m r e p la c e d b y C o m m u n is ts e v e n a t th e c o s t o f r e p la c in g a t th e b e g in n in g, " e x p e r ie n c e d " le a d e r s b y r a n k - a n d - f ile w o r k in g -m e n. 3. T h e c l a s s s tr u g g le in a lm o s t a ll the c o u n tr ie s o f E u r o p e and A m e r ic a i s e n te r in g the p h a se o f c iv il w a r. U nd er su c h c o n d itio n s the C o m m u n is ts ca n h a v e no c o n fid e n c e in b o u r g e o is la w. T h ey m u s t e v e r y w h e r e c r e a t e a p a r a lle l i l l e g a l a p p a r a tu s w h ic h a t th e d e c is i v e m o m e n t co u ld a s s i s t th e P a r ty in p e r fo r m in g i t s du ty to th e r e v o lu tio n. In a ll c o u n tr ie s w h e r e, in c o n s e q u e n c e o f m a r t ia l la w o r e x c e p tio n a l la w s, the C o m m u n is ts a r e u n a b le to c a r r y on a ll th e ir w o r k le g a lly, a c o m b in a tio n o f le g a l and i l l e g a l w o r k i s a b s o lu t e ly n e c e s s a r y. 4. T h e o b lig a tio n to s p r e a d C o m m u n ist id e a s in c lu d e s th e p a r t ic u la r n e c e s s i t y o f p e r s is t e n t, s y s t e m a t ic p ro p a g a n d a in th e a r m y. W herever su c h p r o p a g a n d a i s fo r b id d e n b y e x c e p t io n a l la w s, i t m u s t be c a r r ie d on === [PDF page 263] === ille g a lly. T h e a b a n d o n m en t o f su c h w o r k w o u ld be e q u iv a le n t to th e b e t r a y a l o f r e v o lu tio n a r y d u ty and i s in c o m p a tib le w ith m e m b e r s h ip in th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. 5. It i s n e c e s s a r y to c a r r y on s y s t e m a t ic and s te a d y a g ita tio n in th e r u r a l d i s t r i c t s. T h e w o r k in g c l a s s c a n n o t c o n s o lid a te i t s v ic to r y w ith o u t th e b a c k in g o f at l e a s t p a r t o f th e a g r ic u lt u r a l la b o r e r s and th e p o o r e s t p e a s a n t s, and w ith o u t h a v in g n e u t r a liz e d, b y i t s p o lic y, a p a r t o f th e r e s t o f th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n. C o m m u n ist w o r k in th e r u r a l d i s t r i c t s i s a c q u ir in g a p r e d o m in a n t im p o r ta n c e d u rin g th e p r e s e n t p e r io d. It sh o u ld b e c a r r ie d on in th e m a in, by r e v o lu tio n a r y C o m m u n ist w o r k e r s o f b oth c it y and c o u n try o n ly, w ho h a v e c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e r u r a l d i s tr ic ts. T o r e f u s e to do t h is w o r k o r to t r a n s f e r su c h w o r k to u n tr u s t w o r th y h a l f - r e f o r m i s t s i s e q u a l to r e n o u n c in g th e p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu tio n. 6. E v e r y p a r ty th a t d e s i r e s to b e lo n g to th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t e x p o s e, n o t o n ly op en s o c i a l p a t r io t is m, but a ls o the f a ls it y and h y p o c r is y o f s o c ia l - p a c if is m; it m u s t s y s t e m a t i c a l ly d e m o n s tr a te to th e w o r k e r s th a t w ith o u t r e v o lu tio n a r y o v e r th r o w o f c a p it a lis m, no i n t e r n a tio n a l a r b itr a tio n c o u r t s, no d is a r m a m e n t, no " d e m o c r a tic " r e o r g a n i z a tio n o f the L e a g e o f N a tio n s w ill s a v e m a n k in d fr o m n e w im p e r i a l i s t === [PDF page 264] === 257 7. T he P a r t ie s d e s ir in g to b e lo n g to th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t r e c o g n iz e th e n e c e s s i t y o f a c o m p le te and a b s o lu te r u p tu re w ith r e f o r m is m and th e p o lic y o f th e " C e n te r, " and th e y m u s t c a r r y on p ro p a g a n d a in fa v o r o f th is r u p tu r e am o n g th e b r o a d e s t c i r c l e s o f th e p a r ty m e m b e r s h ip. O th e r w is e a c o n s is t e n t C o m m u n is t p o lic y i s im p o s s ib l e. T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l u n c o n d itio n a lly and p e r e m p t o r ily d e m a n d s th a t t h is s p lit be b r o u g h t a b ou t w ith th e l e a s t d e la y. T he C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l ca n n o t r e c o n c ile i t s e l f to th e fa c t th a t su c h a v o w e d r e f o r m i s t s, a s T u r a tti, K a u tsk y, H ilfe r d in g, H illq u it, L o n g u e t, M a cD o n a ld, M o d ig lia n i, and o t h e r s sh o u ld b e e n tit le d to c o n s id e r t h e m s e l v e s m e m b e r s o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. T h is w o u ld m a k e th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l r e s e m b le, to a c o n s id e r a b le d e g r e e, th e la te S e c o n d I n t e r n a tio n a l. 8. On th e q u e s tio n o f th e c o lo n ie s and o p p r e s s e d n a t io n a lit ie s an e s p e c i a l l y d is t in c t and c le a r lin e m u s t b e ta k e n b y th e p a r t ie s in th o s e c o u n t r ie s w h e r e th e b o u r g e o is ie p o s s e s s e s c o lo n ie s o r o p p r e s s e s o th e r n a tio n s. E v e r y p a r ty d e s ir o u s o f b e lo n g in g to th e T h ir d In te r n a tio n a l m u s t r u t h le s s ly d en o u n c e th e m e th o d s o f " th e ir own" i m p e r i a l i s t s in the c o lo n ie s, su p p o r tin g, n o t in w o r d s, b u t in d e e d s, e v e r y in d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n t in th e c o lo n ie s. It sh o u ld d em a n d the e x p u ls io n o f th e ir ow n im p e r i a l i s t s fr o m su c h c o lo n ie s, and c u ltiv a te a m o n g th e w o r k e r s o f th e ir === [PDF page 265] === 258 ow n c o u n tr y a tr u ly f r a t e r n a l a ttitu d e to w a r d s th e to ilin g p o p u la tio n s o f th e c o lo n ie s and o p p r e s s e d n a t io n a lit ie s and c a r r y on s y s t e m a t ic a g it a tio n in i t s ow n a r m y a g a in s t e v e r y k in d o f o p p r e s s io n o f th e c o lo n ia l p o p u la tio n. 9. E v e r y p a r ty th a t d e s i r e s to b e lo n g to th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t c a r r y on s y s t e m a t ic and p e r s i s t e n t C o m m u n is t w o r k in th e tr a d e u n io n s, in w o r k e r s ’ and in d u s t r ia l c o u n c ils, in th e c o - o p e r a t iv e s o c i e t i e s, and in o th e r m a s s o r g a n iz a t io n s. W ithin t h e s e o r g a n iz a tio n s i t i s n e c e s s a r y to c r e a t e C o m m u n ist g r o u p s, w h ic h by m e a n s o f p r a c t ic a l and stu b b o r n w o r k m u s t w in o v e r th e tr a d e u n io n s, e t c., f o r th e c a u s e o f C o m m u n is m. T h e s e c e l l s sh o u ld c o n s ta n tly d en o u n c e th e t r e a c h e r y o f th e s o c ia l - p a t r io t s and th e v a c illa t io n s o f the " C e n te r, " a t e v e r y s te p. T h e s e C o m m u n ist g r o u p s sh o u ld be c o m p le te ly su b o r d in a te to th e P a r ty a s a w h o le. 10. E v e r y p a r ty th at b e lo n g s to th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t c a r r y on a stu b b o r n s tr u g g le a g a in s t th e A m s te r d a m " In te r n a tio n a l" o f y e llo w tr a d e u n io n s. It m u s t p e r s i s t e n t ly p r o p a g a te a m o n g th e o r g a n iz e d w o r k e r s th e n e c e s s i t y o f a r u p tu re w ith th e y e llo w A m s te r d a m I n te r n a tio n a l. It m u s t g iv e a ll th e su p p o r t in i t s p o w e r to th e in c ip ie n t i n t e r n a tio n a l a llia n c e o f th e R ed tr a d e u n io n s a f f ilia t e d to th e C o m m u n ist In te r n a tio n a l. === [PDF page 266] === 259 11. T he p a r t ie s d e s ir in g to b e lo n g to th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t o v e r h a u l th e m e m b e r s h ip o f t h e ir p a r lia m e n ta r y f r a c t io n s, e lim in a te a ll u n r e lia b le e le m e n t s fr o m th e m, to c o n tr o l t h e s e f r a c t io n s, n o t o n ly v e r b a lly but in r e a lit y, to su b o r d in a te th em to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e P a r ty, and d em an d fr o m e v e r y C o m m u n ist m e m b e r o f p a r lia m e n t th a t h e d e v o te h is e n tir e a c t i v i t i e s to th e in t e r e s t o f r e a ll y r e v o lu tio n a r y p r o p a g a n d a and a g ita tio n. 12. P a r t ie s b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t be b u ilt up on /t h e p r in c ip le o f d e m o c r a tic c e n t r a lis m. A t th e p r e s e n t tim e o f a c u te c i v i l w a r, th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty w ill o n ly b e a b le fu lly to do i t s duty w h en i t i s o r g a n iz e d in th e m o s t c e n t r a liz e d m a n n e r, i f i t h a s ir o n d is c ip lin e, b o r d e r in g on m il it a r y d is c ip lin e, and i f th e P a r ty c e n te r i s a p o w e r fu l, a u th o r ita tiv e o r g a n w ith w id e p o w e r s, p o s s e s s i n g the g e n e r a l t r u s t o f th e p a r ty m e m b e r s h ip._ / 13. T he C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s o f th o s e c o u n t r ie s w h e r e th e C o m m u n is t s 1 a c t iv it y i s le g a l s h a ll m a k e p e r io d ic a l c le a n in g s ( r e - r e g is t r a t io n ) o f th e m e m b e r s o f th e P a r ty o r g a n iz a t io n s, so a s to s y s t e m a t ic a l ly c le a n s e th e p a r ty fr o m th e p e t t y - b o u r g e o is e le m e n t s w ho in e v it a b ly a tta c h t h e m s e lv e s to it. 14. E v e r y p a r ty th a t d e s i r e s to b e lo n g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t g iv e e v e r y p o s s ib le su p p o rt to th e S o v ie t R e p u b lic s in th e ir === [PDF page 267] === 260 s tr u g g le a g a in s t a ll c o u n t e r - r e v o lu t io n a r y f o r c e s. T h e C o m m u n ist p a r t ie s s h o u ld c a r r y on a p r e c i s e and d e fin ite p r o p a g a n d a to in d u c e th e w o r k e r s to r e f u s e to tr a n s p o r t m u n itio n s o f w a r in te n d e d f o r e n e m ie s o f th e S o v ie t R e p u b lic s, c a r r y on le g a l o r i l l e g a l p r o p a g a n d a a m o n g the t r o o p s, w h ic h a r e s e n t to c r u s h th e w o r k e r s ' r e p u b lic s, e t c. 15. T h e p a r t ie s w h ic h up to th e p r e s e n t h a v e r e t a in e d th e ir o ld S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic p r o g r a m s m u s t in th e s h o r t e s t p o s s ib le tim e o v e r h a u l t h e s e p r o g r a m s and d ra w up a n e w C o m m u n is t p r o g r a m in c o n f o r m it y w ith th e s p e c ia l c o n d itio n s o f th e ir r e s p e c t iv e c o u n t r ie s and in a c c o r d a n c e w ith r e s o lu t io n s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. A s a r u le, th e p r o g r a m o f e v e r y p a r ty th a t b e lo n g s to th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t b e r a t if ie d b y th e n e x t C o n g r e s s o f the C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l o r b y th e E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e. In th e e v e n t o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l fa ilin g to r a tify the p r o g r a m o f a p a r tic u la r p a r ty, th a t p a r ty h a s th e r ig h t to a p p e a l to th e C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist Inte r n a tio n a l. 16. All d e c is io n s o f th e C o n g r e s s e s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, a s w e ll a s th e d e c is io n s o f i t s E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e, a r e b in d in g on a ll p a r t ie s a ff ilia te d to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. T he C o m m u n is t I n t e r n a tio n a l, o p e r a tin g in th e m id s t o f m o s t a c u te c i v i l w a r, m u s t h a v e a fa r m o r e c e n t r a liz e d fo r m o f o r g a n iz a tio n th an th a t o f th e S e c o n d I n te r n a tio n a l. A t th e s a m e t im e, th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l and i t s E x e c u tiv e === [PDF page 268] === 261 C o m m itte e m u s t, o f c o u r s e, in a ll t h e ir a c t i v i t i e s, ta k e in to c o n s id e r a tio n th e d iv e r s i t y o f th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h th e v a r io u s p a r t ie s h a v e to w o r k and fig h t and s h o u ld i s s u e u n iv e r s a lly b in d in g d e c is io n s o n ly on q u e s tio n s on w h ic h th e p a s s in g o f su c h d e c is i o n s i s p o s s i b l e. 17. In c o n n e c tio n w ith a ll t h is, a ll p a r t ie s d e s ir in g to jo in th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t ch a n g e th e ir n a m e s. E v e r y p a r ty th a t d e s i r e s to jo in th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l m u s t b e a r th e n a m e: C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f s u c h - a n d - s u c h c o u n tr y (S e c tio n o f th e T h ir d C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l). T h is q u e s tio n a s to n a m e i s n o t m e r e l y a fo r m a l o n e, bu t a p o lit ic a l on e o f g r e a t im p o r t a n c e. T h e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l h a s d e c la r e d a d e c is i v e w a r a g a in s t th e e n tir e b o u r g e o is w o r ld and a ll th e y e llo w, S o c ia l- D e m o c r a t ic p a r t ie s. E v e r y r a n k - a n d - f ile w o r k e r m u s t c le a r ly u n d e r s ta n d th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e C o m m u n ist P a r t ie s and th e o ld o f f ic ia l " S o c ia l- D e m o c r a tic " o r " S o c ia lis t" p a r t ie s w h ic h b e tr a y e d th e c a u s e o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s. 18. A ll th e le a d in g P a r t y o r g a n s o f th e p r e s s in a l l c o u n t r ie s m u s t p u b lish a ll th e c h ie f d o c u m e n ts o f th e E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. 