An Examination of Lucian W. Pye's Theory of Political Development through a Case Study of the Indonesian Coup of 1965

=== [PDF page 1] === This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received SLOAN, Stephen, 1936AN EXAMINATION OF LUCIAN W. PYE'S THEORY O F POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT—THROUGH A CASE STUDY O F THE INDONESIAN COUP OF 1965. New Y ork U niversity, Ph.DM 1967 P o litic a l Science, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan === [PDF page 2] === NEW YORK UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COLIEGE AN EXAMINATION OP LUCIAN W. PYE‘S THEORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT— THROUGH A CASE STUDY OF THE INDONESIAN COUP OF 1 9 6 5 A DISSERATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY D epartm ent of P o l i t i c s STEPHEN SLOAN 1967 Approved \, Research Adviser === [PDF page 3] === AN EXAMINATION OP LUCIAN W. PY E'S THEORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT— THROUGH A CASE STUDY OF THE INDONESIAN COUP OF 1965 === [PDF page 4] === TABLE OF CONTENTS Page C h ap ter III. LUCIAN PY E'S THEORY OF POLITICAL 10 THE IDEAL OF FORM VERSUS THE REALITY OF SUBSTANCE— BARRIERS TO I N DONESIAN NATIONHOOD. 31 THE INDONESIAN POLITICAL CONFIGURATION-THE LOGIC OF COM PETITIVE POLITICS (D IV IS IO N ) VERSUS AN OFFICIAL CONSENSUS 50 THE ATTEMPTED COUP AND REACTION-A CRYSTALLIZATION OF CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE I N INDONESIAN P O L I T I C S. Ill 153 183 === [PDF page 5] === AN EXAMINATION OF LUCIAN W. PYE'S THEORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT— THROUGH A CASE STUDY OF THE INDONESIAN COUP OF 1 9 65 INTRODUCTION The C h a l l e n g e o f C o m p a r a t i v e P o l i t i c s — T he Need F o r New C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n The p o s t w a r d e c a d e s h a v e b e e n m a r k e d b y t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e new s t a t e s of A s i a a nd A f r i c a of co lo n ial ru le. a f t e r ex ten ded T his t r a n s i t i o n h a s c h a l le n g e d periods a l l the s o c i a l s c ie n c e s as they se ek t o fo rm u la te m ean in g fu l c o n ce p ts t h a t may b e e m ployed I n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of th ese new s t a t e s a s t h e y c o n t i n u e t o s t r u g g l e of i n t e r In th e arena n a tio n al p o litic s. The t e n s i o n s c r e a t e d by s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s have b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e s s in g i n th e realm s c i e n c e a s old t h e o r i e s f a c e t h e c h a l l e n g e new r e a l i t i e s. Perhaps th e s t r a i n in th e d is c ip lin e of p o l i t i c a l of a d ju s tin g of in n o v atio n is b e st seen of c o m p a r a t i v e p o l i t i c s w h e r e a n " e s s e n t i a l l y p a r o c h i a l approach addressed t o an e x a m in a tio n of W estern E u r o p e a n I n s t i t u t i o n s " 1 h a s ha d t o e x t e n d its sc o p e beyond t h e ^ o y C. Mac r i d i s, The S t u d y o f C o m p a r a t i v e G o v e r n m e n t (New Y o r k: Random H o u s e, 195S>Jj P* === [PDF page 6] === p o l i t i c s of P a r i s, London and B o n n. T his e x t e n s i o n of scope h a s b r o u g h t w i t h i t f o r new c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a s t h e f o r m a l i z e d th e need in stitu tio n a l t r a d i t i o n c o u ld no lo n g e r p ro v id e m e a n in g f u l a n a l y s i s i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s where c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m governm ent w e re, a l l too o f t e n, i n new ly and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a f a c a d e b e h i n d W hich t h e real d y n am ics of t r a n s i t i o n a l p o l i t i c s t o o k p l a c e. C o n seq u en tly, once t h e sco p e of th e d i s c i p l i n e was e x t e n d e d, new c o n c e p t s w ou ld h e o f f e r e d e x te n sio n. t o meet t h e c h a l l e n g e of th a t The new c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a t t e m p t e d to breach the fa c a d e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t u d i e s by i n c r e a s i n g l y e m p lo y in g th e theory of the tance " p o l i t i c a l S y stem " and s u g g e s t i n g th e im p o r o f " f u n c t i o n " and " s t r u c t u r e " 2 a s a m e a n s o f g o i n g beyond th e e x e r c i s e of f u t i l i t y th at o f t e n m arked r i g i d exam inations of th e o rg a n iz a tio n of p u b lic a u th o ritie s n a t i o n s whose w h o l e s o c i e t i e s w e r e f a c i n g t h e b a s i c d i s l o c a t i o n u n d e r t h e im pact o f t h e f o r c e s C o n sequently, th reat of m o d ern izatio n. J u s t as the s o c i e t i e s w ere u n d e rg o in g b a s i c tran sfo rm atio n, the d is c ip lin e a ls o being profoundly a lte re d of co m p arativ e to fin d p o litic s a d ire c tio n was a rap id ly changing w o rld. The u t i l i z a t i o n o f s y s t e m a n a l y s i s, w i t h i t s s t r e s s on f u n c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e, of c o u r s e w as n o t l i m i t e d t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f p o l i t i c s i n t h e new s t a t e s o f A s i a a n d A f r i c a. Y e t, i t was p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l i n a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s o f t h e s e new s t a t e s w h e r e t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m and t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p o l i t i c s was s o w i d e t h a t t h e f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t h a t s e t t h e t o n e a n d d i r e c t i o n t h e new s t a t e s w o u ld t a k e. === [PDF page 7] === T h e q u e s t f o r new a b s t r a c t i o n s w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r ent In the f i e ld of com parative p o l i t i c s d e a lin g w ith th e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s o f t h e new s t a t e s o f A s i a and A f r i c a. T h us, men l i k e G a b r i e l Almond a n d J a m e s S. C o l e m a n a t t e m p t e d fu rn ish a that " fu n c tio n a l approach" to com parative p o l i t i c s would p r o v i d e a s y s t e m a t i c "The P o l i t i c s c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n f o r understanding of D eveloping A reas. T h is a tte m p t t o subm it a broad-gauged c e p ts t h a t co u ld be a p p li c a b l e rep rese n te d a n a n s w e r t o Roy C. M a c r i d i s ' s c h a r g e t h a t t h e c o m p a ra tiv e g overnm ent, One o f t h e p i o n e e r s i n t h i s th e rec o g n itio n, staff of bein g t r u l y concerned c o m p a r a t i v e.** a p p r o a c h, who h a s now ob P r o f e s s o r L u c i a n W. P y e, c u r r e n t l y on of th e M assach u setts I n s t i t u t e he i n i t i a l l y w hat was t h e n c a l l e d, e s s e n t i a l l y d e a l t w ith cou ntry-by-co uns t u d i e s w hich evaded t h e I s s u e tained of con t o a w i d e v a r i e t y o f new n a t i o n s, " t r a d i t i o n a l approach" to th e stu d y o f, try series of T echnology. h im self w ith s tu d ie s W h ile of in d iv id u a l The i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r, "A F u n c t i o n a l A p p r o a c h t o C o m p a r a t i v e P o l i t i c s, " I n G a b r i e l A. Almond an d J a m e s S. Colem an^ ( e d s. ), The P o l i t i c s o f D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s. ( P r i n c e t o n; P rin c e to n U n iv e rs ity P re s s, l9 b b j, r e p r e s e n ts a hig h -w ater m ark i n t h e a t t e m p t t o u t i l i z e t h e c o n c e p t o f p o l i t i c a l system a s a means o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e dy n am ics o f p o l i t i c s In th e new s t a t e s. T h e P o l i t i c s o f D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s, r e p r e s e n t s an i n i t i a l a tte m p t t o a p p ly th e f u n c t i o n a l ap p ro ach d i r e c t l y to a broad stu d y of p o l i t i c s o f t r a n s i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s. In a j o i n t w o r k w i t h G. B i n g h a m P o w e l l, J r., Almond w o u l d d r a w on h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n h i s e a r l i e r w ork and s t r e s s t h e i s s u e of p o l i t i c a l developm ent. See: G a b r i e l A. Almond and G. Bingham P o w e ll, J r., C o m p a ra tiv e P o l i t i c s, a D e v e lo p m e n ta l Approach (B oston: L i t t l e, b ro w n and Company, l 9 b 6 ). M a c r i d i s, The S t u d y o f C o m p a r a t i v e G o v e r n m e n t, p. 7- === [PDF page 8] === c o u n tries, m o s t n o t a b l y Burma a n d, w h a t was t h e n M a l a y a, ^ t h e s e w o rk s w e re n e v e r in ten d ed t o be lim ite d of th e S o u th e a s t A sian s p e c i a l i s t. fin a l an aly sis, c o n cep ts to the l ib r a r y R a th e r, th ey w ere, in the t o b e employed a s a means o f e v o l v i n g g e n e r a l i n c o m p a r a t i v e p o l i t i c s t h a t could be a p p lie d u n d erstan d in g th e p o l i t i c a l system s o f n a ti o n s t h a t have so recen tly th e c o l o n i a l epoch. broad le ft D r. P y e 's concern o v er c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n was m ark e d b y h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h such groups as th e h i s m em bership i n t h e C om m ittee o f C o m p a ra tiv e P o l i t i c s w h ic h has p u b lish ed, w orks e n t i t l e d th ro u g h P rinceton U n iv e rs ity P ress, a s e r i e s S tu d ies i n P o l i t i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t.^ Thus, Pye, c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s u c h men a s Alm on d, S h i l s and L e r n e r, h a v e gone beyond th eir have in c r e a s in g ly T. C e n t e r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d y and com p arativ e i n i t i a l i n t e r e s t i n s e l e c t e d c o u n t r i e s and co n cen trated p o litic s on d e v e l o p i n g g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s t h a t c a n b e a p p l i e d t o new s t a t e s ^ L u c i a n W. P y e, P o l i t i c s. P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, B u r m a ' s S e a r c h f o r I d e n t i t y (New H a v e n: ‘i f e l e U n i v e r s i t y jfress, l9 b 2 ). h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s P o l i t i c s, P e r s o n a l i t y and N atio n B u ild in g. A l s o h i s, G u e r r i l l a dommunl'sm i n M a l a y a, I t s S o c i a l an d P o l i t i c a l M eaning ( ^rlnce'fcon: E^rlnceton U n i v e r s i t y P re ss, 1956). H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s G u e r r i l l a Communism i n M a l a y a. c T h i s s e r i e s o f works i n c lu d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g t i t l e s: L u c i a n W. P y e ( e d. ), C o m m u n i c a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t, 1963* J o s e p h La P a l o m l b a r a t e d. ), b u r e a u c r a c y and P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t, 1 9 6 3 * R o b e r t E. Ward and Dankiwart A. ft u s tow ( e d s. ), P o l i t i c a l M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n a n d T u r k e y. 196-4. J a m e s S. C o l e m a n ( e d. ). E d u c a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, 1 9 6 5. J o s e p h La P a l o m b a r a a n d bforon W e i n e r t e d s. ), P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s and P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t, 1966. ^ S e e: E d w a r d S h i l s, P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e New S t a t e s (The H ag u e: M o u t o n, 1 ^ 6 2 ), and I b a n l e l l i e r n e r, The P a s s in g of T r a d i t i o n a l S ociety ( I l l i n o i s: The F r e e P r e s s o f G len co e, 1958)• === [PDF page 9] === L u c i a n W. P y e, th erefo re, group of s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d Is a rep re se n tativ e o f c o m p a r a t i v e p o l i t i c s who h a v e moved f r o m t h e r e a l m o f t h e s p e c i f i c g en eral. of a to th e realm of th e E le v e n y e a r s have passed s i n c e he p u b l is h e d h i s f i r s t book, and a t t h i s s t a g e, he s p e a k s a s a man w h o s e i n t e r e s t s t r a n s c e n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a and f o c u s u po n t h e g e n e r a l s t a t e of t h e d i s c i p l i n e. D u rin g t h i s extended p e r i o d, he has e v o l v e d and r e f i n e d h i s own c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c o m p a r a t i v e p o l i t i c s by o f f e r i n g a th e o r y of p o l i t i c a l developm ent. i s th e p ro d u ct o f a g ra d u a l developm ent. His th e o r y I t was n o t u n t i l he w r o t e A s p e c t s o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t ^ i n 1 9 6 6, t h a t t h e t h r e a d s o f h i s t h o u g h t w ere f i n a l l y drawn t o g e t h e r i n t o a sin g le o rien tatio n. is th erefo re H is c o n c e rn f o r p o l i t i c a l developm ent of long d u r a t i o n. His c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e end r e s u l t o f o v e r a d e c a d e o f i n t e n s i v e s t u d y and deserves our a tte n tio n. T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n, then, w ill be e n ti t le d: E x a m i n a t i o n o f L u c i a n W. P y e ^ T h e o r y o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t T h r o u g h A C a s e S t u d y o f t h e A t t e m p t e d I n d o n e s i a n Coup o f 1 9 6 5. We s h a l l e m p l o y I n d o n e s i a a s o u r m o d e l f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g reasons. In th e f i r s t p lace, th e R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s ia w i t h i t s p o p u l a t i o n o f 105 m i l l i o n and i t s r i c h endowm ent o f n a t u r a l resources, s t a n d s a s a c o l o s s u s among t h e new n a t i o n s o f A s i a ^ L u c i a n W. P y e, A s p e c t s o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( B o s t o n L i t t l e, Brown and Com pany, 1 9 6 6 /. === [PDF page 10] === and A f r i c a. Second o n ly t o t h e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic human r e s o u r c e s, In d o n esia has in th e p a s t laid of China i n claim to th e le a d e r s h ip of th e A fro -A s ia n c o u n t r i e s as p e rh a p s b e s t r e c a l l e d b y t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e o f 1 9 5 5. p riate to u t i l i z e o n ly attem p ted th erefo re, appro as a case stu d y th e very n a tio n t h a t no t to lead t h e new s t a t e s i n t e r m s of p o w e r p o t e n t i a l, o f A s i a and A f r i c a, b u t had a l e g i t i m a t e c l a i m on t h e m a n tle of l e a d e r s h i p. S econdly, t h e new s t a t e s Ind o n esia a rela tiv e o f A s i a a nd A f r i c a. "old W ith i t s t i m e r " among p ro c la m a tio n of i n d e p e n d e n c e i n 19*15 a nd t h e u l t i m a t e g r a n t o f i n d e p e n d e n c e i n 19*19* t h e R e p u b l i c h a s h a d t o f a c e t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f n a t i o n hood f o r o v e r a d e c a d e l o n g e r t h a n t h e A f r i c a n s t a t e s who achieved t h e i r independence in th e C on sequ en tly, the I n d o n e s i a n c a s e p r o v i d e s u s w i t h a more e x te n d e d s p a n t o t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h a new s t a t e w ith i t s c o lo n ia l p a s t. having a r e l a t i v e l y t h e new s t a t e s judge fa c e s th e c h a lle n g e of b rea k in g We t h e r e f o r e e n j o y t h e a d v a n t a g e o f lo n g e r period t h a n i s common w i t h m o s t o f t o a s s e s s t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e new n a t i o n s face the c r u c i a l is s u e s of an in d ep en d en t e x is te n c e. In c o n d u c tin g o u r c a s e s t u d y, p articu larly for t u n a t e t h a t we c a n e x a m i n e t h e c o u p a t t e m p t b e c a u s e i t gives us a n e x c e l l e n t f o c a l p o i n t f o r a n e v a l u a t i o n o f P y e ' s theory on t w o g r o u n d s. In th e first c a l l y and c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s place, th e a b o r t i v e coup d r a m a ti th e b asic issu es o f c o n f l i c t and com prom ise i n a d e v e l o p i n g p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m t h a t still === [PDF page 11] === tr y in g t o find its d irec tio n. S eco n d ly, th e s p e e d e d up t h e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s In d o n esian c r i s i s and exposed p r e s s u r e s t h a t w ere f i n a l l y b r o u g h t t o t h e s u r f a c e t h e way a n e r u p t i o n e x p o s e s u n d e r c u r r e n t s laten t sim ilar to t h a t m ay r e m a i n d o r m an t o v e r a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d. F i n a l l y, I h ave s e l e c t e d th e In d o n esian ex p erien ce b e c a u s e o f a l o n g and d e e p i n t e r e s t n atio n. th is in th is The m a t e r i a l e m p l o y e d i n t e s t i n g i n t e r e s t, f o r i t i s draw n p r i m a r i l y contem porary a u t h o r i t i e s P y e 's th eo ry r e f l e c t s from r e a d i n g s of th e R e p u b lic, d o c u m e n t s and l a s t l y, r e s e a r c h i n t h e m o s t —t r o u b l e d o fficial field In d o n esian from Ju n e t o December of 1965. The d i s s e r t a t i o n i s organized b r i e f su rv ey of each h e a d in g i s C h a p te r 1: in to fiv e c h a p te rs. g iv en. L ucian P y e 's T h eo ry o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e