19. A ll p a r t ie s b e lo n g in g to th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, o r h a v in g m a d e an a p p lic a tio n to jo in it, m u s t, in the s h o r t e s t p o s s ib le p e r io d, but n o t la t e r th an fo u r m o n th s a ft e r th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist === [PDF page 269] === 262 I n te r n a tio n a l, c a ll s p e c ia l P a r ty c o n g r e s s e s, fo r th e p u r p o se o f d is c u s s in g t h e s e o b lig a tio n s. In t h is c o n n e c tio n, th e C e n tr a l c o m m it t e e s m u s t tak e m e a s u r e s to e n a b le a ll th e lo c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s to b e c o m e a c q u a in te d w ith th e d e c is i o n s o f th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. 20. T h e p a r t ie s th a t w o u ld n ow lik e to jo in th e T h ir d In te r n a tio n a l but w h ic h h a v e n ot y e t r a d ic a lly c h a n g e d th e ir f o r m e r t a c t i c s, m u s t, b e fo r e jo in in g, ta k e s t e p s to e n s u r e th a t th e ir C e n tr a l C o m m itte e s and a ll m o s t im p o r ta n t c e n tr a l b o d ie s o f th e r e s p e c t iv e p a r t ie s, s h a ll b e c o m p o s e d, to th e e x te n t of a t l e a s t t w o - t h ir d s, o f su c h c o m r a d e s a s e v e n p r io r to th e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l h a v e o p e n ly and d e f in it e ly d e c la r e d fo r jo in in g th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. E x c e p tio n s m a y b e m a d e w ith a p p r o v a l o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. T he E x e c u t iv e C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l a ls o h a s th e r ig h t to m a k e e x c e p t io n s o f th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e " C en ter" m e n tio n e d in p o in t 7. 21. M e m b e r s o f th e P a r ty w ho r e j e c t th e c o n d itio n s and t h e s e s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, on p r in c ip le, m u s t b e e x p e lle d fr o m th e p a r ty. T h is a p p lie s a ls o to th e d e le g a t e s to th e s p e c ia l p a r ty C o n g r e s s e s. === [PDF page 270] === A P PE N D IX IV A F F IL IA T IO N S O F IN D O N E SIA N R E V O L U T IO N C O U N C IL M E M B E R S (T h is l i s t w a s c o m p ile d b y th e e d it o r s o f I n d o n e s ia and r e p r in te d in th e f i r s t e d itio n / A p r i l, 1 9 6 6 / on p a g e 1 4 0 - 1 4 2.) * 1. L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l C o m m a n d e r, 1 s t B a tta lio n, J avan ese U N TU N G T ja k r a b ir a w a R e g im e n t * 2. B r ig. G en. C o m m a n d e r, F o u r th C om b at Javan ese SU P A R D JO C o m m a n d (W est K a lim a n ta n ) 263 * 3. F lig h t L ie u te n a n t Javan ese C o lo n e l H E R U A T M O D JO * 4. S e a C o lo n e l Javan ese SU N A R D I A d ju n ct S e n io r P o l ic e C o m m is s io n e r AN WAS 6. A ir V ic e M a r s h a l M in is te r /C o m m a n d e r o f th e Javan ese *A n a s t e r i s k in d ic a t e s th e p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d to o k an a c t iv e p a r t in th e O c to b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, cou p, so fa r a s i s know n. === [PDF page 271] === 7. B r ig. G en. M in is te r /C o m m a n d e r of Javan ese S U T JIP T O th e P o l ic e JU D O D IH A R D J O 8. V ic e A d m ir a l R. M in is te r /C o m m a n d e r of S u n d a n ese M ART A D IN A T A 9. D r. SU B A N D R IO F i r s t D ep u ty P r im e M i n i s t e r / (n o m in a lly P. N. I. ) Javan ese F o r e ig n M in is te r 10. D r. J. L E IM E N A S e c o n d D ep u ty P r im e P a r k in d o A m b on ese M ini s t e r / C o o r d in a tin g M in is te r f o r D is tr ib u tio n 11. I r. SU R A C H M A N M in is te r fo r P e o p le 's P. N.I. J avane s e 12. K. H. F A T A H M in is te r o f S ta te N. U. Javane s e JASIN 13. K. H. SIR A D JU D D IN PERTI M inangk abau 14. T JU G IT O M e m b e r o f P o l it i c a l B u r e a u C o m m u n ist J avan ese of KOTRAR 15. A R U D JI C h a ir m a n o f th e D P R G R P. S. 1.1. S u n d a n ese === [PDF page 272] === 16. SIAUW GIOK BAPERKI C h in e s e 17. SUM A R N O, S. H. C o o r d in a tin g M in is te r P. N.I. Javane s e f o r F in a n c e 18. M aj. G en. (M arin e C o m m a n d e r o f th e M a r in e Javan ese C o rp s) H A R TO NO C orps 19. P o l ic e B r ig. G en. C h ie f o f S ta ff o f C e n tr a l Ja v a n ese SU T A R T O I n t e llig e n c e Agency- 2 0. ZAINO M A NSUR C e n tr a l Y outh F r o n t P. N.I. P a le m b a n g ( P r e s id iu m m e m b e r ) (G e n e r a l C h a ir m a n G era k a n P e m u d a M a r h a e n is) 21. JA H JA, S. H. C e n tr a l Y outh F r o n t N. U. Javan ese? (P r e s id iu m m e m b e r ) (G e n e r a l S e c r e ta r y ) 2 2. SUK ATNO C e n tr a l Y outh F r o n t C o m m u n ist Javan ese (P r e s id iu m m e m b e r ) (Se c r e t a r y - G ene r a l P e m u d a R akjat) 23. BAM BAND P. P. M. I. (ch a irm a n ) P. N.I. Javan ese [Unreadable] 2 4. A B D U L RACHM AN N a tio n a l F r o n t (D eputy N.U. S e c r e t a r y G e n e ra l) 265 === [PDF page 273] === N am e O fficia l P o s itio n P a r ty E th n ic G roup 2 5. H A RD O JO D. P. R. G. R. (Y outh R e p r e C om m uni st Javan ese s e n ta tiv e ) 2 6. M aj. G en. BASUKI C om m an der, E a st Java Javan ese RACHM AT (VIII) T e r r it o r i a l D iv is io n 2 7. B r ig. G en. C o m m a n d e r, W e st K a li A m b on ese R Y A C UD U m a n ta n (XII) T e r r i t o r i a l D iv is io n 2 8. B r ig. G en. C o m m a n d e r, South and S u d a n e se SOLI CHIN S o u th e a s t S u la w e s i (XIV) T e r r it o r ia l D iv is io n 2 9. B r ig. G en. A M IR C o m m a n d e r, South K a li S u n d a n ese? M ACHM UD m a n ta n (X) T e r r it o r ia l D iv is io n 3 0. B r ig. G en. ANDI G o v e r n o r o f Sou th and B u g in e s e? RIVAI S o u th e a s t S u la w e s i $ 3 1. F lig h t M ajor C o m m a n d e r o f th e G uard Javan ese SU JO N O a t H a lim A ir b a s e 3 2. A ir C o m m o d o re L E O C o m m a n d e r o f th e A URI A m b on ese WAT T IM E N A O p e r a tio n s C o m m a n d /H a lim A ir b a s e; C h ie f o f S ta ff, M a n d a la S ia g a C om m an d 3 3. M r s. UTAM I R e c to r o f R e s p u b lic a U n i Javan ese S UR J AD ARM A v e r s i t y (B A PE R K I) === [PDF page 274] === 4 3. S e n io r P o lic e C h ie f o f P o l i c e, E a s t K a li Javan ese C o m m is s io n e r D r s. m ant an (XIV) P o lic e SU M A R TO N O D i s t r ic t 4 4. D JU N T A SUW ARDI Javan ese? 4 5. A. KARIM D. P. C h a ir m a n P. W. I. P. N.I. B u g in e s e 268 === [PDF page 275] === * 3 4. C o lo n e l A. L A T IE F C o m m a n d e r, 1 s t I n fa n tr y Sundane s e? B r ig a d e, D ja k a r ta R a y a (V) T e r r it o r ia l D iv is io n 3 5. M aj. G en. UM AR C o m m a n d e r, D ja k a r ta R a y a Sundane se W IRAHADIKUSUM AH (V) T e r r it o r ia l D iv is io n 36. M rs. SU PEN I T h ir d D ep u ty F o r e ig n J avane s e M in i s t e r 3 7. M r s. M AHM UDAH N. U. Javan ese 3 8. M r s. SUH AR TI C o m m u n is t Javan ese SU W A R TO (2nd c h a ir w o m a n GERW ANI) 3 9. C o lo n e l F A T A H * 4 0. C o lo n e l SU H E R M A N F i r s t A s s is t a n t to th e Javane s e C h ie f o f S ta ff, C e n tr a l J a v a (VII) T e r r it o r ia l D iv i s i on 4 1. S e a C o lo n e l C h ie f o f th e N a v y I n fo r m a Javan ese SJA M A SU tio n C e n tr e S U T JIP T O 4 2. SUHARDI H ea d o f L e g a l D e p a r tm e n t, J avane s e? [Unreadable] 267 === [PDF page 276] === A P P E N D IX V C O N FE SSIO N OF D. N. A ID IT (a b rid g ed ) (T he fo llo w in g d o c u m e n t a p p e a r e d in th e E n g lis h - la n g u a g e T ok yo n e w s p a p e r th e A sa h i E v e n in g N e w s in a s to r y fr o m i t s J a k a r ta c o r r e s p o n d e n t, R is u k e H a y a sk i and w a s r e p r in te d in A rth u r J. D o m m e n, " T h e_ A ttem p ted Coup in I n d o n e s ia, " C hina Q u a r te r ly, N o. 25 /J a n u a r y - M a r c h, 1 9 6 6 /, pp. 1 6 8 - 170. A c c o r d in g to th is a c c o u n t, A id it w a s c a p tu r e d b y the a r m y in la te N o v e m b e r and w a s e x e c u t e d a ft e r s ig n in g a 5 0 -p a g e c o n f e s s io n. T h e s t o r y w a s b u t t r e s s e d by th r e e p h o to g r a p h s o f A id it and h is c a p t o r s.) I w a s th e o n e w ith the h ig h e s t r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e S e p te m b e r 30 in c id e n t and w a s s u p p o r te d b y o th e r PK I o f f ic ia l s and o f f ic i a l s o f th e p e o p le 's o r g a n is a tio n s u n d e r th e P K I. D is s a t is f a c t io n w ith th e e x is t in g s y s t e m w a s th e b a s ic b e g in n in g o f th e id e a fo r t h is co u p. I f a p e o p le 's u n ite d fr o n t g o v e r n m e n t c o u ld be e s t a b lis h e d u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e P K I, the s ta te c o u ld g e t b a c k on i t s f e e t, th e p e o p le 's s ta n d a r d o f liv in g w o u ld im p r o v e and a f a ir s o c ie t y in w h ic h th e r e w o u ld b e no gap b e tw e e n th e r ic h and th e p o o r co u ld be e s t a b li sh e d. I f th e coup d 'e ta t had s u c c e e d e d, m y p o lic y w a s to e s t a b lis h c l o s e r e c o n o m ic r e la t io n s w ith C o m m u n ist C hin a. T he PK I o r ig in a lly h a d s e t 1970 a s i t s ta r g e t y e a r, b u t d e t a ils o f th is p la n le a k e d out s o th at r e la t io n s w ith the a r m y b e c a m e u n s ta b le. C o n se q u e n tly, th e o r ig in a l p la n w a s c h a n g e d to c a r r y out a cou p a s so o n 269 === [PDF page 277] === 270 a s p o s s ib le. I d r a fte d a p la n to b e c a r r ie d out M ay 1, 1 9 6 5, bu t L u k m a n, N jo to, S a k ilm a n and N j o n o - - a ll p a r ty o f f i c i a l s - - o p p o s e d th e p la n. T h ey a r g u e d i t w a s d a n g e r o u s s in c e p r e p a r a tio n s w e r e n o t c o m p le te d and th a t th e p la n w o u ld u n d o u b ted ly f a il. T he d is c u s s io n s w ith L t. - C o l. U ntung and o th e r s w e r e h e ld m a n y t im e s a fte r J u n e, 1965. F r o m J u ly, 1 9 65, a c tio n c o r p s o f th e P e m u d a R a k ja t, th e P e o p l e ' s Y outh F r o n t, and th e G e r w a n i, th e I n d o n e s ia n w o m e n 's m o v e m e n t, w e r e g a th e r e d a t H a lim A ir B a s e on th e o u t s k ir t s o f D ja k a r ta and w e r e tr a in e d in th e u s e o f h e a v y and lig h t w e a p o n s. P r e p a r a tio n s w e r e p u sh e d. W hen r e tu r n in g fr o m A lg e r ia in e a r ly A u g u st, I sto p p ed in P e k in g and d is c u s s e d th e h e a lth o f P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o w ith the C o m m u n ist C h in e s e le a d e r s. A s s o o n a s I r e tu r n e d to D ja k a r ta in th e m id d le o f th e s a m e m o n th, a s e c r e t m e e tin g w a s h e ld. T h e e x e c u tio n of th e coup d 'e ta t w a s d i s c u s s e d w ith L u k m an, N jo to, B r i g.- G e n. S u p a rd jo and L t. - C o l. U ntung. S in c e w e h ad in fo r m a tio n th a t th e a r m y, u n d e r o r d e r s fr o m A r m y M in is te r J a n i, w o u ld s e a r c h th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty and r e la t e d o r g a n iz a tio n s on s u s p ic io n o f i l l e g a l p o s s e s s i o n o f w e a p o n s, th e s itu a tio n w a s s u c h th at w e co u ld n o t h e lp bu t s p e e d up th e e x e c u tio n o f th e coup d 'e ta t. It w a s on S e p te m b e r 25 th a t w e c h o s e th e 30th a s th e d a te o f th e cou p. === [PDF page 278] === 271 T h e r e w e r e p r o p o s a ls th a t th e coup d’ e ta t b e c a r r ie d out O c to b e r 5, A r m y D a y, but th e d ate w a s m o v e d up b e c a u s e d e t a ils o f ou r coup d 'e ta t p la n w e r e b e g in n in g to le a k ou t. I o r d e r e d S e c o n d V ic e - C h a ir m a n N jo to to S u m a tr a b e c a u s e I b e lie v e d th a t h e w o u ld be a b le to p e r s u a d e th e p e o p le o f S u m a tr a to o u r w a y o f th in k in g. L t. - C o l. Untung w a s m a d e c h a ir m a n o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n cil o n ly a s a te m p o r a r y m e a s u r e. I d id n o t n a m e m y s e l f th e m a n w ith th e h ig h e s t r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e in c id e n t, e x c e p t w ith in the P K I, b e c a u s e o f c o n s id e r a t io n s c o n c e r n in g th e p o s s i b i lit y o f s u c c e s s o f th e cou p d 'e ta t. We a s k e d P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o to s ig n th e b il l e s t a b lis h in g th e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n cil and to b r o a d c a s t th is to th e w h o le n a tio n but h e r e f u s e d. T he p o s it io n o f th e P r e s id e n t w a s to h a v e b e e n m a in ta in e d e v e n a ft e r th e cou p d 'e ta t had s u c c e e d e d, b u t w e in te n d e d to c r i t i c i s e and r e v i s e h is p o l i c i e s g r a d u a lly. A s fo r th e f iv e b a s ic p r in c ip le s o f I n d o n e s ia ’ s p o lit ic a l p h ilo s o p h y - - r e lig io n, n a t io n a lis m, h u m a n is m, d e m o c r a c y and s o c i a l i s m - - w e p la n n ed to g r a d u a lly r e d u c e th e ir u s e and e v e n tu a lly m a k e th e m n o th in g m o r e th a n f ig u r e h e a d s. A ls o, a ft e r th e s u c c e s s o f th e coup d 'e ta t, w e in te n d e d to fo r m a "fifth m ilit a r y fo r c e " a p a r t fr o m the e x is t in g fo u r m ilit a r y f o r c e s c e n tr e d a ro u n d th e P e o p l e 's Y outh F r o n t, B TI ( F a r m e r ’ s F r o n t), SO BSI (C e n tr a l I n d o n e s ia n F e d e r a tio n o f L a b o u r U n io n s) and o th e r o r g a n is a tio n s === [PDF page 279] === 272 u n d e r th e P K I. T h e co u p d’ e ta t f a ile d b e c a u s e i t w a s p r e m a tu r e and a ls o b e c a u s e th e r e w e r e n o t a f e w - - e v e n a m o n g th e top PK I o f f i c i a l s - - w h o w e r e o p p o se d. I r e c o g n is e t h is fa c t. In th e s e c r e t m e e tin g o f th e PK I C e n tr a l C o m m itte e, the cou p d 'e ta t w a s o r ig in a lly s c h e d u le d fo r 1 9 7 0. T he s e c o n d r e a s o n f o r th e f a ilu r e w a s th e la c k o f s u p p o r t o f C o m m u n is t C hin a and in t e r n a t io n a l c o m m u n is m on w h ic h w e had p la c e d h o p e. PK I p o w e r h a d in f ilt r a t e d 2 5 p e r c e n t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n A r m y, but th e y d id n o t a c t