lo p ment w i l l p r e s e n t P y e 's m a j o r c o n c e p t s a s e x t r a c t e d l e a d i n g w o r k s a s a m ea ns o f p r e p a r i n g t o test h is from h i s t h e o r y on th e In d o n esian case s tu d y. C hapter 2: The I d e a l o f F o r m v e r s u s th e R e a lity S u b s t a n c e —B a r r i e r s t o I n d o n e s i a n N a t i o n h o o d w i l l e s s e n t i a l l y p e r f o r m two t a s k s. In th e first c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e new s t a t e s form b u t n o t th e s u b s t a n c e ex p erien ce. p lace, P y e 's of A s ia and A f r i c a h a v e t h e of n a t i o n h o o d Secondly, an e x a m i n a t i o n to the of th e o r d e r i s e s s e n t i a l i f we a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d the a rc h ip elag o th a t a r i s e w ill re la te from and a r e Indonesian In d o n esian s o c ia l th e p o litic s c o n d itio n ed by i t. === [PDF page 12] === C h a p te r 3: The I n d o n e s i a n P o l i t i c a l C o n f i g u r a t i o n — The L o g ic of C o m p e titiv e P o l i t i c s (D ivision) Consensus (NASAKOM) w i l l p r o v i d e a s u r v e y o f t h e l e a d i n g p r e coup p o l i t i c a l forces in F irst th ro u g h an ex am in atio n of th e fo rc e s of d iv is io n of a l l, and t h e o r d e r t o m eet th e versus an O f f i c i a l o f f i c i a l l y d eclared gain in s ig h t follow ing o b j e c t i v e s. a t t e m p t t o i m p o s e u n i t y, we c a n i n t o f a c t o r s t h a t h e l p t o e x p l a i n how t h e f o r c e s in te rac ted d u r i n g t h e c o u p a t t e m p t a nd t h e S eco n d ly, a d is c u s s io n of Ind o n esian pre-coup a f f a ir s w ill p ro v id e us w ith an u n d e rs ta n d in g faced in try in g to reco n cile l i t i c w i t h th e need C h ap ter 4: period th a t fo llo w e d. of th e c h a lle n g e s th e R epublic P y e 's "lo g ic of co m petitive f o r c e n t r a l l e a d e r s h i p and d i r e c t i o n. The A t t e m p t e d Coup a n d R e a c t i o n —C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f C o n f l i c t and C o m p r o m i s e i n I n d o n e s i a n P o l i t i c s w i l l address i t s e l f the fo llo w in g f u n c tio n s. In the f i r s t p lace, i t w i l l i n d i c a t e how, d u r i n g t h i s m o n u m e n t a l p e r i o d i n Indonesian a f f a i r s, th e s u p e r f i c i a l u n ity of the a rc h ip elag o was b r o k e n down and t h e r e a l i t y o f d i v i s i o n was e x p o s e d. S eco n d ly, an ex am in a tio n of th e v a rio u s p o s i t i o n s taken by the c r i t i c a l tim e w i l l lead in g p o l i t i c a l fo rce s durin g th is h elp to f u r n is h us, in th e c o n c lu d in g c h a p te r, w ith in fo rm a tio n t h a t c a n be em ployed in su g g e stin g th e In d o n e s ia 's a tte m p t to b u ild 301. Pye, P o litic s, f u t u r e c o u rs e of a n atio n. P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, === [PDF page 13] === C o n clu sio n: A F i n a l E v a l u a t i o n of L u c ia n P y e 's T h e o r y o f P o l i t i c a l Developm ent T hrough an A ssessm en t of th e I n d o n e s i a n C a se S t u d y a n d t h e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s T h e o r y t o F u r t h e r C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i n C om parative P o l i t i c s I n t h e c o n c l u s i o n we s h a l l u t i l i z e to w ard s th e fo llo w in g ends. In the f i r s t P y e 's th e o ry p l a c e, we s h a l l a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r h i s h y p o t h e s e s may b e e m p l o y e d i n su g g estin g th e fu tu re course of In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s. S e c o n d l y, we s h a l l g i v e a f i n a l a s s e s s m e n t o f h i s o v e r v i e w o f p o l i t i c a l developm ent. stre n g th s T h ird ly, a f t e r n o tin g the r e la tiv e a n d w e a k n e s s e s o f P y e ' s f o r m u l a t i o n, we s h a l l co n sid er th e Im p licatio n s o f h i s f o r m u l a t i o n on f u t u r e attem p ts o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i n t h e s tu d y of c o m p a ra tiv e p o litic s of d ev elo ping a r e a s. T h u s, w i t h t h i s i n m ind, tio n of P y e 's l e t us t u r n t o a p r e s e n t a t h e o r y of p o l i t i c a l developm ent I n o r d e r t h a t we may a p p l y i t to th e Indonesian case. === [PDF page 14] === CHAPTER 1 LUCIAN PYE'S THEORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT S i n c e i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n we t e s t P y e 's t h e o r y of p o l i t i c a l developm ent thro u g h a c a se stu d y a p p ro a ch, e s s e n t i a l t h a t we p r e s e n t t h e l e a d i n g e l e m e n t s o f h i s c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n f o r a p p lic a tio n to th e Indonesian e x p erien c e. In o rd er to do t h i s, In th e f i r s t le a d in g w orks, of P y e 's we m u s t a d d r e s s o u r s e l v e s t o t w o t a s k s. place, through an a n a l y s i s of P y e 's th e a u th o r w i l l provide a c o h esiv e d e s c r i p t i o n le a d in g, fo rm u latio n s. To f u r n i s h t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n, a selectiv e a p p ro a c h w i l l have t o be u t i l i z e d on tw o c o u n t s. In itia lly, we m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f P y e ' s t h e o r y was t h e p r o d u c t o f l o n g an d c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a tio n. to his c r e d i t t h a t he h a s a r r i v e d a t h is con c l u s i o n s a f t e r o v e r a d e c a d e o f i n q u i r y t h a t was i n i t i a t e d w i t h h i s e p i c s t u d y on M a l a y a. 1 th e fru it stand h is H is c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n r e f l e c t s o f i n t e n s i v e s t u d y and t h e r e f o r e, view, number o f w o r k s. we m u s t i s o l a t e one m ust e x t r a c t h i s to f u lly under lead in g th e o rie s from a T h u s, we m u s t b e s e l e c t i v e t h e m ain p a t t e r n s 1Pye, G u e r r i l l a of h is th o u g h t from a Communism i n M a l a y a. 10 In th e sen se th a t === [PDF page 15] === 11 v a rie ty of s o u r c e s. S eco n d ly, d escrip tiv e i t m ust be n o ted fu n ctio n, t h a t w h ile engaging a n a r r o w - g a u g e d a p p r o a c h w i l l b e em ployed. P y e, t h e S o u t h e a s t A s i a n s p e c i a l i s t who h a s t u r n e d broader is s u e s in te rests in th is of p o l i t i c a l m o d ern izatio n, I n c lu d e a w ide sp e c tru m to th e has expanded h is of i n v e s ti g a t i o n as s y m b o l i z e d b y h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e C o m m i t t e e on C o m p a r a t i v e P o litics of th e S o c ia l R esearch C o u n cil. not a tte m p t t o d i s c u s s a l l a r e a s we s h a l l u t i l i z e We s h a l l, th erefo re, o f h i s man y i n t e r e s t s. R ath er, a problem a p p ro a c h by s t u d y i n g th o s e d o c tr in e s th a t c e n t e r around a sp ecific a re a — the issu e of p o l i t i c a l developm ent. In th e process of engaging i n t h i s the a u th o r w i l l t u r n to That i s: th e second b a s ic by exam ining P y e 's to i s o l a t e p red icated. the fu n ctio n, ta sk of th is ch ap ter. a n a t t e m p t w i l l b e made l e a d in g h y p o th e s e s upon w h ich t h e t h e o r y i s Such a ta s k fu n d am en tal, t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s c a n we t e s t study. th eo ry, d e scrip tiv e Through t h i s f o r only by p re s e n tin g them a g a i n s t t h e In d o n e s ia n case t e s t we s h a l l n o t o n l y b e a b l e t o make a judgm ent on t h e r e l a t i v e sid er th e im p lic a tio n s v a lu e of P y e 's view, b u t a l s o con of th e th eo ry to o th e r s concerned w ith evolving m e a n in g fu l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i n th e c o m p a ra tiv e p o li tics o f new s t a t e s. When o n e s t a r t s com parative p o l i t i c s, t o a n a ly z e P y e 's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o one m ust im m e d ia te ly r e c o n c i l e him self === [PDF page 16] === to the fa c t t h a t t h e r e i s a fu n d a m e n ta l problem o f d a r i e s. ”2 That i s, in term s of h is co n cep t of p o l i t i c a l developm ent, one m ust r e a l i z e th at i n q u ir y, in an u l t i m a t e s e n s e, to fran k ly Pye may p l a c e t h e i s s u e t e x t of " n a tio n "boun Pye d o e s n o t l i m i t p o litica l his issu es. of p o l i t i c a l developm ent i n th e co n b u i l d i n g; he d ra w s on v i r t u a l l y s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a s he b u i l d s h i s c o n c e p t. must c o n s t a n t l y b e a r i n mind t h a t inquiry in to a s p e c ia liz e d T herefore, Pye d o e s n o t co m p artm ent. a l l th e lim it h is H is scope i s ten siv e. The S o c i e t a l L e v e l At t h e b r o a d e s t l e v e l P y e s u g g e s t s t h a t an u n d e r s t a n d in g of th e p ro b le m s o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, a p p l i e s t o t h e new s t a t e s o f A s i a and A f r i c a, as i t must be t a k e n Almond n o t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b o u n d a r y i n t h i s w a y: "By t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b o u n d a r y i n a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m, we mean t h a t t h e r e a r e p o i n t s w h e r e o t h e r s y s t e m s en d a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l system b e g i n s. We may i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t i n t h e fo llo w in g manner. The m u r m u r s and c o m p l a i n t s i n t h e b a z a a r i n Baghdad a r e n o t i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m u n t i l t h e y b r e a k o u t, f o r exam ple, i n a n a c t o f v i o l e n c e — a n anom ic a c t o f i n t e r e s t a r t i c u l a t i o n — o r when H a r o u n - e l - R a s h i d, d i s g u i s e d a s a w a t e r c a r r i e r, o v e r h e a r s t h e m u r m u r s and t r a n s l a t e s t h e m i n t o p o l i t i c a l c l a i m s. " Almond a nd C o l e m a n, T he P o l i t i c s o f Developing A re a s, p. 8. The d i f f i c u l t y h e r e, o f c o u r s e, i s t h a t w h i l e a b o u n d a r y may e x i s t, we d o n o t h a v e a m e a n s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g when an a c t t h a t i s p a r t o f a s o c i a l s y s t e m, e n t e r s t h e r e a l m of th e p o l i t i c a l sy s te m. 3 p o r a c o l l e c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f e s s a y s on t h e p r o b l e m o f n a t i o n b u i l d i n g and a u s e f u l b i b l i o g r a p h y s e e: K a r l W. D e u t s c h and W i l l i a m J. F o l t z ( e d s. ), N a t i o n B u i l d i n g (New Y o r k A t h e r t o n P r e s s, 1963* === [PDF page 17] === 13 In a co n tex t ch allen g e th a t tran scen d s p o l i t i c s. of p o l i t i c a l developm ent, b o undaries of th e p u r s u it, Is rep rese n te d In c o m p re h e n d in g t h e o ne c a n n o t l i m i t t h e f o r t h e ch alle n g e of developm ent a s a f u n d a m e n t a l a s s a u l t by t h e I m p a c t o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n on t h e t o t a l t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y o f t h e e m e r g i n g sta te s. The v e r y s o c i a l o r d e r I s b e i n g p l a c e d I n l i m b o, and o n l y i n t h a t c o n t e x t c a n t h e c r u c i a l problem o f p o l i t i c a l developm ent be u n d e rs to o d. As Pye s u c c i n c t l y s t a t e s In h is f i r s t book: L arge num bers o f p e o p le a r e lo s in g t h e i r se n s e o f i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e a n d a r e s e e k i n g r e s t l e s s l y t o r e a l i z e t h e m o d e r n w a y. 1* T h is l o s s of " id e n tity " w ith the " t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e " r e f l e c t s t h e f i r s t b a s i c c o n f r o n t a t i o n and t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f p o l i t i c a l developm ent i n te r m s o f th e fu n d am en tal c h a lle n g e so cial orders. of tran sfo rm atio n in t r a d i t i o n a l T r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s on a l l l e v e l s o f hu m an b e h a v i o r — n o t s o l e l y p o l i t i c a l — f a c e t h e t e s t o f m e e t i n g and a d ju s tin g to th e onslaught o f t h e f o r c e s of m o d e r n i z a t i o n w h i c h p e r v a d e a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t w o r ld and t h r e a t e n t h e i r very e x is te n c e. I n th e f o llo w in g m anner, Pye c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h may b e v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f f u n d a m ental s t r a i n on t h e s o c i a l o r d e r. P y e, G u e r r i l l a Communism i n M a l a y a, === [PDF page 18] === 14 ... th e p ro c e s s of change, of a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h b o t h w h o l e s o c i e t i e s sn d I n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s a r e f o r c e d t o t a k e new fo rm.5 T h i s " p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e, a c c u l t u r a t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d, a c c o r d i n g t o P y e, who s t a t e s: A sh o rth a n d l a b e l f o r t h i s com plex p ro c e s s c o u ld b e t h e d i f f u s i o n o f w orld c u l t u r e: a c u l t u r e w hich r e p r e s e n t s t h e e s s e n c e o f much o f t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e W est, i t s p la c e of o r i g i n, b u t w h ich no lo n g e r has c l e a r g e o g r a p h i c b o u n d a r i e s; a c u l t u r e composed o f s u c h b a s i c c o n c e p t s and p r a c t i c e s a s t h e s e c u l a r s t a t e and i n d u s t r i a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f human a c t i v i t i e s, t h e r e l i a n c e up on r a t i o n a l and c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e and a f a i t h I n I m p a r t i a l J u s t i c e, and t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e v i r t u e o f m e r i t and o f r e w a r d s according to s k i l l. 6 As a n i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n, P y e 's b r ie f c h a ra c te riz a tio n, "w orld c u l t u r e i s th at he i s our concern I s not w h eth er I n what he r e f e r s t o a s t h e co m p letely v a li d. Indeed, one c a n s u g g e s t P y e would r e c o i l f r o m s u c h a J u d g m e n t i n t i m a t i n g t h a t p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w i t h p r e s e n t i n g an i d e a l i z e d m o d e l. The r e a l t h r u s t o f h i s ^Pye, P o l i t i c s. Ib id., argum ent s t r e s s e s th e Im pact o f c h a n g e P e r s o n a l i t y a nd N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, x iv. p p. xiv - x v. ?Pye r e s t a t e s h i s d e f i n i t i o n i n a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a l a t e r book. "We c a n n o t d w e l l h e r e o n t h e c o n t e n t o f w o r l d c u l t u r e; i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o observe t h a t i t does have a d e g r e e o f i n n e r c o h e r e n c e, and i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s b e i n g t h e e s s e n c e of modern l i f e. I t i s b a s e d upon a s e c u l a r r a t h e r t h a n a s a c r e d v i e w o f human r e l a t i o n s, a r a t i o n a l o u t l o o k, a n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s u b s t a n c e and s p i r i t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h, a v ig o ro u s a p p l i c a t i o n of an expanding te c h n o lo g y, an i n d u s t r i a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n and a g e n e r a l l y h u m a n i s t i c and p o p u l a r i s t i c s e t o f v a lu e s f o r p o l i t i c a l l i f e. " Pye, " D em o cracy, M o d e r n i z a t i o n, and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, " an A r t i c l e i n R oland J. Pennook ( e d. ), S elf-G o v ern m en t i n M o d e rn izin g N a t i o n s ( E ng le w o od C l i f f s: P r e n t i c e k a i l, l£b*U, p. 1 5. === [PDF page 19] === 15 on t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r s w hich a g a i n m ust f a c e th e c h a l l e n g e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o new r e a l i t i e s. fo rm u latio n i s sim ply t h a t The s u g g e s t i o n b a s i c to his p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t m u st b e viewed in th e b ro a d e st s o c ia l c o n te x t of th e p r e s s u r e o f c h a n g e on th e very u n d erp in n in g of t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l o r d e r s, coupled w ith t h e need f o r a d ju s tm e n t t o e x i s t i n g dem ands. A gain, issu e o f c h a n g e c a n n o t be l i m i t e d new s t a t e s the t o any s i n g l e s e c t o r in th e o f A s i a and A f r i c a. H o w e v e r, w h i l e Pye t h u s w a r n s u s t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f m e t a m o r p h o s i s on s u c h a g r a n d s c a l e c a n n o t b e l i m i t e d n eatly ordered series in ten d to le a v e the re a d e r in a d r i f t i n g to a of p o l i t i c a l c o m p a rtm e n ts, he d o e s n o t sta te of c o n fu sio n b y r e q u i r i n g t h a t we a l l b e co m e R e n a i s s a n c e men i n t h e in c re a s in g ly sp ecialized field s of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s. h