a s w e h ad e x p e c t e d th e m to. T h is w a s b e c a u s e th e a n ti- C o m m u n is t g r o u p w ith in th e a r m y w a s to o str o n g and b e c a u s e th e a r m y c a r r ie d out m o p -u p o p e r a tio n s s o s p e e d ily. I w a s in D ja k a r ta fr o m S e p te m b e r 30 to O c to b e r 1, le a d in g the cou p t r y. A t H a lim A ir B a s e, I in f o r m e d P r e s id e n t S u k arn o o f th e e x is t e n c e o f th e c o u n c il o f g e n e r a ls and o f th e coup d ’ e ta t p la n, bu t h e a p p a r e n tly d id n o t b e lie v e m e. T o g e th e r w ith o t h e r s, I s h o w e d h im th e b il l fo r e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n c il and a s k e d h im to a p p ro v e i t, b u t th e P r e s id e n t refu sed. D u rin g t h is t im e, A r m y M in is te r J a n i and fiv e o th e r G e n e r a ls w e r e k ille d b y a r m e d m e m b e r s o f our s id e in th e v ic in it y o f th e a ir b a s e. A s a r e s u lt of th e D ja k a r ta C e n tr a l B r o a d c a s tin g S ta tio n h a v in g b e e n ta k e n a w a y fr o m u s b y f o r c e s c o m m a n d e d by M aj. - G en. S u h a rto (now === [PDF page 280] === 273 L t. -G e n. and A r m y M in is t e r a s w e l l a s a r m y c o m m a n d e r ), an e m e r g e n c y m e e tin g w a s h e ld. T he m e e tin g w a s a tte n d e d b y L t. - C o l. U ntung, B r ig. -G e n. S u p a rd jo, PK I 1 s t S e c r e t a r y L u k m an and P o l it ic a l B u r e a u m e m b e r N jo n o. H o w e v e r, w e r e c o g n is e d th a t th e cou p d’e ta t in D ja k a r ta had f a ile d. I d e c id e d to fly to C e n tr a l J a v a, e s t a b lis h a r e v o lu tio n a r y c o u n c il th e r e and w o r k to m a in ta in and r e v iv e p o w e r. I l e f t H a lim A ir B a s e a t 1:30 a. m. on O c to b e r 2 by p la n e and a r r iv e d a t D jo k ja k a r ta B a s e a t 3 a. m. I to ld th e c o m m a n d e r o f th e a ir b a s e, " S in ce th e s itu a tio n in D ja k a r ta i s u n s t a b le, th e r e i s a p o s s ib ilit y th at P r e s id e n t S u k arn o w ill ta k e r e fu g e in D jo k ja k a r ta, s o I c a m e to m a k e a p r io r c h e c k. " On O c to b e r 2, I w e n t fr o m D jo k ja k a r ta to S e m a r a n g and fr o m S e m a r a n g to S o lo. A t a ll t h e s e p l a c e s, I in s t r u c t e d th e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s and a r m y o f f ic e r s w ho w e r e p r o -P K I to e s t a b lis h r e v o lu tio n a r y c o u n c ils. I in te n d e d to h a v e th e c o u n c il in S o lo b e c o m e th e n u c le u s fo r r e v o lu tio n a r y c o u n c ils in C e n tr a l J a v a. A t 8:30 a.m. on O c to b e r 3, I m e t th e c o m m a n d e r o f th e S o lo A ir B a s e and a s k e d th at h e p r o v id e m e w ith a p la n e to f ly to D ja k a r ta or B a li I s la n d, but he r e f u s e d. A s a r e s u lt, I w o r k e d on th e p la n to c o lle c t C o m m u n ist p o w e r in C e n tr a l J a v a. I in s p e c t e d th e v a r io u s a r e a s a ro u n d S o lo and p r o v id e d le a d e r s h ip u n til ab ou t O c to b e r 2 1. Up to t h is tim e I w a s c o m p a r a tiv e ly === [PDF page 281] === 274 sa fe. T h e u p r is in g in S o lo, d e c id e d a s th e c e n tr a l p o in t in C e n tr a l J a v a, w a s s c h e d u le d fo r O c to b e r 2 3, and o r d e r s w e r e s e n t out to a ll a r e a s. O r d e r s w e r e i s s u e d to th e PK I c e l l s to c u t dow n th e t r e e s a lo n g s id e th e r o a d s le a d in g in to S u r a k a r ta a t 12:01 a. m. on O c to b e r 2 3, to fo r m b a r r ic a d e s, c a r r y out g e n e r a l s t r ik e s in th e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e s, g o v e r n m e n t r a ilw a y s and g o v e r n m e n t f ir m s and a r r e s t th e le a d e r s o f r ig h t is t grou p s. H o w e v e r, e a r ly on the m o r n in g o f O c to b e r 23 th e R P K A D (p a r a tr o o p e r s ) and K O STR A D ( s t r a t e g ic c o r p s) o f th e a r m y a d v a n c e d in to S o lo and g r a b b e d p o w e r so th a t th e u p r is in g p la n fa ile d. T o r e b u ild our p o w e r, I w e n t a ro u n d th e o u t s k ir t s o f S o lo and r e tu r n e d to S o lo on fo o t, N o v e m b e r 5. A r m y p a t r o ls w e r e a lr e a d y r o u g h and i t b e c a m e h a r d e r d a y b y day to c o n ta c t PK I m e m b e r s in o th e r a r e a s. N o t o n ly th a t, but I m y s e l f w a s in d a n g e r. I w a s a lw a y s g u a r d e d by ab ou t 20 m e m b e r s o f th e P e m u d a R a k ja t and k e p t ch a n g in g m y r e s id e n c e. I p la n n e d to e s c a p e fr o m S o lo but th e g u a r d b e c a m e s t r i c t e r and fin a lly I w a s u n a b le to m o v e. I w a s fin a lly c a p tu r e d a t 9 p. m., N o v e m b e r 2 2, at th e h o m e o f a PK I m e m b e r in S a m b en v illa g e to th e w e s t o f S o lo. === [PDF page 282] === B IB L IO G R A P H Y 275 === [PDF page 283] === 276 I. GENERAL A lm o n d, G a b r ie l and C o le m a n, J a m e s. T h e P o l i t i c s o f th e D e v e lo p in g A r e a s. P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0. A p te r, D a v id E. ( e d.). Id e o lo g y and D is c o n t e n t. N e w Y o rk: T he F r e e P r e s s of G le n c o e, 1 9 6 4. A r en d t, H annah. T he O r ig in s o f T o t a lit a r ia n is m. N e w Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B r a c e and C o m p a n y, 1 9 5 8. B e e r, S a m u e l and U la m, A d am ( e d s. ). P a t te r n s o f G o v e r n m e n t. N ew Y ork: R and om H o u s e, I n c., 1 9 6 2. B e ll, D a n ie l. T h e E nd o f I d e o lo g y. G le n c o e: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 0. B o r s a, G io r g io. "A H is t o r ic a l P e r s p e c t iv e fo r W e ste r n P o lic y in A s ia, M C o n flu e n c e IV (J a n u a r y, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 4 1 6. B r e c h e r, M ic h a e l. " P o lit ic a l I n s t a b ilit y in th e N e w S ta te s o f A s i a '1 in H a r r y E c k s t e in and D a v id A p te r ( e d s. ), C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t i c s. G le n c o e: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. __________. T he N e w S ta te s o f A sia; A P o l i t i c a l A n a ly s is. N e w Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. D a h l, R o b e r t A. M o d ern P o l it ic a l A n a l y s is. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t i c e - H a ll, In c., 1 9 6 3. E a s to n, D a v id. T h e P o l it ic a l S y s te m: An In q u iry in to th e S ta te o f P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e. N e w Y ork: A lfr e d A. K nopf, 1 965. E c k s t e in, H a r r y and A p te r, D a v id ( e d s. ). C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t i c s. G le n c o e: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. E m e r s o n, R u p er t. F r o m E m p ir e to N a tio n. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s ity P r e s s, I960. E u la u, H e in z. T h e B e h a v io r a l P e r s u a s ia n in P o l i t i c s. N ew Y ork: R and om H o u s e, 1 963. F if ie ld, R u s s e ll H. S o u th e a s t A s ia in U n ited S ta te s P o l i c y. N e w Y ork: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s, 1 9 5 8. === [PDF page 284] === 277 G e e r tz, C liffo r d. " Id e o lo g y a s a C u ltu r a l S y s t e m, " in D a v id E. A^>ter ( e d.), I d e o lo g y and D is c o n t e n t. N e w Y ork: T h e F r e e P r e s s of G le n c o e, 1 9 6 4. G o rd o n, B e r n a r d K. T he D im e n s io n s o f C o n flic t in S o u th e a s t A s i a. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t i c e - H a ll, I n c., 1 9 6 6. G u llic k, J. M. In d ig e n o u s P o l i t ic a l S y s t e m s o f W e ste r n M a la y a. L ondon: T h e A th lo n e P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. H a r r is o n, B r ia n. S o u th - E a s t A s ia: A S h o r t H is t o r y. N e w Y ork: St. M a r tin 's P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. H a y e s, C a r lto n J. H. E s s a y s on N a t io n a lis m. N e w Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C om p an y, 1 92 8. __________. N a tio n a lis m: A R e lig io n. N e w Y ork: T h e M a c M illa n C o m p a n y, 1960. K ohn, H a n s. N a tio n a lis m, I t s M ea n in g and H is t o r y. N e w Y ork: D. V an N o s tr a n d C om p an y, 1 9 5 5. . T he Id e a o f N a t io n a lis m. N e w Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C o m p a n y, 1944. K u ls k i, W. W. I n te r n a tio n a l P o l i t i c s in a R e v o lu tio n a r y A g e. N e w Y ork: B. L ip p in c o tt C o m p a n y, 1 9 6 4. M a c r id is, R oy C. and B r o w n, B e r n a r d B. C o m p a r a tiv e P o l i t i c s: N o te s and R e a d in g s. H o m ew o o d: D o r s e y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. M e r r ia m, C. E. P o l it ic a l P o w e r. N e w Y o rk: M c G r a w -H ill, 1934. M o s c a, G a e ta n o. R u lin g C l a s s. N e w Y ork: M c G r a w -H ill, 1 9 3 9. N e a l, F r e d W a rn er. P r o s p e c t s f o r P e a c e. San F r a n c is c o: C a lifo r n ia D e m o c r a t ic C o u n cil F o r e ig n P o l ic y C o m m itte e, I9 6 0. P y e, L u c ie n W. "T he P o l i t i c s o f S o u th e a s t A sia " in G a b r ie l A lm o n d and J a m e s C o le m a n ( e d s. ), T he P o l i t i c s o f D e v e lo p in g A r e a s. P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0. S c h a f e r, B o y d C. N a tio n a lis m: M yth and R e a lit y. N e w Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B r a c e and C o m p a n y, 1 9 5 5. === [PDF page 285] === 278 S c h a p e r a, I. G o v e r n m e n t and P o l i t i c s in T r ib a l S o c i e t i e s. L ondon: C. A. W atts and C o m p a n y, L t d., 1 9 5 6. S c h e r m e r h o r n, R ic h a r d A. S o c ie ty and P o w e r. N e w Y ork: R and om H o u se, 1961. S e to n -W a ts o n, H ugh. N e ith e r W ar N o r P e a c e. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1960. S n y d e r, R ic h a r d, B r u c k, H. W., and S a p in, B u r to n ( e d s. ). F o r e ig n P o l ic y D e c is io n M a k in g. N ew Y o rk: F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e, 1962. S u tton, F. X., H a r r is, S. E., K ay s e n, C., and T o b in, J. T he A m e r ic a n B u s in e s s C r e e d. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1956. U n ited S ta te s R e la tio n s w ith C h in a. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te P u b lic a tio n, 1 9 4 9. V a n d e n b o sc h, A m r y and B u tw e ll, R ic h a r d. S o u th e a s t A s ia A m o n g the W orld P o w e r s. L ex in g to n: U n iv e r s it y o f K en tu ck y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. V on D e r M eh d en, F r e d R. R e lig io n and N a tio n a lis m in S o u th e a s t A s i a. M a d iso n: T he U n iv e r s it y o f W is c o n s in P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. II. T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L COM M UNIST M O V EM E N T A. G eneral A le x a n d e r, R o b e r t J. C o m m u n ism in L a tin A m e r ic a. N ew Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C o m p a n y, 1 9 5 7. A lm o n d, G a b r ie l A. T he A p p e a ls o f C o m m u n is m. P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 4. A r m s tr o n g, H a m ilto n F i s h. T ito and G o lia th. N e w Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C om p an y, 1 9 5 1. A r o n, R a y m o n d. T h e O pium o f the I n t e ll e c t u a ls. L ondon: M. S e e k e r and W arb u rg, L t d,, 1 9 5 7. === [PDF page 286] === 279 B a la b a n o v, A n g e lic a. M y l i f e a s a R e b e l. L ondon: H. H a m ilto n, 1 9 3 8. B ir n b a u m, I m m a n u e l. " W hither T ito? " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII ( J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 8 ), p p. 1 - 6. B la c k, C y r il E. and T h o r n to n, T h o m a s P. ( e d s. ). C o m m u n ism and R e v o lu tio n: T h e S t r a t e g ic U s e s o f P o l it ic a l V io le n c e. P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. B r i m m e ll, J. H. C o m m u n ism in S o u th e a s t A s ia: A P o l it ic a l A n a l y s i s. L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 9. B r z e z in s k i, Z b ig n ie w K. " C o m m u n ist I d e o lo g y and I n te r n a tio n a l A f f a ir s, " J o u r n a l o f C o n flic t R e s o lu tio n IV (J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. . "T he C h a lle n g e o f C hange in th e S o v ie t B lo c, " F o r e ig n A ffa ir s X X X IX (A p r il, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 4 3 0 - 4 4 3. __________. T h e S o v ie t B lo c: U n ity and C o n flic t. R e v is e d e d itio n. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 1. C a r e w -H u n t, R. N. " T h e I m p o r ta n c e o f D o c tr in e, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n is m VII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 1 0 -1 4. . T h e T h e o r y and P r a c t ic e o f C o m m u n is m. N ew Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C o m p a n y, 1 9 6 2. C r o a n, M e lv in. " C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l R e la tio n s " in W a lte r L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r i s m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1962. D a n ie ls, R o b e r t Y. ( e d.). A D o c u m e n ta r y H is to r y o f C o m m u n is m. N ew Y ork: R and om H o u s e, 1 9 6 0. D e a n, V e r a M ic h a e ls. " T ito: T he U s e s o f N o n -C o m m itm e n t, 11 F o r e ig n P o lic y B u lle tin X X X V (D e c e m b e r 1, 1 9 5 5 ), pp. 4 4 - 4 8. D e d ij e r, V la d im e r. T ito. N e w Y ork: S im o n and S c h u s t e r, 1 9 5 3. D j ila s, M ilo v a n. C o n v e r s a tio n s W ith S t a lin. N e w Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B r a c e and W orld, I n c., 1 9 6 2. __________. T he N e w C la s s. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 5 7. === [PDF page 287] === 280 D z ie w a n o w s k i, M. K. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f P o la n d: An O u tlin e o f H is to r y. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 9. F a l l, B e r n a r d B. T h e T w o V ie t - N a m s: A P o l i t i c a l and M ilita r y A n a ly s is. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3. F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m. M o sc o w: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 6 3. H a lp e r in, E r n s t. " R e v is io n is m and Y u g o s la v ia " in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r i s m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1962, pp. 4 8 -5 8. __________. T he T r iu m p h a n t H e r e tic: T it o 's S tr u g g le A g a in s t S t a lin. L ondon: H e in e m a n n, 1 9 5 8. H a m m o n d, T h o m a s T. " F o r e ig n R e la tio n s S in c e 1945" i n R o b e r t F. B y r n e s ( e d.), Y u g o s la v ia. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1957. H o f f m a n n, G e o r g e and N e a l, F r e d W a r n e r. Y u g o s la v ia and th e N e w C o m m u n is m. N e w Y ork: T w e n tie th C e n tu r y F und, 1 9 6 2. H o w e, I r v in g ( e d.). T h e B a s ic W r itin g s o f T r o tsk y. N e w Y o rk: V in ta g e B o o k s, 1965. J a m e s, C y r il L io n a l R o b e r t. W orld R e v o lu tio n 1 9 1 7 -1 9 3 6; T h e R is e and F a l l o f th e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. L ondon: M. S e e k e r and W a rb u rg, L td., 1 9 3 7. K a r d e lj, E d v a r d. S o c ia lis m and W a r. B eo g ra d: J u g o s la v ija, 1960. K a u tsk y, Joh n H. M o s c o w and th e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f In d ia: A Study in th e P o s tw a r E v o lu tio n o f I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist S tr a te g y. N e w Y ork: Joh n W ile y and S o n s, 1 9 5 6. __________. P o l i t i c a l C hange in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n is m. N e w Y ork: J o h n W ile y and S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2. K en n a n, G e o r g e F. " P o ly c e n t r is m and W e ste r n P o lic y, 11 F o r e ig n A ffa ir s X X X X II (J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 7 1 -1 8 3. K en n ed y, M a lc o lm. A H is t o r y o f C o m m u n ism in E a s t A s i a. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 5 7. === [PDF page 288] === 281 K im, Jou n gw on A le x a n d e r. "T he ’ P e a k o f S o c i a l i s m 1 in N o r th K o r ea: T he F iv e and S e v e n Y e a r P l a n s, " A s ia n S u r v e y V (M ay, 1 9 6 5 ), K o e s t le r, A r th u r. T h e I n v is ib le W r itin g. B o sto n: T h e B e a c o n P r e s s, 1 9 54. L an d y, P a u l. " R e tr e a t and R e a c tio n in E a s t e r n E u r o p e, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 8 - 1 4. L e n in, V la d im ir I. I m p e r ia lis m: T h e H ig h e s t S ta g e o f C a p it a lis m. N e w Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 9. __________. " L e ft-W in g " C o m m u n ism: A n In fa n tile D is o r d e r. N e w Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 4. . S ta te and R e v o lu tio n. N e w Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1932. __________. T he S o c ia l D e m o c r a t, N o. 3 3. R e p r in te d in C o lle c t e d W orks X V III. N e w Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 8, p. 89. __________. "T w o T a c t ic s, " S e le c t e d W ork s II. N ew Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1 9 3 5. ______. W hat I s to B e D one? N ew Y o rk: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1929. L e o n h a r d, W olfgan g. C h ild o f th e R e v o lu tio n. C h ica g o: H. R e g n e r y C o., 1 958. L o w e n th a l, R ic h a r d. "On ’N a tio n a l D e m o c r a c y ’: 1. I ts F u n c tio n s in C o m m u n ist P o l ic y, " S u r v e y n o. 47 (A p r il, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 1 9 -1 3 3. __________. "T he B o ls h e v is a t io n o f th e S p a r ta c u s L e a g u e, " in D a v id F o o tm a n ( e d.), I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m. C a r b o n d a le: S o u th ern I llin o is U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I 9 6 0. __________. W orld C o m m u n ism: T h e D is in te g r a tio n o f a S e c u la r F a it h. N ew Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. M a sa n i, M in o c h e h e r R u s to m. T h e C o m m u n is t P a r t y of In d ia. N ew Y ork: T he M a c M illa n C o m p a n y, 1 9 5 4. ^vlayo, H e n r y B. In tr o d u c tio n to M a r x is t T h e o r y. N e w Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, I9 6 0. === [PDF page 289] === 282 M e y e r, A lfr e d G. L e n in is m. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1957. M o n n e r o t, J u le s. S o c io lo g y and P s y c h o lo g y o f C o m m u n is m. L ondon: G e o r g e A lla n and U nw in, L t d., 1 9 5 3. M o r r is, B e r n a r d S. " R e c e n t S h ifts in C o m m u n ist S tr a te g y: In d ia and S o u th e a s t A s ia, " in John H. K a u tsk y, P o l it ic a l C han ge in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n is m. N e w Y ork: Joh n W ile y and S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2, pp. 2 9 3 - 3 0 3. R e p r in te d fr o m S o v ie t S u r v e y n o. 1 6 /1 7 (J u n e -J u ly, 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 4 0 - 4 4. __________ and W atn ick, M o r r is. " C u rren t C o m m u n ist S tr a te g y in N o n - I n d u s t r ia liz e d C o u n tr ie s, " in John H. K a u tsk y, P o l i t ic a l C hange in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n is m. N e w Y ork: John W ile y and S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2, pp. 2 8 2 - 2 9 2. R e p r in te d fr o m P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism IV (S e p te m b e r -O c to b e r, 1955), M c V e y, R uth T. T he C a lc u tta C o n fe r e n c e and th e S o u th e a s t A s ia n U p r is in g s. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, 1 958. M e V i ek e r, C h a r le s P. T ito is m: P a t te r n fo r I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is m. N ew Y ork: S t. M a r tin 's P r e s s, 1 9 5 7. N a g y, I m r e. On C o m m u n ism; In D e fe n s e o f th e N e w C o u r s e. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 5 7. N e a l, F r e d W a r n e r. T it o is m in A c tio n. B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y of C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1958. __________. " Y u g o sla v C o m m u n ist T h e o r y, " T h e A m e r ic a n S la v ic and E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w X IX (F e b r u a r y, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 4 2 - 6 2. O v e r s t r e e t, G ene D. and W in d m ille r, M a r s h a ll. C o m m u n ism in In d ia. B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1 9 5 9. P a g e, S ta n le y W. L en in and W o rld R e v o lu t io n. N e w Y ork: N e w Y o rk U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 9. P e llin g, H e n r y. T h e B r i t is h C o m m u n is t P a r ty. L ondon: A. and C. B la c k, 1 9 5 8. P o p p in o, R o llie E. I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism in L a tin A m e r ic a. N ew Y ork: T he F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. === [PDF page 290] === 283 P y e, L u c ie n W. G u e r illa C o m m u n ism in M a la y a: I ts S o c ia l and P o l it ic a l M e a n in g. P r in c e to n: P r in c e t o n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 956. R ia n s a n o v s k y, N ic h o la s V. "O ld R u s s ia, th e S o v ie t U nion and E a s t e r n E u r o p e, " T he A m e r ic a n S la v ic and E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w XE (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 1 ), p p. 1 7 1 -1 8 8. R u b in s te in, A lv in Z. ( e d.). C o m m u n is t P o l i t ic a l S y s t e m s. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a l l, I n c., 1 9 6 6. S a r k is y a n z, E m a n u e l. " C o m m u n ism and th e A s i a t ic M ind, " Y a le R e v ie w X X X IX (M a rch, 1 9 5 0 ), p p. 4 9 1 - 5 1 0. __________. " M a r x is m and A s ia n C u ltu r a l T r a d itio n, " in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r is m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 962. S c a la p in o, R o b e r t A. ( e d.). T h e C o m m u n ist R e v o lu tio n in A s ia. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c., 1 9 6 5. S e to n -W a ts o n, H ugh. P a tte r n o f C o m m u n ist R e v o lu tio n. L ondon: M eth u en and C o,, L td., 1 9 5 3. T h e E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v o lu tio n. L ondon: M eth u en and C o., L t d., 1950. S i e v e r s, B r u c e. A D e c is io n - M a k in g A p p ro a ch to th e Study o f th e C o m - m u n is t. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo rd S tu d ie s o f th e C o m m u n ist S y s te m, [Unreadable] S k illin g, H. G ord on. " C o m m u n ism: N a tio n a l o r I n te r n a tio n a l, " in D e V e r e P e n to n y, R ed W orld in T u m u lt: C o m m u n ist F o r e ig n P o l i c i e s. San F r a n c is c o: C h a n d ler P u b lis h in g C o., 1 9 6 2, pp. 2 - 1 4, a s r e p r in te d fr o m I n te r n a tio n a l J o u r n a l (W in ter, 1 9 5 9 - __________. " P e o p le ’ s D e m o c r a c y, T h e P r o le t a r ia n D ic ta to r s h ip and th e C z e c h o s lo v a k P a th to S o c ia lis m, " T h e A m e r ic a n S la v ic and E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w X (A p r il, 1 9 5 1 ), pp. 1 0 0 -1 1 6. S ta lin, J o s e p h. F o u n d a tio n s o f L e n in is m. N e w Y ork: I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e r s, 1939. T he S o v ie t - Y u g o s la v D is p u te. L ondon: R o y a l I n s titu te o f I n te r n a tio n a l A f f a ir s, 1 948. === [PDF page 291] === 284 T h o m p so n, V ir g in ia M. and A d lo ff, R ic h a r d. T h e L e ft-W in g in S o u th e a s t A s i a. N e w Y ork: S lo a n, 1 9 5 0. T o g lia t t i, P a lm ir o. 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N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism and P o p u la r R e v o lt in E a s t e r n E u r o p e. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 7. B. S o v ie t F o r e ig n P o l ic y B e lo f f, M ax. S o v ie t P o lic y in th e F a r E a s t 1 9 4 4 -1 9 5 1. L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 3. B ia le r, S e w e o y n. " M o sc o w v s. B e lg r a d e: A K e y to S o v ie t P o l i c y, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 1 - 7. B r a n d t, C o n ra d. S t a lin 's F a ilu r e in C h in a, 1 9 2 4 - 1 9 2 7. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. C a r r, E d w a rd H a lle tt. G e r m a n -S o v ie t R e la tio n s B e tw e e n th e T w o W orld W ars. N e w Y o rk: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 2. C r a n k sh a w, E d w a r d. K h r u s h c h e v 's R u s s ia. B a ltim o r e: P e n g u in B o o k s, 1 959. D in e r s t e in, H a r r y S. W ar and th e S o v ie t U n io n. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1959. E u d in, X. J. and N o r th, R o b e r t C. S o v ie t R u s s ia and th e E a s t, 1 9 2 0 - 1927: A D o c u m e n ta r y S u r v e y. S ta n fo r d: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 57. F i s c h e r, R uth. S ta lin and G e r m a n C o m m u n ism; A Study in the O r ig in s o f th e S ta te P a r ty. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 4 8. F r a n k e l, J o s e p h. " S o v ie t P o lic y in S o u th e a s t A s ia, " in M ax B e lo ff, S o v ie t P o lic y in th e F a r E a s t 1 9 4 4 -1 9 5 1. L ondon: O x fo rd U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 3, p. 2 0 9. G r a h a m, Ia n. "T he I n d o -S o v ie t M I G D e a l and I ts I n te r n a tio n a l R e p e r c u s s io n s, " A s ia n S u r v e y IV (M ay, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 8 2 3 -8 3 2. G rip p, R ic h a r d C. P a t t e r n s o f S o v ie t P o l i t i c s. H o m ew o o d: T he D o r s e y P r e s s I n c., 1963. === [PDF page 293] === 286 " Join t S o v ie t-C u b a n C om m u n iq u e on S ta y o f F id e l C a s tr o in th e S o v ie t U n ion, " J a n u a r y 2 3, 1 9 6 4. T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (F e b r u a r y 1 0, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 9 -2 6. " Join t S o v ie t - B u lg a r ia n S ta te m e n t, F e b r u a r y 19, 1 9 6 4." P r a v d a, F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1 9 6 4. T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (M arch 9, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 1 - 2 9. K e e p, J. L. H. " S o v ie t I d e o lo g ie s on th e T r e a d m ill. " VII (M a r ch - A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 3 0 - 3 5. K en n an, G e o r g e F. R u s s ia and th e W e st U nd er L en in and S t a lin. B o sto n: L it t le, B ro w n and C o., I 9 6 0. __________. S o v ie t F o r e ig n P o lic y 1 9 1 7 -1 9 4 1. P r in c e to n: D. V an N o s tr a n d C o., I n c., I9 6 0. K h r u sh c h e v, N ik ita S. "On P e a c e f u l C o - e x is t e n c e, " F o r e ig n A ffa ir s X X X V III (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 9 ). __________. " M a r x is m - L e n in is m i s o u r B a n n e r, o u r F ig h tin g W eapon. " A d d r e s s at th e p le n a r y m e e tin g o f th e c e n tr a l c o m m it te e o f th e C. P. S. U. M o s c o w, June 1 8 - 2 1, 1 9 6 3. T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in S o v ie t B o o k le t, J u ly, 1 9 6 3. __________. R e p o r t on th e I9 6 0 M o sc o w M e e tin g o f E ig h ty -O n e C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s. R e p r in te d in T h e W orld M a r x is t R e v ie w (1 9 6 1 ), __________. " S p ee c h at A n n iv e r s a r y M e e tin g in B u d a p est" (A p r il 3, 1 9 6 4 ). P r a v d a (A p r il 4, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 1 0. __________. " S p ee c h a t A n n u al R e c e p tio n fo r G r a d u a te s o f M ilita r y A c a d e r p ic s. " P r a v d a (J u ly 9, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n t s II (A u g u st 3, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 3 - 3 1. __________. " S p ee c h a t B u d a p e s t O p tic a l E n g in e e r in g P la n t" (A p r il 8, 1 9 6 4 ). P r a v d a (A p r il 8, 1 9 6 4 ). S u m m a r y r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 2 - 2 5. __________. " S p eech a t M e e tin g w ith I n s titu te P r o f e s s o r s, T e a c h e r s and S tu d e n ts in M isk o le " (A p r il 6, 1 9 6 4 ). P r a v d a (A p r il 8, 1 9 6 4 ). S u m m a r y r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), === [PDF page 294] === 287 K h r u sh c h e v, N ik ita S. " S p eech a t P le n a r y M e e tin g o f C P SU C e n tr a l C o m m itte e F e b r u a r y 14, 1 9 6 4." T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (M a rch 9, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 3 6. __________. " S p ee c h in C a ir o. " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (June 1 5, 1 9 6 4 ), K o v n e r, M ilto n. " S o v ie t A id S tr a te g y in D e v e lo p in g C o u n tr ie s, " O r b is VIII ( F a ll, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 6 2 4 -6 4 0. L a b e d z, L e o p o ld. "T he U. S. S. R. and the D e v e lo p in g C o u n tr ie s, " in W a lte r L a q u e u r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r is m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2, pp. 1 5 3 - 1 6 0. M a g e r, N. H. and K ate 1, J a c q u e s ( e d s. ). C o n q u e st W ith out W a r. N ew Y ork: S im o n and S c h u s t e r, 1 9 6 1. M a lin o v s k y, R. " R e lia b le G uard o f P e a c e, " P r a v d a (F e b r u a r y 2 3, 1 9 6 4 ). T r a n s la t e d and r e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (M a rch 16, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 9. M c L a n e, C h a r le s B. S o v ie t P o lic y and th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is ts 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 4 6. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. __________. S o v ie t S t r a t e g ie s in S o u th e a s t A s ia: An E x p lo r a tio n o f E a s t e r n P o l ic y u n d er L e n in and S t a lin. P r in c e to n: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1966. M c V e y, R uth T. T he S o v ie t V ie w o f th e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, 1957. M o r r is, B e r n a r d. " S o v ie t P o l i c y T o w a r d s N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism: T he L im it s o f D iv e r s it y, " T h e A m e r ic a n P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e R e v ie w LIII (M a r ch, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 1 2 8. N e a l, F r e d W a r n e r. "T he T h e o r y o f C o re I n t e r e s t s and U. S. - S o v ie t C old W ar R iv a lr y. " P a p e r d e liv e r e d a t s e c o n d an n u al m e e tin g o f I n te r n a tio n a l S tu d ie s A s s o c ia t io n. B o u ld e r, C o lo r a d o, M a rch 2 9, 1 9 6 1. . U.S. F o r e ig n P o lic y and th e S o v ie t U n io n. S an ta B a r b a r a: C e n te r fo r th e Study o f D e m o c r a tic I n s titu tio n, 1 9 6 1. === [PDF page 295] === 288 N o r th, R o b e r t C. M o sc o w and C h in e se C o m m u n is ts. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 3. R u b in s te in, A lv in L. ( e d.). T he F o r e ig n P o lic y o f th e S o v ie t U n ion. N e w Y ork: R and om H o u se, I 9 6 0. S h a rp, S a m u e l L. " N a tio n a l I n t e r e s t: K ey to S o v ie t P o l i t i c s, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 1 5 -2 0. S h u lm a n, M a r s h a ll D. S ta lin 1s F o r e ig n P o l ic y R e a p p r a is e d. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1963. S ta lin, J o s e p h. "T he I n te r n a tio n a l S itu a tio n and th e D e fe n s e o f th e U. S. S. R.," W ork s X. M o sc o w: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P u b lis h in g H ou se, 1954. T o m a s ic, D in k o A. N a tio n a l C o m m u n ism and S o v ie t S tr a te g y. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: P u b lic A ffa ir s P r e s s, 1 957. U la m, A d am B. " E x p a n sio n and C o - e x is t e n c e: C o u n ter p o in t in S o v ie t F o r e ig n P o l ic y, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VIII (S e p te m b e r - O c to b e r, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 1 - 8. V an S t a c k e lb e r g, G e o r g e A. " R en ew ed A tta c k s on th e N a tio n a l B o u r g e o i s ie, " B u lle tin, I n s titu te fo r the Study o f th e U. S. S. R. N o. 8 (A u g u st, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 3 - 9. V o lo d in, L. On I n te r n a tio n a lis m and N a tio n a lis m. L ondon: S o v ie t B o o k le t, 1 9 6 3. W hiting, A lle n S. S o v ie t P o l i c i e s in C h in a, 1 9 1 9 -1 9 2 4. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 5. W ibur, C. M a r tin and J u lie L ie n -y in g H ow. D o c u m e n ts on C o m m u n is m, N a t io n a lis m, and S o v ie t A d v is e r s in C h in a, 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 7. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6. Y u r c h e n k o, A. " S o v ie t P la n s fo r th e F u tu r e o f F o r m e r C o lo n ie s, " B u lle tin, I n s titu te fo r th e Study o f th e U. S. S. R. IX (J u n e, 19 6 2 ), === [PDF page 296] === 289 C. T he C o m in te r n B ork en au, F r a n z. E u r o p e a n C o m m u n is m. L ondon: F a b e r & F a b e r, L td., 1953. __________. T h e C o m m u n is t I n te r n a tio n a l. L ondon: F a b e r & F a b e r, L t d., 1938. C a tte ll, D a v id T. "T he H u n g a ria n R e v o lu tio n o f 1919 and th e R e o r g a n iz a t io n o f th e C o m in te r n in 1 9 2 0, " J o u r n a l o f C e n tr a l E u r o p e a n A f f a ir s XI (J a n u a r y /A p r il, 1 9 5 1 ), p p. 2 7 - 3 8. D e g r a s, J a n e. " R e v is itin g th e C o m in te r n, ” S o v ie t S u r v e y N o. 33 (J u ly - S e p te m b e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 3 8 - 4 7. __________. T he C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l, 1 9 1 9 -1 9 4 3 D o c u m e n ts. V o l. I, II, and III. L ondon: O x fo rd U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 6, I 9 6 0, and 1965. G ankin, O lg a H. "T he B o ls h e v ik s and th e F o u n d in g o f th e T h ir d I n t e r n a tio n a l, " S l ^ v o m c a n d E a £ t E u £ o p e a ii R e v ie w X X (1 9 4 1 ), pp. 8 8 - 101. G ank in, O lga H. and F i s h e r, H. H. T h e B o ls h e v ik s and th e W orld W a r: T he O r ig in s o f th e T h ir d I n te r n a tio n a l. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1940. H a ith c o x, Joh n P. " N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n ism: T he I m p a c t o f th e 1927 C o m in te r n F a ilu r e in C h in a," T he J o u r n a l o f A s ia n S tu d ie s XX3V (M ay, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 4 5 9 - 4 7 3. H u ls e, J a m e s W. T h e F o r m in g o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 4, p. 3 5. M c K e n z ie, K e r m it E. C o m in te r n and W orld R e v o lu tio n, 1 9 2 8 -1 9 4 3; T he S h ap in g o f D o c t r in e. N e w Y o rk: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 964. N o lla n, G u n th er. I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ism and W o rld R e v o lu tio n: H is to r y and M eth o d s. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 1. === [PDF page 297] === 290 U n ited S t a t e s, D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te. S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f th e C o m m u n ist I n te r n a tio n a l a s R e p o r te d and I n te r p r e te d by th e O ffic ia l N e w s p a p e r s of S o v ie t R u s s ia. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffic e, 1920. D. T h e S in o -S o v ie t D isp u te A C o m m e n t on th e M a rc h M o sc o w M e e tin g. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1966. "A L e t t e r to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f C hina, Jun e 15, 1 9 6 4. " (F r o m th e CC o f th e CPSU) K o m m u n is t, N o. 10 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A u g u st 10, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. A f r o - A s ia n S o lid a r ity A g a in s t I m p e r ia lis m: A C o lle c t io n o f D o c u m e n ts, S p e e c h e s and P r e s s I n t e r v ie w s fr o m th e V is it s o f C h in e s e L e a d e r s to T h ir te e n A fr ic a n and A s ia n C o u n tr ie s. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1964. "An I m p o r ta n t S tep T o w a r d s th e U n ity o f th e W orld C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t, " P r a v d a (M arch 12, 1 9 6 5 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts, V o l. I l l (M arch 2 9, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 7 - 1 7. A p o lo g is ts o f N e o - C o lo n ia lis m: C o m m e n t on th e Open L e t te r o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C P S U. (IV) R e m in R ib a o and H on g g. E d ito r ia l (O cto b er 2 2, 1 9 6 3 ). P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 963. B o y d, R. G. C o m m u n ist China* s F o r e ig n P o l i c y. N e w Y o rk: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 62. B r a n d t, C o n ra d, S c h w a r tz, B e n ja m in and F a ir b a n k, J oh n. A D o c u m e n ta r y H is t o r y o f C h in e se C o m m u n is m. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1952. B r e z h n e v, L e o n id I. " R ep o rt a t th e M e e tin g o f the 4 7 th A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e G r e a t O c to b e r S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (N o v e m b e r 2 3, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 2 5. === [PDF page 298] === 291 B r e z e z in s k i, Z b ig n ie w. " P a tte r n s and L im it s o f th e S in o - S o v ie t D is p u te, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism IX (S e p te m b e r -O c to b e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 - 7. __________. " P e a c e f u l E n g a g e m e n t in C o m m u n ist D is u n it y," C hina Q u a r te r ly N o. 10 (A p r il- J u n e, 1 9 6 2 ). C a r r y th e S tr u g g le A g a in s t K h r u s c h e v R e v is io n is m T h ro u g h to th e E n d. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. " C e r ta in A s p e c t s o f P a r t y L ife in th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f C h in a, " P r a v d a (A p r il 2 8 - 2 9, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (M ay 18, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 2 4. C heng Y e n -S h ih ( e d.). Lenin* s F ig h t A g a in s t R e v is io n is m and O p p o r tu n is m. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. "C hina D a r e s to R un R is k s to T h o r o u g h ly D e fe a t U. S. I m p e r ia lis m, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (O cto b er 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 6 - 1 8. " C h in e s e C o m m u n ist P a r ty C annot S e n d D e le g a tio n to C. P. S. U. 2 3 r d C o n g r e s s: C P C C e n tr a l C o m m itte e 's R e p ly to C. P. S. U. C e n tr a l C o m m itte e, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. IX (M a rch 2 5, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 5 - 6. " C om m u n iq u e o f th e C o n s u lta tiv e M e e tin g o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f C o m m u n is t and W o r k e r s ' P a r t ie s in M o sc o w, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I l l (M arch 2 9, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 3 - 6. " C o m m u n is ts A ll O ver th e W orld R eb u ff th e S p lit t e r s, " K o m m u n ist N o. 8 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A u g u st 3, 1 9 6 4 ), " C o m r a d e M ao T s e -T u n g on 'I m p e r ia lis m and A ll R e a c t io n a r ie s a r e P a p e r T i g e r s ', " R e n m in R ib a o (O cto b er 2 7, 1 9 5 8 ). R e p r in te d b y P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. " C o n f e s s io n s C o n c e r n in g th e L in e o f S o v ie t - U. S. C o lla b o r a tio n P u r s u e d b y th e N e w L e a d e r s o f th e C P S U, " H on ggi (F e b r u a r y 11, 1 9 6 6 ). R e p r in te d b y P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. C o n q u e st, R o b e r t. "T he T h r e e F u n e r a ls o f J o s e p h S ta lin, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XI (J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 1 5 - 2 0. === [PDF page 299] === 292 C r a n k sh a w, E d w a r d. "T he M o s c o w -P e k in g C la sh E x p o se d " in D e V e r e E. P e n to n y, R ed W orld in T u m u lt: C o m m u n ist F o r e ig n P o l i c i e s. San F r a n c is c o: C h a n d ler P u b lis h in g C o., 1 9 6 2, pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6, a s r e p r in te d fr o m T h e O b s e r v e r (F e b r u a r y 12, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 1. __________. T h e N e w C old W ar M o sc o w v. P e k in g. B a ltim o r e: P en q u in B o o k s, In c., 1963. C r o a n, M e lv in. "T he D ia le c t ic s o f P o ly c e n t r is m, " S u r v e y N o. 4 8 (J u ly, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 2 0 -1 4 4. C r o s s m a n, R ic h a r d ( e d.). T he G od T h a t F a i le d. N e w Y o rk: H a r p e r and R o w, 1 949. D a llin, A le x a n d e r. "L ong D iv is io n s and F in e F r a c t io n s," P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XI (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 7 - 1 6. D e u t s c h e r, I s a a c. T h e P r o p h e t A r m e d. T r o ts k y: 1 8 7 9 - 1 9 2 1. N ew Y ork: V in ta g e B o o k s, 1 9 6 5. . T h e P r o p h e t O u tc a st. T r o ts k y: 1 9 2 9 -1 9 4 0. N e w Y ork: V in ta g e B o o k s, 1 9 6 5. __________. T h e P r o p h e t U n a r m e d. T r o ts k y: 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 2 9. N e w Y ork: V in ta g e B o o k s, 1 9 6 5. D r a c h k o v itc h, M ilo r a d M. ( e d.). M a r x is m in th e M o d ern W o rld. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 5. D utt, V id y a P r a k a s h. C hina and th e W o r ld. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1966. G r iffith, W illia m E. A lb a n ia and th e S in o - S o v ie t R ift. C a m b r id g e: T h e M.I. T. P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. __________. "T he N o v e m b e r I9 6 0 M o sc o w M e e tin g: A P r e lim in a r y R e c o n s tr u c tio n, " C hina Q u a r te r ly ( J u ly -S e p t e m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ). __________. 'W hat H a p p en ed to R e v is io n is m, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism IX (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 - 9. G y o r g y, A n d rew ( e d.). I s s u e s o f W orld C o m m u n is m. P r in c e to n: D. V an N o s tr a n d, I n c., 1 9 6 6. === [PDF page 300] === 293 H in to n, H a r o ld C. C o m m u n is t C hina in W orld P o l i t i c s. B o sto n: H ough ton M ifflin C o m p a n y, 1 9 6 6, H s ie h, A lic e L a n g le y. C o m m u n is t C h in a 's S t r a t e g y in th e N u c le a r E r a. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t i c e - H a ll, I n c., 1 9 6 2. H u d so n, G e o ffr e y. " M ao, M a r x and M o s c o w," F o r e ig n A ffa ir s XXXVII (J u ly, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 5 6 1 -5 7 2. " R u s s ia and C h in a, " in W a lte r L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b e d z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r i s m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2, __________. " R u s s ia and C hina: T he D ile m m a s o f P o w e r, " F o r e ig n A f f a ir s X X X IX (O c to b e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 -1 0. H u d so n, G e o ffr e y, L o w en th a, R ic h a r d, and M a c F a r q u h a r, R o d e r ic k. T h e S in o - S o v ie t D is p u t e. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r. I ly ic h e v, L. " R e v o lu tio n a r y S c ie n c e and Our A g e: A g a in s t the A n ti- L e n in is t C o u r s e o f th e C h in e s e L e a d e r s, 11 K o m m u n is t, N o. 11 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (S e p te m b e r 14, 1 9 6 4 ), " Im m u ta b le L e n in is t G e n e r a l L in e o f th e C P S U, 11 P r a v d a (O c to b er 17, 1 9 6 4 ), r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (N o v e m b e r 2, 1 9 6 4 ), I s a a c s, H a r o ld R. T he T r a g e d y o f th e C h in e s e R e v o lu tio n. L ondon: M. S e e k e r and W a rb u rg, L td., 1 9 3 8. " J o in t S o v ie t - B u lg a r ia n S ta te m e n t, " P r a v d a (F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (M a rch 9, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 1 -2 9. S -S D K a u tsk y, John H. " R u s s ia, C hin a and N a t io n a lis t M o v e m e n ts, " S u r v e y N o. 43 (A u g u st, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 9. K r u s h c h e v, N ik ita. " A c c e le r a t e d D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e C h e m ic a l In d u str y: M a jo r R e q u is ite fo r I n c r e a s in g A g r ic u ltu r a l P r o d u c tio n and R a is in g the P e o p l e 's S ta n d a rd o f L iv in g. " (R e p o r t a t th e P le n a r y M e e tin g of th e C P SU C e n tr a l C o m m itte e, D e c e m b e r 9, 1 9 6 3 ), s u m m a r y r e p r in te d in C u r r e n t S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts, V o l. II (J a n u a ry 6, 1 9 6 4 ), === [PDF page 301] === 294 K h r u s c h e v, N ik ita S. "On P e a c e and P e a c e f u l C o - e x i s t e n c e, 11 K o m m u n ist N o. 7 (1 9 6 4 ), r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (June 15, __________. " S p ee c h a t B o r s o d i C h e m ic a l W ork s" (A p r il 6, 1 9 6 4 ), P r a v d a (A p r il 7, 1 9 6 4 ). S u m m a r y r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 5 - 2 1. __________. " S p eech a t F r ie n d s h ip R a lly in B u d a p est" (A p r il 9, 1 9 6 4 ), P r a v d a (A p r il 10, 1 9 6 4 ). S u m m a r y r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A p r il 2 7, 1 9 6 4 ), p p. 2 6 - 3 4. K o s y g in, A le x is. " S p eech a t S o v ie t-I n d ia n F r ie n d s h ip M e e tin g in M o sc o w, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I l l (M ay 3 1, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 3 -1 2. " T e le v is io n S p e e c h on V is it to S o c ia lis t C o u n tr ie s o f A s ia " (F e b r u a r y 2 6, 1965), S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I ll (M a rch 15, 1 9 6 5 ), K u ra n in, M. "In th e I n t e r e s t o f S tr o n g e r F r ie n d s h ip, " P r a v d a (F e b r u a r y 15, 1 9 6 5 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I ll (M a rch 15, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 8 -2 3. S -S D L a q u e u r, W a lte r. "T he E nd o f th e M on olith; W orld C o m m u n ism in 1 9 6 2, " F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, X X X X 1 9 6 2. __________. "T he S c h is m " in W a lter L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r is m. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2, pp. " L e tte r fr o m th e C P S U C e n tr a l C o m m itte e to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f Japan" (A p r il 18, 1 9 6 4 ), P a r tiy n a y a Z h iz n N o. 14 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A u g u st 3 1, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 5 - 3 5. " L e tte r fr o m th e C P S U C e n tr a l C o m m itte e to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f Japan" (J u ly 11, 1 9 6 4 ), P a r tiy n a y a Z h iz n N o. 14 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (A u g u st 3 1, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 5. L e v it s k i, B o r i s. " C o e x is te n c e W ithin th e B lo c " in W a lte r L a q u eu r and L e o p o ld L a b ed z ( e d s. ), P o l y c e n t r i s m. N e w Y o rk: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 2, pp. 2 8 - 3 8. === [PDF page 302] === 295 L e w is, John W ilso n ( e d.). M a jo r D o c tr in e s o f C o m m u n is t C h in a. N ew Y ork: W. W. N o r to n & C om p a n y, I n c., 1 9 6 4. L in, P ia o. H old H igh th e R e d F la g of th e P a r t y 's G e n e r a l L in e and M ao T s e -T u n g * s M ilita r y T h in k in g and M a rc h F o r w a r d in M ig h ty S t r i d e s. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 1. L iu, S h a o -C h i. A d d r e s s a t th e M e e tin g in C e le b r a tio n o f th e 4 0 th A n n iv e r s a r y of th e F o u n d in g o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f C hin a. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 1. __________. I n te r n a tio n a lis m and N a tio n a lis m. P e k in g, 1 9 4 8. L o w e n th a l, R ic h a r d. " S h ifts and R ifts in th e R u s s o - C h in e s e A llia n c e," P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VIII (J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 14- 24. __________. "T he L o g ic o f O n e -P a r t y R u le, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (M a r c h -A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 2 1 - 2 9. __________. "T he P o in ts of th e C o m p a ss" in John H. K a u tsk y, P o l it ic a l C han ge in U n d e r d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s: N a tio n a lis m and C o m m u n is m. N ew Y ork: John W ile y and S o n s, I n c., 1 9 6 2, pp. 3 3 5 - 3 4 7. R e p r in te d fr o m E n c o u n te r X V (S e p te m b e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 2 2 - 2 8. __________. " S c h ism A m on g th e F a ith fu l, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism XI (J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 1 - 4. M ao T s e - t u n g. A S im p le S p a rk Can S ta r t a P r a i r i e F i r e. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 5 3. _________. A n a ly s is of th e C l a s s e s in C h in e s e S o c ie t y. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L anguages P r e s s, I960. _________. N e w - D e m o c r a t ic C o n s titu tio n a lis m. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L anguages P r e s s, I960. __________. On C o a litio n G o v e r n m e n t. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, I960. __________. On C o n tr a d ic tio n. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, I 9 6 0. On N ew D e m o c r a c y. P eking: F o r e ig n L an gu ages P r e s s, 1954. === [PDF page 303] === 296 M ao T s e - t u n g. On P e o p l e d D e m o c r a tic D ic t a t o r s h ip. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L an gu ages P r e s s, 1959. __________. On th e C o r r e c t H an d lin g o f C o n tr a d ic tio n s A m o n g th e P e o p l e. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 5 9. __________. "On th e Q u e s tio n o f th e N a tio n a l B o u r g e o is ie and th e E n lig h te n e d G en try" in S e le c t e d W ork s IV. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L an gu ages P r e s s, 1961. __________. " S p ee c h a t a C o n fe r e n c e o f C a d r e s in th e S h a n s i-S u iy u a n L ib e r a te d A r ea " in S e le c t e d W orks IV. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 961. __________. T h e Q u e s tio n o f In d e p e n d e n c e W ithin th e U n ited F r o n t. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 0. " M a r x is m - L e n in is m: I n te r n a tio n a l T e a c h in g fo r C o m m u n is ts in A ll C o u n t r ie s," S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (June 1, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 3. M e h n e r t, K la u s. P e k in g and M o s c o w. N ew Y o rk: G. P. P u tn a m 's S o n s, 1 9 6 3. T r a n s la t e d fr o m th e G e r m a n b y L e ila V e n n e w itz. M o s e ly, P h ilip E. " T h e C h in e s e - S o v ie t R ift: O r ig in s and P o r t e n t s, " F o r e ig n A f f a ir s X X XX II (O c to b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 1 - 2 4. M e L a n e, C h a r le s B. S o v ie t P o lic y and th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is ts 1931 — 1 9 4 6. N e w Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. N o r th, R o b e r t C. "M. N. R oy and th e F ifth C o n g r e s s o f th e C h in e se C o m m u n is t P a r ty, " T h e C hin a Q u a r te r ly (O c to b e r -D e c e m b e r, 1961). __________. " T w o R e v o lu tio n a r y M o d e ls: R u s s ia n and C h in e s e " in A. D oak B a r n e tt ( e d. ), C o m m u n ist S t r a t e g ie s in A s i a. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3, pp. 3 4 - 6 3. O pen L e t t e r o f C. P. S. U. C e n tr a l C o m m itte e to a ll P a r t y O r g a n iz a tio n s and a ll C o m m u n is ts o f th e S o v ie t U n io n, J u ly 1 4, 1 9 6 3. N e w Y ork: C r o ssc u r r e n ts P r e s s, 1963. " P. L. A. C o n fe r e n c e on P o l it ic a l W ork, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. IX (J a n u a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 5 - 6. P a lo c z i- H o r v a t h, G e o r g e. M ao T s e -T u n g: E m p e r o r o f th e B lu e A n ts. G a rd en C ity: D o u b led a y and C o., I n c., 1 963. === [PDF page 304] === 297 " P o lit ic a l P u r p o s e o f th e C h in e s e L e a d e r s h ip 's T h e o r e t ic a l C o n c e p ts," P r a v d a (M ay 12, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (June 1, P o n o m a r y e v, B o r i s N. " B u ild in g o f C o m m u n ism in th e U. S. S. R.: G r e a t I n te r n a tio n a l M is s io n o f th e S o v ie t P e o p le, " K o m m u n is t, N o. 11 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (S e p te m b e r 2 1, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 3 6. __________. " S p ee c h a t M e e tin g C o m m e m o r a tin g th e C e n tu r y o f the F i r s t I n te r n a tio n a l, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. II (N o v e m b e r 9, R e fu ta tio n o f th e N e w L e a d e r s o f th e C P SU on " U n ited A c tio n. " P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. R itv o, H e r b e r t. " M o sc o w, P e ip in g and th e M id d le E a s t. S in o -S o v ie t R e la tio n s and th e S u m m it, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (S e p te m b e r -O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), p p. 4 7 - 4 9. R u e, J o h n E. M a o is m in C hina: M a o 's E a r ly J u d g e m e n ts o f S ta lin. [Unreadable] S c h r a m, S. R. T he P o l it ic a l T h o u g h ts o f M ao T s e - t u n g. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3, p. 6 2. S c h w a r tz, B e n ja m in I. C h in e s e C o m m u n ism and th e R is e o f M ao. C a m b r id g e: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 1. __________. "C hina and th e C o m m u n ist B lo c: A S p e c u la tiv e R e c o n s t r u c tio n, " C u r r e n t H is t o r y X X X V (D e c e m b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 3 2 1 -3 2 6. S h in k ic h i, E to. " H a ilu - F e n g - - T h e F i r s t C h in e s e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t," C hina Q u a r te r ly (O c to b e r -D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 1 ). Snow, E d g a r. R ed S ta r O v er C h in a. N ew Y ork: G r o v e P r e s s, I n c., 1 9 3 8. __________. T he O th er S id e o f th e R iv e r: R ed C hina T o d a y. N e w Y ork: R an d om H o u s e, 1 96 1. S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t's S ta te m e n t A u g u st 3, 1 9 6 3. N e w Y ork: C r o s s c u rren ts P r e s s, 1963. === [PDF page 305] === 298 " S o v ie t N o te to C h in e s e E m b a s s y on S tu d en t D e m o n s tr a tio n s, " P r a v d a (M a rch 13, 1 9 6 5 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts, V o l. I ll (M a rch 2 9, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 7 - 2 2. " S o v ie t R e p ly to C h in e s e P r o p o s a l fo r C o n fe r e n c e to D i s c u s s B a n n in g N u c le a r W e a p o n s, " P r a v d a (J a n u a r y 4, 1 9 6 5 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts (J a n u a ry 2 5, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 8 - 9. S ta te m e n t o f th e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t S e p te m b e r 2 1, 1 9 6 3. N e w Y ork: C r o ssc u r r e n ts P r e s s, 1963. S t e in e r, H. A r th u r. "C hina to th e L e ft o f R u s s ia, " A s ia n S u r v e y IV (J a n u a ry, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 6 2 5 - 6 3 7. S u s lo v, M. A. " S tr u g g le o f th e C P S U fo r th e U n ity o f th e W orld C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t, " S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A p r il 2 0, 1 9 6 4 ), p p. 3 - 86. "T he D e c is io n o f th e C P S U P le n a r y M e e tin g A d o p ted on F e b r u a r y 1 5, 1 9 6 4," S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (A p r il 2 0, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 8 6 - 8 8. "T he F i r s t A f r o - A s ia n - L a t in A m e r ic a n P e o p l e s ' S o lid a r ity C o n fe r e n c e, " P e k in g R e v ie w VIII (J a n u a r y 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 9 -2 5. T he L e a d e r s o f th e C P S U A r e B e t r a y e r s o f th e D e c la r a tio n and th e S ta te m e n t. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. T he P o le m ic on th e G e n e r a l L in e o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 6. "T he T id e o f th e P e o p l e ’ s A n t i- I m p e r ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y S tr u g g le i s I r r e s i s t i b l e, " R e n m in R ib a o (J a n u a r y 18, 1 9 6 6 ). R e p r in te d in P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. IX (J a n u a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 6 -1 8. T h o m a s, J oh n R. " S in o -S o v ie t R e la tio n s A fte r K h r u s c h c h e v and M ao, " O r b is VII ( F a ll, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 5 3 7 - 5 5 0. T y a g u n en k o, V. L. " P r e s e n t N a tio n a l L ib e r a tio n R e v o lu tio n s, " P r a v d a (M a rch 1 8, 1 9 6 5 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I ll (A p r il 5, U n ited S t a te s, H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s, C o m m itte e on F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, S u b c o m m itte e on th e F a r E a s t and the P a c i f i c. S in o -S o v ie t C o n flict: R e p o r t on S in o - S o v ie t C o n flic t and i t s I m p lic a tio n s. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: U.S. P r in tin g O ffic e, 1 9 6 5. === [PDF page 306] === 299 " U n ity in th e C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t R e s t s on I d e o lo g ic a l U n ity, " P r a v d a (M ay 10, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (June 1, 1 9 6 4 ), "USSR and P R C E x c h a n g e M e s s a g e s, " P r a v d a (F e b r u a r y 1 4, 1 9 6 5 ). S u m m a r y r e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts V o l. I l l (M a rch 15, 1 9 6 5 ), "U. S. S. R. R e f u s e s to C le a r Up A n ti-C h in a R u m o u r, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (J a n u a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 2 6. V ic e - P r e m i e r C hen Y I A n s w e r s Q u e s tio n s P u t b y C o r r e s p o n d e n ts (S ep te m b e r 29 and D e c e m b e r 3 0, 1 9 6 5 ). P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1966. "W hat C h in e s e L e a d e r s a r e T r y in g to I m p o s e U pon th e C o m m u n is t M o v e m e n t U n d er th e G u ise o f M a r x is m - L e n in is m, " P r a v d a (M ay 11, 1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d in S o v ie t D o c u m e n ts II (June 1, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 0 - 17. W hiting, A lle n S. C hin a C r o s s e s th e Y a lu. N e w Y o rk: T he M a c M illa n W ittfo g e l, K a r l A. " T h e L e g e n d o f 'M a o is m ’," T h e C h in a Q u a r te r ly (J a n u a r y -M a r c h, I 9 6 0 ). "Why K h r u sh c h e v F e ll, " H on ggi N o s. 2 1 - 2 2 (1 9 6 4 ). R e p r in te d by P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1964. Z a g o r ia, D o n a ld S. "Som e C o m p a r is o n s B e tw e e n th e R u s s ia n and C h in e s e M o d e ls" in B a r n e tt, A. D o a k, C o m m u n ist S t r a t e g ie s in A s ia. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3, pp. 1 1 - 3 3. __________. T he S in o - S o v ie t C o n flic t, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 1. P r in c e t o n, N. J.: P r in c e to n U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 2. . "T he S p e c tr e of R e v is io n is m, " P r o b le m s o f C o m m u n ism VII (J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 1 5 -2 1. === [PDF page 307] === 300 III. INDONESIA A. G eneral "A. A. J. A. U p h o ld s A n t i- I m p e r ia lis t B a n n e r, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (J a n u a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 2 7. (In d o n esia ) A n d e r s o n, B. R. O 'G. S o m e A s p e c t s o f I n d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c s U n d er th e J a p a n e s e O c c u p a tio n. Ith a ca: C o r n e ll M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, 1961. A n d e r s o n, B e n. "T he L a n g u a g e s o f I n d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c s, " Indon e s i a I (A p r il, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 8 9 - 1 1 6. B e n d a, H a r r y J. " D e m o c r a c y in In d o n e sia " (a r e v ie w o f T h e D e c lin e o f C o n s titu tio n a l G o v e r n m e n t in I n d o n e s ia b y H e r b e r t F e ith ), J o u r n a l o f A s ia n S tu d ie s XXII (M ay, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 4 4 9 - 4 5 6. B o n e, R o b e r t C., S r. " T h e F u tu r e o f I n d o n e s ia n P o l it ic a l P a r t i e s," F a r E a s t e r n S u r v e y XXIII (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 5 4 ), p. 14. "C hina L o d g e s S tro n g P r o t e s t w ith I n d o n e s ia n G o v e r n m e n t, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (O c to b er 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 5. F e ith, H e r b e r t. " D y n a m ic s o f G u ided D e m o c r a c y " in R uth M cV e y, I n d o n e s ia. N e w H aven: H R A F P r e s s, 1 9 6 3, pp. 3 0 9 - 4 0 9. __________. " I n d o n e s ia 's P o l i t i c a l S y m b o ls and T h e ir W ie ld e r s, " W orld P o l i t i c s XVI (O c to b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 7 9 - 9 7. __________, T h e D e c lin e o f C o n s titu tio n a l D e m o c r a c y in In d o n esia. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 2. G e e r tz, C liffo r d. R e lig io n on J a v a. N ew Y ork: T h e F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e. H a tta, M o h a m m a d. " In d o n e sia B e tw e e n th e P o w e r B lo c s, " F o r e ig n A ffa ir s (A p r il, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 4 8 0 - 4 9 0. __________. " I n d o n e s ia 's F o r e ig n P o l ic y, " F o r e ig n A f f a ir s X X X X (1 9 5 3 ), === [PDF page 308] === 301 H atta, M o h a m m a d. " In d o n e sia ’ s M isg u id e d D e m o c r a c y, 11 N e w L e a d e r (N o v e m b e r 10, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 1 4 - 1 5. " H sin h u a S ta te m e n t C o n c e r n in g I n d o n e s ia n A r m y P a p e r 's A n ti-C h in a F a b r i c a t i o n,11 P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (O c to b er 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 6. I n d o n e s ia, 1 9 6 2. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, 1 9 6 2. I n d o n e s ia 's N a tio n a l M o v e m e n t. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, K ah in, G e o r g e M cT. " In d o n esia " in M a jo r G o v e r n m e n ts o f A s i a. 2nd e d itio n. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 8. __________. N a tio n a lis m and R e v o lu tio n in I n d o n e s ia. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 5 2. L e g g e, J. D. C e n tr a l A u th o r ity and R e g io n a l A u to n o m y in In d o n e s ia: A Study in L o c a l A d m in is tr a tio n 1 9 5 0 -1 9 6 0. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 1. L e v, D a n ie l S. "T he P o l it ic a l R o le o f th e A r m y in I n d o n e s ia, " P a c if i c A f f a ir s X X X VTC (W in ter, 1 9 6 3 -1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 4 9 -3 6 4. M c V e y, R uth T. ( e d.). Indon e s i a. N e w H aven: H R A F P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. M o s s m a n, J a m e s. R e b e ls in P a r a d is e; I n d o n e s ia 's C iv il W ar. L ondon: J. C a p e, 1961. M o z in g o, D a v id. "T he S in o -I n d o n e s ia n D u a l N a tio n a lity T r e a ty, " A s ia n S u r v e y (D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 2 5 - 3 1. " M u rd er of C h in e s e N a tio n a ls on L o m b o k I s la n d P r o t e s t e d, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. IX (J a n u a ry 2 1, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 4. P a lm e r, L e s l i e H. " S u k arn o, T h e N a tio n a lis t, " P a c if ic A ffa ir s X X X (Ju n e, 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 1 0 1 -1 1 9. P a u k e r, Guy J. " In d o n e sia in 19 6 3: T h e Y e a r o f W a sted O p p o r tu n itie s, " A s ia n S u r v e y IV (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 6 8 7 -6 9 4. . " In d o n e sia in 1964: T o w a rd a 'P e o p le 's D e m o c r a c y ', " A s ia n S u r v e y V (F e b r u a r y, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 8 8 -9 7. === [PDF page 309] === 302 P o in d e x te r, A r th u r. " C itiz e n o f a N e w R e p u b lic: A B io g r a p h ic a l P r o f ile o f an In d o n e s ia n. " (M a s te r s T h e s i s, C la r e m o n t G rad u ate S c h o o l a n d U n iv e r s it y C e n te r, U n p u b lish e d.) pp. 4 7 - 5 2. " S e le c te d D o c u m e n ts R e la tin g to th e ’S e p te m b e r 3 0 th M o v e m e n t’ and I ts E p ilo g u e, " I n d o n e s ia I (A p r il, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 3 1 -2 0 4. S ja h r ir, S u tan. I n d o n e s ia n S o c i a l i s m. R angoon: A s ia n S o c ia lis t P u b lis h in g H o u s e, 1 9 5 6. "Stron g P r o t e s t A g a in s t N e w In c id e n t b y I n d o n e s ia n R ig h t-W in g F o r c e s, " P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. IX (M a rch 2 5, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 10. "Sudden, D r a s t ic C h an ges i n I n d o n e s ia n P o l i t i c a l S itu a tio n, " R e n m in R ib a o (O c to b er 2 0, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 - 4. R e p r in te d in P e k in g R e v ie w V o l. VIII (O cto b er 2 2, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 7 - 1 2. S u k a rn o. " A d d r e s s to the J o in t S e s s io n o f th e U n ited S ta te s C o n g r e s s, " M ay 1 7, 1 9 5 6. R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and the D ig n ity of M an. D ja k a rta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, 1 9 6 1, pp. 2 5 - 3 5. __________. " L e c tu r e to the S tu d en ts o f H a sa n u d d in U n iv e r s it y, " in P a u l E. S ig m u n d, J r. ( e d. ), T h e I d e o lo g ie s o f th e D e v e lo p in g N a tio n s. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3, pp. 5 7 - 6 2. __________. " L ik e an A n g e l th a t S t r ik e s fr o m th e S k ie s, " A u g u st 17, 1 9 6 0. R e p r in te d in T o w a r d F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, __________. M a r h a e n and P r o le t a r ia n. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y, M o d e rn I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, S o u th e a s t A s ia P r o g r a m, 1 9 6 0. __________. R e f le c t io n s U pon th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n. San F r a n c is c o: C o n s u la te o f I n d o n e s ia, 1 9 6 4 (d itto ). __________. R e s P u b lic a! O n ce M o re R e s P u b lic a! A d d r e s s to the C o n s titu e n t A s s e m b ly on A p r il 2 2, 1 9 5 9. N e w Y ork: R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s ia, P e r m a n e n t M is s io n to th e U n ited N a tio n s, 1 9 5 9, p. 9. __________. S p e e c h C o m m e m o r a tin g th e T en th A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e B andung C o n fe r e n c e, e x c e r p t e d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, A p r il 3 0, 1965 (d itto ), pp. 4 - 6. === [PDF page 310] === 303 S u k a rn o. A s q u o te d in B am b a n g D e to m, "Som e R e m a r k s on M o d ern Indon e s ia n H is to r io g r a p h y " in D. G. E. H a ll ( e d.), H is t o r ia n s o f S o u th e a s t A s i a. L ondon: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 6 1, p. 7 5. __________. S p e e c h d e liv e r e d a t th e I d u lfitr i F e s t i v a l, e x c e r p t e d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, M a r c h 5, 1965 (d itto ), pp. 1 -3. __________. S p e e c h d e liv e r e d b e fo r e the A f r o - A s ia n I s la m ic C o n fe r e n c e, e x c e r p t e d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, M a rc h 3 1, 1965 (d itto ), pp. 3 - 5. __________. S p e e c h M ay, 1 9 5 3, to I s la m ic stu d e n ts a t the U n iv e r s it y o f I n d o n e s ia, e x c e r p te d and q u oted in J e a n n e M in tz, M o h a m m e d, M a rx and M a r h a e n, pp. 1 6 5 -1 6 6. __________. S p e e c h F e b r u a r y 13, 1963, b e fo r e th e C o n fe r e n c e o f th e N a tio n a l F r o n t C o m m itte e. Q u oted in E w a T. P a u k e r, 'G A N E F O I: S p o r ts and P o l i t i c s in D ja k a r ta, 11 A s ia n S u r v e y V (A p r il, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 173. __________. S p e e c h o f A p r il 19, 1 9 6 5, in D ja k a r ta, e x c e r p t e d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, A p r il 3 0, 1965 (d itto ), pp. 2 - 4. __________. S p e e c h on the o c c a s io n o f th e la y in g dow n o f f i r s t fo u n d a tio n sto n e o f th e P o l it ic a l V e n u e s o f th e C o n fe r e n c e o f N e w E m e r g in g F o r c e s (C O N E F O ), A p r il 19, 1 9 6 5, e x c e r p t e d and q u o te d in N e w s on I n d o n e s ia. San F r a n c is c o: T h e C o n su la te of [Unreadable] __________. "T he B ir th o f P a n tja S ila, " Jun e 1, 1 9 4 5. R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, 1 9 6 1, pp. 3 - 2 1. __________. "T he P r e s id e n t 's M e s s a g e: H ope and F a c t s, " I n d o n e s ia n A ffa ir s II (A u g u s t/S e p te m b e r, 1 9 5 2 ). __________. "T he R e d is c o v e r y o f Our R e v o lu tio n A u g u st 17, 1 9 5 9. " R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M an. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, 1 9 6 1, pp. === [PDF page 311] === 304 S u k arn o. "T o B u ild th e W orld A n ew. " S e p te m b e r 3 0, I 9 6 0. A d d r e s s d e liv e r e d a t th e F ifte e n th G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly o f th e U n ited N a tio n s. R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M a n. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s, 1 9 6 1, pp. __________. " T r a n s c r ip t o f P r e s id e n t S u k a r n o 's I n te r v ie w w ith C. B.S. N e w s C o r r e s p o n d e n t s," t e l e v i s e d J a n u a r y 3 1, 1 9 6 5, on " F a c e th e N a tio n." San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, n. d. (d itto ). S u p r e m e A d v is o r y C o u n cil D e c is io n R e s p e c tin g S p e c if ic a t io n o f th e P o l it ic a l M a n ife s to o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia o f 17th A u g u st 1 9 5 9. R e p r in te d in T o w a rd F r e e d o m and th e D ig n ity o f M a n. D ja k a r ta: R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia, D e p a r tm e n t o f F o r e ig n A f f a ir s, T e d ja su k m a n a, I sk a n d a r. T h e P o l it ic a l C h a r a c te r o f th e I n d o n e s ia n T r a d e U n ion M o v e m e n t. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y, M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t M o n o g ra p h S e r i e s, 1 9 5 9. T he C o n s titu tio n a l and A d m in is tr a tiv e F r a m e w o r k. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, n. d. (d itto ). T he N a tio n a l O v e r - a ll D e v e lo p m e n t P l a n. San F r a n c is c o: C o n su la te o f I n d o n e s ia, n. d. (d itto ). V an d e r K r o e f, J u s tu s M. "An I n d o n e s ia n I d e o lo g ic a l L e x ic o n," A s ia n S u r v e y II (J u ly, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 2 4 - 3 0. __________. "G uided D e m o c r a c y i n I n d o n e s ia, " F a r E a s t e r n S u r v e y (A u g u st, 1 9 5 7 ), p p. 1 1 3 -1 2 4. __________. " In d o n esia: C e n tr ifu g a l E c o n o m ie s " in J a m e s W ig g in s and H e lm u t S c h o e c k ( e d s. ), F o r e ig n A id R e -e x a m in e d: A C r itic a l A p p r a is a l. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: P u b lic A f f a ir s P r e s s, 1 9 5 8, pp. __________. " In d o n esia: T he M y stiq u e o f P e r m a n e n t R e v o lu tio n, " South A tla n tic Q u a r te r ly L X IV (W in te r, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 - 1 4. __________. " I n d o n e s ia 's 'N e w L ife ' M o v e m e n t, " E a s t e r n W orld (N o v e m b e r, 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 1 6 -1 9. ." I n s ta b ility in I n d o n e s ia, " F a r E a s t e r n S u r v e y (A p r il, 1 9 5 7 ), === [PDF page 312] === 305 V an d e r K r o e f, J u s tu s M. " J a v a n e s e M e s s ia n ic E x p e c ta tio n s: T h e ir O r ig in and C u ltu r a l C o n te x t, " C o m p a r a tiv e S tu d ie s in S o c ie ty and H i s t o r y, I (1 9 5 9 ), pp. 2 9 9 - 3 2 3. __________. " N a su tio n, S u k arn o and the W e st N e w G u in ea D is p u te, " A s ia n S u r v e y (A u g u st, 1 9 6 1 ). __________. "T he C han ging P a tte r n o f In d o n esia * s R e p r e s e n ta tiv e G o v e r n m e n t, " C ar^ d ian J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m ic s and P o l it ic a l S c ie n c e X XVI __________. "T he C ult o f th e D o c to r: An In d o n e s ia n V a r ia n t, " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo g y X XXII (1 9 5 9 ), pp. 3 8 1 - 3 9 1. __________. "T he W e st N ew G u in ea S e ttle m e n t: I t s O r ig in s and I m p lic a t io n s, " O r b i£ (S p r in g, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 2 0 -1 4 9. V an N ie l, R o b e r t. T h e E m e r g e n c e o f th e M o d ern I n d o n e s ia n E lit e. T h e H agu e: W. v a n H o e v e, 1960. V le k k e, B e r n a r d H. M. N u sa n tu ra: A H is to r y o f I n d o n e s ia. T h e H agu e: W. v a n H o e v e, I9 6 0. W e r th e im, W. F. I n d o n e s ia n S o c ie ty in T r a n s it io n. T he H agu e: W. v a n H o ev e, 1959. W illm o tt, D o n a ld E. T h e N a tio n a l S ta tu s o f th e C h in e s e in I n d o n e s ia 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 5 8. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y, M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, 1961. B. C o m m u n ism A id it, D ip a N. A id it A c c u s e s M adiun A ffa ir. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P em b aru an, 1955. __________. D a r e, D a r e and D a r e A g a in! P o l it ic a l r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d on F e b r u a r y 10, 1 9 6 3, to th e F i r s t P le n a r y s e s s i o n o f th e S e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 3. === [PDF page 313] === 306 A id it, D ip a N. " F o r B r o a d U n ity o f A ll N a tio n a l F o r c e s in I n d o n e s ia, " F o r a L a s tin g P e a c e! F o r a P e o p le 1s D e m o c r a c y! (D e c e m b e r 3 1, __________. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n is ts M a rc h F o r w a r d fo r F u ll N a tio n a l I n d e p e n d e n c e," W orld M a r x is t R e v ie w (Ju ne, 1 9 6 3 ). __________. " P a r ty B u ild in g and M a s s W ork, " W orld M a r x is t R e v ie w (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ). P e la d ja r a n D a r i S e d ja r a h P K I. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, 1960. _________. P e r k u a t P e r s a t u a n N a s io n a l dan P e r s a t u a n K o m u n is. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, 1 9 6 1. __________. P ilih a n T u lis a n V o l. I and II. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, I960. . S e t A fir e th e B a n te n g S p ir it! E v e r F o r w a r d N o R e t r e a t. P o l it ic a l r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d D e c e m b e r 2 2 - 2 6, 1 9 6 3, to th e S e c o n d P le n u m o f th e S e v e n th C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty of I n d o n e s ia. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. __________. T h e B ir th and G row th o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r t y o f I n d o n e s ia. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, 1 9 5 8. __________. T h e I n d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and th e I m m e d ia te T a s k s o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia. T h r e e s p e e c h e s p r e s e n t e d du rin g a v i s i t to C o m m u n ist C hina d u rin g S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 3. P e k in g: F o r e ig n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. __________. T h e R oad to P e o p l e d D e m o c r a c y fo r I n d o n e s ia. D ja k a r ta: J a ja s a n P e m b a r u a n, 1 9 5 5. B e n d a, H a r r y S. and M c V e y, R uth T. ( e d s. ). T he C o m m u n ist U p r is in g s o f 1 9 2 6 -1 9 2 7 in I n d o n e s ia: K ey D o c u m e n ts. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll M o d ern I n d o n e s ia P r o j e c t, I 9 6 0. B r a c k m a n, A r n o ld C. I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is m. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1963. D a r s o n o. "Studying ’ On th e C o r r e c t H a n d lin g o f th e C o n tr a d ic tio n s A m on g th e P e o p le *, " R e v ie w o f I n d o n e s ia (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), pp. === [PDF page 314] === 307 H ann a, W illa r d A. " F r o m J a il to J a il: T h e S a g a o f T an M a la k a, 11 A m e r ic a n U n iv e r s it ie s F ie ld S ta ff L e t t e r, A p r il 6, 1 9 5 9. " H a ria n R a k ja t R e fu te s Y u g o s la v R e v is io n is t C liq u e, " P e k in g R e v ie w (M ay 1 7, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 3 -1 5. H in d le y, D o n a ld. " P r e s id e n t S u karno and th e C o m m u n is ts: T he P o l i t i c s o f D o m e s t ic a t io n, " A m e r ic a n P o l i t ic a l S c ie n c e R e v ie w LVI ( D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ). __________. T he C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f I n d o n e s ia 1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 3. B e r k e le y: U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s, 1 9 6 4. __________. "T he I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty and th e C o n flic t in th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t, " T h e C hin a Q u a r te r ly N o. 19 (J u ly -S e p t e m b e r, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 9 9 - 1 1 9. J o s e y, A le x. " A id it and M a la y s ia, " F a r E a s t e r n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w (F e b r u a r y 2 0, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 4 2 1 - 4 2 2. J u n u s, H. " F o u r Y e a r P la n o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia, " W orld M a r x is t R e v ie w (D e c e m b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), p p. 5 3 - 5 5. M c V e y, R uth T. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n ism and th e T r a n s it io n to G uided D e m o c r a c y " in A. D oak B a r n e tt ( e d.), C o m m u n ist S t r a t e g ie s in A s i a. N e w Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3. __________. "T he D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n ist P a r ty and I t s R e la tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t U n ion and th e C h in e s e P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic. " C a m b r id g e: M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y S tu d y, 1954 ( m im e o.). __________. T he R is e of I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is m. Ith a c a: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, 1966. M a c D o u g a ll, C o lin a. " A id it on th e F e n c e, " F a r E a s t e r n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w (O c to b er 10, 19 6 3 ), p. 4 9. M in tz, J e a n n e S. " M a r x ism in In d o n e sia " in F r a n k N. T r a g e r ( e d.), M a r x is m in S o u th e a s t A s i a. S ta n fo rd: S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s, . M o h a m m ed, M a rx and M a r h a e n. N ew Y ork: F r e d e r ic k A. P r a e g e r, 1965. === [PDF page 315] === 308 N jo to. "H old H igh th e S p ir it o f 1 9 4 5, " R e v ie w o f I n d o n e s ia (A p r il/M a y, __________. " S a feg u a rd in g th e U n ity o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m u n ist M o v e m e n t, " P ek irig _ J lev iew (J u ly 1 9, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 2 1 - 2 2. __________. " Som e M a tte r s C o n c e r n in g Y u g o s la v ia and I n d o n e s ia C on s id e r e d fr o m th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l P o in t o f V ie w, " R e v ie w o f In d o - ne s i a (O c to b e r, 1 9 5 8 ). R ew a n g. " F r o m th e E x p e r ie n c e o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty in I n d o n e s ia," W orld M a r x is t R e v ie w (A u g u st, 1 9 6 3 ). P a u k e r, G uy. " In d o n esia: T h e P K I's 'R o a d to P o w e r 1, " in R o b e r t A. S c a la p in o ( e d.), T h e C o m m u n is t R e v o lu tio n in A s ia. E n g le w o o d C liffs: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c., 1 9 6 5, p. 2 6 7. S c h r ie k e, B. "T he C a u s e s and E f f e c t s o f C o m m u n ism on th e W e st C o a s t o f S u m a tr a, " in I n d o n e s ia n S o c io lo g ic a l S t u d ie s. S e le c t e d W r itin g s o f B. S c h r ie k e, P a r t I. T h e H a g u e: W. v a n H o e v e, 1955. S e m a u n. "T he I n d o n e s ia n M o v e m e n t in th e N e th e r la n d s I n d ie s " (O c to b e r, 1 9 2 1 ). R e p r in te d in I n d o n e s ia I (A p r il, 1 9 6 6 ), p p. 5 0 - 5 8. " S e ttle th e Q u e s tio n o f th e O v e r s e a s C h in e s e in th e S p ir it and A c t o f I n d o n e s ia n - C h in e s e F r ie n d s h ip, " R e v ie w o f I n d o n e s ia (N o v e m b e r / D e c e m b e r, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 3. " S ta te m e n t o f th e P o litb u r e a u o f th e CC C PI (PKI) on th e E c o n o m ic S itu a tio n," R e v ie w o f I n d o n e s ia (M a rch, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 3 - 4. Van d e r K r o e f, J u s tu s M. " A g r a r ia n R e fo r m and th e In d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is t P a r t y, " F ar_ E a stern _ S u rv e^ _ X X IX (J a n u a r y, I 9 6 0 ), pp. __________. " C o m m u n ist T h e o r y and P r a c t ic e in I n d o n e s ia, " Or b is V (S p rin g, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 4 3 - 6 3. __________. " D ile m m a s o f I n d o n e s ia n C o m m u n is m, " P a c if i c A ffa ir s X X X V (S u m m e r, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 1 4 1 -1 5 9. __________. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n is m 's C u ltu r a l O f f e n s iv e," T h e A u s tr a lia n O utlook (A p r il, 1 9 6 4 ). === [PDF page 316] === 309 V an d e r K r o e f, J u s tu s M. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n is t P o l i c y and the S ix th P a r t y C o n g r e s s," P a c if ic A ffa ir s (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 0 ). ________ " L e n in, M a o, and A id it, " C hin a Q u a r te r ly N o. 10 ( A p r il/ J u n e, 1 9 6 2 ), p p. 2 3 - 4 4. ________ _. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n ist P o lic y and th e S ix th P a r ty C o n g r e s s, " P a c i f i c A f f a ir s XXXEII (S e p te m b e r, I 9 6 0 ), pp. 2 2 7 - 2 4 9. __________. " In d o n esia n C o m m u n ism U n d er A id it, ” P r o b l e m s o f C o m m u n is m VII ( N o v e m b e r -D e c e m b e r, 1 9 5 8 ), p p. 1 5 - 2 3. . T h e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d o n e s ia. V a n c o u v e r: P u b lic a tio n s C e n te r, U n iv e r s it y o f B r it is h C o lu m b ia, 1 9 6 5.