e doeB p l a c e l i m i t s on t h e i s s u e That of change by p ro v id in g a fo c a l p o in t fo r our study of s o c i e t ie s in tr a n s itio n. T his fo c a l p o in t— t h i s c e n te r of in v e s tig a tio n fo r understanding th e im pact of ch ange— i s th e study of th e n a t i o n - s t a t e. issu e of profound a l t e r a t i o n The t h e n view ed i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a problem a p p r o a c h - - th e problem b e in g th e d ev elo p m en t of t h e n a tio n -sta te, o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y, n a tio n b u ild in g a nd A f r i c a — w h e r e s o c i e t i e s a r e u n d e r g o i n g b a s i c th e ir in te g rity. i n A sia a ssa u lts As Pye n o t e s: T h is i s an e ra of n a t i o n b u i l d i n g. S i n c e t h e end o f W o rl d War I I, h a l f a b i l l i o n p e o p l e h a v e b e c o m e c i t i z e n s o f newly I n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s s t r i v i n g t o become m odern n a t i o n s. I n t h e new c o u n t r i e s a l o n e, o v e r 30 m i l l i o n p e o p l e a r e e m p l o y e d i n a d m i n i s t e r i n g === [PDF page 20] === 16 t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p o l i t i c s, and a n o t h e r 1 0 0 m i l l i o n d e p e n d u p o n g o v e r n m e n t and p o l i t i c s, b o t h c i v i l and m i l i t a r y, f o r t h e i r liv e lih o o d. I n b o t h t h e new c o u n t r i e s a n d c h a n g i n g old c o u n t r i e s t h e g r e a t o b j e c t i v e i s t o a c h ie v e th e Im p re ssiv e elem en ts of o r g a n iz a tio n t h a t char a c t e r i z e t h e m o d ern n a t i o n - s t a t e; and t h e i r alm ost u n i v e r s a l problem i s t h a t t h e y h av e t h e form but n o t the su b stan ce of n a tio n h o o d.0 The p l a c i n g of the is s u e th e concept of the d iffu s io n i n a more and d i s t i n c t l y a c le arly still scale. i n the te x t of fu n d am en tally a H o w e v e r, now i t p o l i t i c a l m anner. i s phrased P y e now empl oys p o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t — n a t i o n b u i l d i n g — a s a means o f d i s c e r n i n g and d i s c u s s i n g b a s i c m ent. a s m o t i v a t e d by of w orld c u l t u r e ev o lv in g v ia b le n a ti o n - s t a t e s, s o c i e t a l problem on a g ran d of change, Change i s lim ite d problem s of p o l i t i c a l develop t o an e x a m in a tio n of p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l b e in g th e c r e a t i o n of v iab le n a tio n -s ta te s. T he P o l i t i c a l L e v e l The i s s u e " t h e f o r m b u t n o t t h e s u b s t a n c e of n a t i o n h o o d " u n d e r s c o r e s one o f P y e ' s l e a d i n g b a r r i e r s t o p o l i t i c a l developm ent. That i s, i n t h e c o n t e x t of the i d e a l of th e n a tio n - s ta te, t h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c a l myth and r e a l i t y a t th e very h e a r t strik es o f t h e c h a l l e n g e of p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e new s t a t e s. A m ost fundam ental issu e here i s the b a s ic ta s k of re c o n c ilin g the p o litical f a c t o r of th e "d iffu sio n of w orld c u l t u r e, " a s m anifested in Pye, P o litic s, P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, === [PDF page 21] === the concept of th e n a t i o n - s t a t e, s o c ia l o rd e r w hich i s w ith th e unique t r a d i t i o n a l under th e b a tte r y of ch an g e. Pye, a s i n t h e c a s e o f D e u t s c h and the concept of th e n a t i o n - s t a t e E m e r s o n, system e s s e n t i a l l y of t h e E u ro p e a n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t. As a r e s u l t, ^ n o tes th a t emerged out successful p o l i t i c a l developm ent i s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t upon th e a b i l i t y of th o s e i n r e s p o n s i b l e p o sitio n s fin d a m id d le ground betw een " th e fo rm " o f n a ti o n h o o d w i t h t h e trad itio n a l so c ial order. I n sum, u n l e s s a b a l a n c e c a n b e s tr u c k betw een t h e demands of n a tio n h o o d the t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s, states w ill f a l t e r, rep re se n ta tio n op erate. and t h e dem ands of th e developm ent of v i a b l e n a t i o n f o r th e y w i l l be a fa c a d e r a t h e r th a n a of th e s o c ie ty C o n seq u en tly, be d i s r u p t e d "su b stan ce" of th e sin ce i t th e i n w hich th e y a r e so ciety itse lf supposed w ill co n tin u e c a n n o t a d j u s t t o t h e demands p la c e d i t by t h e m o d e r n n a t i o n - s t a t e. Thus, u tiliz in g the n a tio n s t a t e a s t h e p o l i t i c a l e x a m p l e, we s e e t h e c l a s s i c tween t h e o ld c la sh be a n d t h e new a n d th e co n tin u ed need t o e f f e c t a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e tw ee n them. At t h e c o r e of th e c a l l f o r p o l i t i c a l developm ent, th e need t o fin d answ ers t o the % o r an e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e problem s em erging from t h e a t t e m p t t o u t i l i z e t h e W e s t e r n c o n c e p t o f the n a t i o n - s t a t e i n th e c o n te x t of th e i n t e r n a l c o n d itio n s of th e r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s o f A sia and A f r i c a s e e: R upert E m e r s o n, F ro m E m p i r e t o N a t i o n. T h e R i s e t o S e l f - A s s e r t i o n o f A s la n and A f r i c a n P e o p l e ( C a m b r i d g e: H arvard U n i v e r s i t y j*ress. h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s From E m p ire t o N a t i o n. S e e p a r t i c u l a r l y P a r t 2 "T h e A n a t o m y o f t h e N a t i o n, " p p. 8 9 - 1 8 8. === [PDF page 22] === 18 fo llo w in g q u e s tio n: t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h e d i f f u s i o n o f w orld c u l t u r e c a n be f a c i l i t a t e d w hile I t s d i s r u p t i v e con s e q u e n c e s a r e m i n i m i z e d. " 1® D raw ing upon t h i s " q u e s t i o n, " we c a n a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s P y e ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y b y p r e s e n t i n g tw o r e l a t e d th e fo llo w in g m anner: hypotheses in I s P y e 's view, t h a t th e Id e a l of t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e and more s p e c i f i c a l l y n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g, b e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n of th e c o n f l i c t betw een t h e new o r d e r a s i t That I s, i s em bodied I n a d i s t i n c t l y the o l d and t h e p o litic a l co n tex t. Py e c o r r e c t w h e n h e s t a t e s t h a t: The m a s s i v e f l o w o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n I s m o s t c l e a r l y m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l m. 11 Does t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e th e n provide th e b a s ic b o u n d a rie s i n w h i c h one c a n u n d e r t a k e t h e s tu d y o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t? A fter te s tin g second t h i s h y p o t h e s i s, we c a n t h e n t u r n t o t h e a s s u m p tio n w hich c o u ld b e s ta te d as fo llo w s: we a r e t o a c c e p t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e the b asic th e co n flict se ttlem en t of th e sta te reflects " d if f u s io n of w orld c u l t u r e, " does of t h i s c o n f l i c t ta k e t h e form o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n betw een t h e f o r c e s o f th e p a ro c h ia l so ciety ) and t h e u n i v e r s a l (th e tr a d itio n a l ( t h e developm ent o f th e n a t i o n through n a tio n b u ild in g )? 10P y e, P o l i t i c s, P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p. 11Pye, A s p e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent, 13. === [PDF page 23] === 19 The F r a n k l y P o l i t i c a l L e v e l H a v i n g moved from a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c r i s e s of s o c i e t i e s u n d e rg o in g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o a more l i m i t e d study i n th e c o n te x t of p o l i t i c s th ro u g h th e u t i l i z a t i o n th e concept of th e n a t i o n - s t a t e, Pye t h e n e v e n f u r t h e r n a r r o w s h i s i n q u i r y b y d e a l i n g w i t h a m ore s p e c i f i c approach r e l a t e d t o th e q u e s t i o n of p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t. That i s, a f t e r he s t a t e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r, he t h e n t u r n s t o t e c h n i q u e s t h a t h a v e b e e n u s e d an a tte m p t t o b r i n g about a s e t t l e m e n t. On t h e o ne hand t h e i d e a h a s b e e n s p r e a d t h r o u g h out th e world t h a t a l l p e o p le should b e lo n g t o n a t i o n - s t a t e s, t h a t th e n a t i o n - s t a t e i s th e m ost a p p r o p r i a t e and n a t u r a l u n i t o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e a n d should p r o v id e a b a s i s f o r a s e n s e of c o l l e c t i v e Id en tity. On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e v e r y p r o c e s s t h a t has com m unicated t h i s i d e a h a s a l s o t h r e a t e n e d t h e c a p a c i t i e s o f people t o a c t e f f e c t i v e l y i n a l l p h a s e s o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l an d s o c i a l l i f e. ^ 2 His c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s o f t h e new s t a t e s l o g i c a l l y s t a r t s w i t h a n h i s t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h. T h u s, h i s c o m m e n ts a r e n o t l i m i t e d to the c u r r e n t n a t i o n s t a t e b u t a r e d r a w n f ro m t h e c o l o n i a l e x p e r i e n c e t o w h i c h m o s t o f t h e new s t a t e s w e r e e x p o s e d. tends t h a t the C onsequently, Pye c o n p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s was l a r g e l y c o n d i t i o n e d 12I b i d., p. 1 1. F o r a n e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e r e s u l t a n t d i s l o c a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c ie ty see th e fo llo w in g stu d y. J. S. F u rn iv a ll, C o l o n i a l P o l i c y and P r a c t i c e: A C o m p a ra tiv e S t u d y o f Burma and H e t H e r T a n d s J n d l a (Hew Y o r k: Hew Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y t r e s s, 1 9 5 b ) • H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s C o l o n i a l P o l i c y and P r a c t i c e. === [PDF page 24] === 20 by e v e n ts t h a t t r a n s p i r e d b e f o r e in d e p e n d e n c e was a c h i e v e d. O n l y b y r e a l i z i n g t h e i m p a c t o f t h e c o l o n i a l s y s t e m, c a n we a p p r e c i a t e t h e c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l t u r m o i l i n t h e new s t a t e s. Pye s u g g e s t s t h a t the in itia l o rie n ta tio n to a concept o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t stemm ed f r o m t h e a t t i t u d e s r e s p e c t iv e c o lo n i a l pow ers. of the He n o t e s t h a t u n d e r t h e c o l o n i a l a d m in istratio n: The i n i t i a l c o n c e p t o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t f o c u s e d upon t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s. ^3 T h is p r e o c c u p a tio n d u r in g the c o l o n i a l epoch w ith th e developm ent of i n s t i t u t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s, stressed: "to th e p o in t a c c o r d i n g t o P y e, was of e s t a b l i s h i n g th e m achinery f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f Law a n d O r d e r. T herefore: P o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t was assumed t o c o i n c i d e w ith a d m in is tra tiv e d e v e lo p m e n t.^ E m p h a s i s on w h a t Pye c a l l e d A d m in istratio n "1 employed t h e "th e P r i o r R ole of fo llo w in g r a t i o n a l e. D u rin g t h e e r a of c o l o n i a l i s m i t was u n i v e r s a l l y assumed t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t in volved p r im a r ily th e e f f e c t i v e o p e r a tio n o f th e a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e m o d e r n s t a t e. 17 Such u t i l i z a t i o n 13 l b l d., p. 15l2tI b l d. 15 I b l d. Ibid., 17I b i d., p. 17. of a p ro b lem -so lv in g approach th rough === [PDF page 25] === 21 a d m in istrativ e in s t it u t io n a l reform, n o t, g e t t o t h e fu n d a m e n ta l q u e s tio n of r e c o n c i l i n g th e im pact of change r e s u l t i n g itse lf, c u ltu re" on t h e co lo n y. Pye n o t e d em bodied co u ld trad itio n a l the th at a c c o r d in g t o Pye, could from t h e " d i f f u s i o n of world s o c i e t y w it h in the r e s p e c t iv e th e a d m in is tra tiv e tra d itio n, o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e ■c?61oriial a u t h o r i t y, n o t be ex p ected undergoing b a s ic pro v id e s o lu tio n s for so c ia l orders tran sfo rm a tio n. F o r th e c o lo n ia l adm inis t r a t i o n and, m ost n o ta b ly, t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r was divorced from t h e d y n a m ics o f t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y. re su lt, th e As a e m p h a s i s o n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m, h a v i n g had no grounding or r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e n o t be expected t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r, could p ro v id e answ ers to th e b a s ic q u e s t i o n of on a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a nd i n s t i t u t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s, acc u ltu ratio n. The s t r e s s Pye c o n t i n u e d, left th ey achieved in d ep en d en ce. ch allen g e its resid u e on t h e form er c o lo n i e s That i s, new s t a t e s f a c e d w i t h t h e of n a t i o n b u i l d i n g w hich c a lle d c reatin g coherent p e o p le 's a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e sta te s con tin u ed by s t r e s s i n g 18 once f o r "the l e v e l of p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t h a t c o u l d make m e a n i n g f u l a su b scrib e p o lic y,"^ a l l t o o o f t e n t h e new to th e ad m in istrativ e " t h e c r e a t i o n a nd e f f e c t i v e o rien tatio n o p e ra tio n of th e A g a i n f o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h i s p ro g ram t h r o u g h a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f D u t c h an d B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l p o l i c y s e e: F u r n i v a l l, C o l o n i a l P o l i c y and P r a c t i c e. 19 P y e, A s p e c t s o f P o l i t i c a l D ev elop m ent, p. 16. === [PDF page 26] === 22 au th o rita tiv e w ith th e in stru m en ts effects th e c r e a tio n co n stan tly of th e *. sta te. C onfronted of c o l o n i a l p o l i c i e s t h a t did n o t encourage o f a dynam ic placed p o litic a l a prem ium on t h e a d m in is tra tio n w h ile p ro b lem -so lv in g ig n o rin g i t s o rien tatio n. process, t h e new s t a t e s a u th o rita ria n p o sitiv e stra in a ttrib u te —a Pye u p d a t e s t h e is s u e in the fo llo w in g m anner* The g r e a t p r o b le m t o d a y i n n a t i o n b u i l d i n g i s t h a t of r e l a t i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s of t h e governm ent t o p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w i t h i n t r a n s i t i o n a l s o c i e t y. 21 Thus, Pye s u g g e s t s t h a t any avenue t o p o l i t i c a l developm ent en ta ils a fu n d am en tal v l t a l i z a t i o n sy stem. As h e t h e r e f o r e s o le ly be equated w ith: tativ e stru c tu re s sta te s, p o l i t i c a l developm ent c a n n o t "effo rts of b u ild in g when Pye n o t e s s u b s c r ib e to an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e favor th e a r t on B urm a, of p o l i t i c s. stre n g th e n th e a u th o ri a p o litic a l le g a c y and t h e p ro cess i s brought t h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h o s e who o r i e n t a t i o n an d t h o s e who Thus, he s i n g l e s the te n sio n created to the c o lo n i a l p o litica l of g o v e r n m e n t." 22 The n e c e s s i t y home p a r t i c u l a r l y of th e e n t i r e by th e out in h is study o f f i c i a l who a d h e r e s p o l i t i c i a n who c l a i m s h e i s sp e a k in g f o r t h e m ass th r o u g h t h e e x h o r t a t i o n t o n a t i o n a l i s t i c endeavors. P y e 's stu d y 20I b id., 15. 21I b l d.. 19. 22I b i d., p. 16. in c o n tra s t e m p h a s i z e d when one === [PDF page 27] === 23 c o m p a r e s t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e b u r e a u c r a t "fascin a te d w ith the w o r k i n g s o f t h e f o r m a l l a w, a n d t h e p o l i t i c i a n who, " p o s i n g a s t h e man o f t h e p e o p l e, fa v o re d th e developm ent of a n a tio n a l sen tim en t. M o vin g m o r e d e e p l y i n t o t h e c o r e o f t h e m ain tain s th a t th eo ry, Pye p o l i t i c a l developm ent can o n ly ta k e p lac e a p o l i t i c a l p ro cess is evo lv ed. However, t h i s w i l l only b e a r e a l i t y when t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r r e c o g n i z e s t h e f u n c t i o n of th e p o l i t i c i a n to "perform th e b ro k e ra g e r o l e in n25 a g g re g a tin g i n t e r e s t s in v a rio u s p o lic y m ix es, ^ a nd t h e p o l i t i c i a n a p p r e c i a t e s the need f o r a p r o b l e m - s o l v in g o r i e n t a t i o n through the bureaucracy. The b a s i c d i s t r u s t o f t h o s e who s u b s c r i b e t o one o f these o r i e n t a t i o n s i r o n i c a l l y d o e s n o t r e s u l t from a c l e a r view o f r o l e by e ith e r th e p o l i t i c i a n or th e a d m in is tra to r. ^Pye, P o litic s, 2i<I b l d., P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p. 105. 116. 2 ^Pye, A sp e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D e v elo p m en t, p. 2 6. That i s, t h e p o l i t i c i a n must be em ployed a s t h e l e a d i n g a g e n c y th r o u g h w hich th e b a s ic f u n c tio n of " i n t e r e s t a g g r e s s i o n * " can tak e p la c e. As d e f i n e d b y Almond a n d P o w e l l, " i n t e r e s t a g g r e g a t i o n " is-*-"The f u n c t i o n o f c o n v e r t i n g demands i n t o g en eral p o licy a lte rn a tiv e s... " Almond a nd P o w e l l, Com p a r a t i v e P o l i t i c s, A D evelopm ental A p p ro a ch, p. 9 8. 2 ^As Pye n o t e s i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f " T r a n s i t i o n a l P o l i t i c s, " "R oles a re h ig h ly i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e. I t seems t h a t i n n o n - W e s te rn s o c i e t i e s most p o l i t i c a l r e l e v a n t r o l e s a r e n ot c le a r l y d lffe re n c ia te d but have a f u n c tio n a lly d iffu s e r a th e r than a fu n ctio n ally s p e c ific c h a r a c te r. F o r exam ple, a c i v i l b u r e a u c r a c y i s not u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o a r o l e of a p o l i t i c a l l y n e u t r a l instrum ent o f p u b lic a d m i n i s t r a t io n but may a s s u m e some o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r a c t a s a n i n t e r e s t g r o u p. " P y e, P o l i t i c s, P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u ild in g, p. 2 5. === [PDF page 28] === The m u t u a l d i s t r u s t, in fa c t, Is aggravated b e ca u se n e ith er s i d e i s w i l l i n g t o r e c o g n i z e th e need f o r a s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of f u n c t i o n, and t h e r e f o r e, b o t h f e a r t h a t w i l l b e underm ined by t h e o t h e r. 2^ Thus, th e ir a u th o rity Pye s u g g e s t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t o t a k e p la c e b e tw ee n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r and the p o litic ia n, one m u s t a t t e m p t t o s e p a r a t e "the p artisan and n o n p a r t i s a n i n p o l i t i c s. " 2 ® Pye t h e r e f o r e r e c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d f o r b o t h a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and p a r t i s a n t r a d i t i o n. em phasize, he d i r e c t s However, h is a tte n tio n to a s we s h a l l th e r o l e t i c i a n who was o f t e n i g n o r e d d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l sh o rtly of the p o li p erio d w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t a p o l i t i c a l p ro ce ss was n o t b u i l t b y t h e tim e of ind ep end ence. In th is d isc u ssio n, Pye l e a d s u s t o y e t a t h i r d h y p o th e s is t o t e s t h i s th e o ry of p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t. he s t a t e s t h a t th e "no n -b u reau cratic That com ponents o f t h e ? F o r an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s l a c k o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n on t h e r o l e o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r in d ev elo ping s t a t e s se e: F r e d W. R i g g s, A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n D eveloping C o u n trie s. The T h e o r y o f P r i s m a t i c S o c i e t y I B o T t o n: r i o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Com pany, 1 9 6 4 ). H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n D eveloping C o u n t r ie s. I n h i s i n i t i a l c h a p t e r, R i g g s c h a r a c t e r i z e s ■the new s t a t e s a s b e i n g " p r i s m a t i c s o c i e t i e s, by c o n t e n d i n g J u s t a s l i g h t r a y s i n a p r is m, h a v e y e t t o b e d i f f e r e n c l a t e d u n t i l th e y leave th e p ris m; so i s t h e r e a f u s i o n of f u n c ti o n i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l s o c i e t y, u n t i l t h e s o c i e t y d e v e lo p s. That i s, th e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of f u n c t i o n i n a d e v e l oped s o c i e t y c o u l d b e c o m p a r e d t o l i g h t r a y s t h a t h a v e p a s s e d t h r o u g h a p r i s m and b e e n d e f r a c t e d. For a f u ll d iscu ssio n o f R i g g s ' a t t e m p t t o b u i l d a model o f a t r a n s i t i o n a l s o c i e t y s e e C h a p te r 1 of h i s w ork, pp. 3 - 5 0. 28 Pye, A sp ec ts of P o l i t i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t, p. 2 3. === [PDF page 29] === 25 p o litic a l system " of d e v e lo p in g s t a t e s m ust be s tre n g th e n e d i f v ia b le n a t i o n - s t a t e s a re t o em erge. a rr iv e a t the D em ocratic i s h e r e w h e r e we i n n e r c o re of h i s f o r m u l a t i o n — t h e need for p o l i t i c a l developm ent. Toward a T h e o r y o f D e m o c r a t i c P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent A ccording t o dependent Pye, p o l i t i c a l developm ent i s on s t i m u l a t i n g t h e g r o w t h o f a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s th ro u g h an aw areness of th e p o litic ia n. co n trasted im portance P y e c o n t e n d s men t r a i n e d t o — th e a d m in istra tiv e t h e i r p lace w ith in th e refe rrin g R ath er, a rts, out th e men who c a n e f f e c t i v e l y a r t i c u l a t e, p o l i t i c a l — as m ust be a b le H ere, he i s to take not im p o rtan c e of th o s e a g g r e g a t e a n d e f f e c t com p r o m i s e s among t h e c o m p e t i n g i n t e r e s t s of r e s o lv in g in the of th e l e a d e r who may n o t t o l e r a t e he s i n g l e s on t h e v e r g e o f c h a n g e. of th e r o l e p o l i t i c a l sy stem. to th e n a ti o n a l i s t o p p o sitio n. ch allen g e larg ely found in s o c ia l orders To P y e, t h e s e men m u s t m e e t t h e th e f o l lo w in g issue*. ... one p r im e i s s u e t h a t r e s t s a t t h e h e a r t o f n a t i o n b u i l d i n g i s... th e i s s u e o f management of d i v e r s i t y and u n i t y, more s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e need t o r e l a t e th e p a ro c h ia l w ith th e u n iv e r s a l, to fu se t h e com ponents of t h e in d ig e n o u s c u l t u r e w ith t h e s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e m o d e rn w o r l d. 2 9 Pye, then, lo o k s t o th e developm ent of p o l i t i c i a n s who c a n f u s e b o t h t h e f o r c e s o f t r a d i t i o n w i t h t h o s e 29 lb id === [PDF page 30] === 26 m o d ern izatio n. He s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n among s u c h men, "the lo g ic a re a lity. That i s, o f c o m p e t i t i v e p o l i t i c s " 3^ w i l l become The l o g i c o f c o m p e t i t i v e p o l i t i c s... f o r c e s p e o p l e t o m e a s u r e t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t t h o s e o f o t h e r s, and t h u s t o d i s c o v e r b o th t h e i r r e a l i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s and t h e i r sh a red i n t e r e s t s. 31 Mr. Pye t h e r e f o r e of co m p etitiv e sta te s, th at p o litic s represent meet th e c h a lle n g e in te re sts a d v i s e s t h a t o n ly th ro u g h a system can the r e a l i n t e r e s t s of n a tio n s o c i e t i e s facing the fo rc e s of said change. M oreover, of c h a n g e, u n le ss the o f th e m ass w i t h i n the s o c ie ty a re e f f e c t i v e l y a rtic u la te d through th e fu n ctio n in g p o litic a l p o litician, a tte m p ts t o b uild a p r o c e s s w i l l f a i l and t h e new g o v e r n m e n t s o f A s i a and A f r i c a w i l l n o t be s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e i r attem p ts a t n a tio n b u ild in g. expected th e t o make p o l i c i e s t h e y c a n n o t be t h a t w ill fuse th e p a ro c h ia l w ith u n i v e r s a l u n l e s s t h e y know w h a t t h e mass w a n t s and n e e d s. T herefore, we c a n t e s t y e t a n o t h e r o f P y e ' s h y p o t h e s e s on t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e. for A fter a l l, M u s t c o m p e t i t i v e p o l i t i c s be u t i l i z e d p o l i t i c a l developm ent t o ta k e p la c e th ro u g h th e agency of n atio n b u ild in g? Pye n o t o n l y s u g g e s t s p e titiv e tak e. th at there is a " l o g i c o f com p o l i t i c s " b u t e x p l a i n s w h at f o r m t h i s The f o r m i s 3® P y e, 31I b i d. " l o g i c " m u st " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t " and P y e ' s P o litic s. P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p. 3 0 1. === [PDF page 31] === 27 f i n a l argum ent r e s t s on t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e * ... th e b a sic fu n c tio n s of r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v ern m en t become c r i t i c a l i n t h e n a t i o n b u i l d i n g process. I f t h e s e new s o c i e t i e s a r e g o i n g t o a c h i e v e a new l e v e l o f i n t e g r a t i o n, t h e y m u s t f i n d m e t h o d s f o r g i v i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o b o t h c o s m o p o l i t a n and p aro ch ial fo rc e s. Out o f t h i s i n t e r p l a y o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e p o litic s I t is p o ssib le fo r a so c ie ty to r e a l i z e a fu n d am en tal fu s io n of th e elem en ts of th e w o r l d c u l t u r e a n d i n d i g e n o u s t r a d i t i o n. 32 Now t h a t p e titiv e Pye h a s s t a t e d th a t the p o l i t i c s " can be s tim u la te d "lo g ic" of "com th ro u g h th e developm ent " r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v ern m en t," f o r a ch iev in g fu sio n in th e co n tex t of n a tio n b u ild in g, to be te s te d we c a n t u r n t o a f i n a l h y p o t h e s i s a g a in s t th e Indonesian case to a sse ss the r e l a tiv e v a lu e o f P y e 's c o n c e p t of p o l i t i c a l dev elo p m en t. in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is, does developm ent of That "rep resen tativ e g o v ern m en t" o f f e r t h e means t h r o u g h w hich p o l i t i c a l m o d e rn i z a tio n can tak e place? on t h e f i n a l I d e o l o g i c a l b a s e, Pye c o r r e c t w he n h e s t a t e s: th ere is a clo se a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a n d m o d e r n i z a t i o n. 1,33 The L e v e l o f I n d i v i d u a l B e h a v i o r B efore lea v in g our in tro d u c tio n of P y e 's c o n c e p t of p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, we m u s t n o t e y e t o n e m o r e c o n c e r n h e has in try in g t o e v o l v e a m e a n s b y w h i c h we c a n a p p r e c i a t e t h e c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g t h e new n a t i o n s. The r e m a i n i n g f a c t o r of c o n s id e ra tio n, t h e raw m a t e r i a l a c c o rd in g to Pye, 32Pennock, Self-G overnm ent 33I b ld. in M odernizing N a tio n s, === [PDF page 32] === 28 a ll p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s — t h e i n d i v i d u a l and how h e r e a c t s the v i c i s s i t u d e s. stu d ies: "the l i f e In h is i n i t i a l b o o k o n M a l a y a, Py e h isto rie s o f s i x t y C h i n e s e who J o i n e d M a l a y a n Communist m ovem ent a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y l e f t au th o r, th erefo re, exam ined one a l t e r n a t i v e t o th e In d iv id u a l in an a tte m p t t o fin d The t h a t was o p e n a m eaningful i d e n t i t y i n a s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h was i n a s t a t e In h is the of tr a n s itio n. s t u d y on B u rm a, Pye e x t e n d e d h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e in d iv id u al, c a u g h t up i n t h e v o rtex of c u lt u r a l d if fu s io n, by a s c e r t a i n i n g th e a t t i t u d e s o f men who d i d n o t s e l e c t avenue tow ard p e rs o n a l I d e n t i t y. I n h i s s tu d y based "3*1 i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o fficials, one 27 In te rv ie w s w i t h p o l i t i c a n s, and 18 i n t e r v i e w s w i t h o b s e r v e r s and c r i t i c s of the p o l i t i c a l scene such as jo u rn alists, b u s i n e s s m e n, " 33 he a g a i n a t t e m p t e d e d u c a t o r s a nd t o c o m p a r e how i n d i v i d u a l s " r e a c t when th e y a r e c a u g h t up I n r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s. " 3^ W h il e Pye was t h e f i r s t w o r k on M a l a y a t h a t h i s Interv iew s: e x a c tin g sta n d ard s of s c i e n t i f i c to adm it in h is i n i t i a l "may n o t m e e t t h e s a m p lin g,h is b asic 3^ P y e, G u e r r i l l a Communism i n M a l a y a, 3^Pye, P e r s o n a l i t y a nd N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, P o litics, 36I b l d., p. x i i l. 3^ I b i d.; P y e, G u e r r i l l a Communism I n M a l a y a, p. 1 2 2. S i n c e P y e a d m i t s t h a t " T i l s i n t e r v i e w t e c h n i q u e I s g e n e r a l, we m u s t n o t e t h a t he d o e s n o t s u p p l y u s w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c m e th o d o lo g ic a l t o o l s t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y t o a p p ly, f o r exam ple, t o th e Indonesian case s tu d y. One c a n a l s o q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r h i s sa m p le p r o v id e s us w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t amount of p e r s o n a l === [PDF page 33] === 29 concern w ith i n d iv i d u a l b e h a v io r i s For, in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is, may now c a l l, h i s w hole c o n c e p t a th eo ry of d e m o c ra tic through th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e p o l i t i c s " by th e c r e a t i o n of w h a t we p o l i t i c a l developm ent "lo g ic of c o m p e titiv e "rep re se n ta tiv e the c o n te x t of n a tio n b u i l d i n g, I t s u l t i m a t e form, n o n eth eless w e ll-ta k e n. has b u t gov ernm ent" i n one a im. That i s, p o l i t i c a l d ev elo p m en t m u st o f f e r a means by w h i c h t h e a n x i e t y, in secu rity, and n e e d s in s o c i e t i e s in flu x, are le s s e n e d. of p eo p le C o n seq u en tly, d i s s e r t a t i o n c a n n o t pres u m e t o s p e a k on t h e liv in g w h ile th is p sy ch o lo g ical i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, we m u s t c o n s t a n t l y b e a r i n mind t h a t, in the f in a l se n se, we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m o s t c o m p l e x o f a l l f o r m s — t h e hum an— w h i c h i s in d u b ita b ly th e raw m a t e r i a l i n p o l i t i c s. 3 ® Now t h a t we h a v e e x t r a c t e d from P y e 's l e a d i n g w orks in te rv ie w s t o t r u l y r e f l e c t e i t h e r a M alayan o r B urm ese p o l i t i c a l un iv erse. However, t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h i s s t u d y i s o n h is concept of p o l i t i c a l developm ent, n o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n th ro u g h t h e u s e o f s a m p l e s on t h e i m p a c t o f c h a n g e o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l. A c c o r d i n g l y, we c a n n o t a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h t h e c o m p l e x a r e a of i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r. Such a n e x a m i n a t i o n m u s t a w a i t a f u r t h e r r e f i n i n g of P y e 's i n t e r v i e w t e c h n i q u e and a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f i t b y t h o s e who a r e t r a i n e d i n t h e c o m p l e x t e c h n i q u e s o f t e s t s and m e a s u r e m e n t s. We w o u l d o n l y l i k e t o n o t e t h a t, i n t h e f i n a l s e n s e, one m u s t a p p r e c i a t e P y e ' s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t, i n a n y d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, we m u s t b e aw are of t h e im p a c t of change on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t make up th e p o l i t i c a l system. 3 ®For a m o s t s t i m u l a t i n g w o r k d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I s s u e o f r e l a t i n g in d iv id u a l behavior t o p o l i t i c s a lo n g w ith a com pre hensive an n o tated b ib lio g ra p h y s e e: J a m e s C. D a v i e s, Human N a t u r e i n P o l i t i c s (New Y o r k: John W ile y and S o n s, 19& 3). === [PDF page 34] === t h e c r u c i a l h y p o t h e s e s o f h i s c o n c e p t s, we s h a l l s t a r t test t h e i r v a li d i ty a g a in st th e Indonesian case stu d y. There fore, i n o u r n e x t c h a p t e r, we s h a l l p r e s e n t t h e b a s i c human and m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t c o m p o s e t h e I n d o n e s i a n s o c i a l o r d e r and p r o v i d e t h e b a s e u p o n w h i c h I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s i s co n d itio n ed. We s h a l l s e e w h e t h e r t h e R e p u b l i c exam ple o f a n a t i o n of i n d e e d an "form " b u t n o t o f " s u b s t a n c e." === [PDF page 35] === CHAPTER 2 THE IDEAL OF FORM VERSUS THE REALITY OF SUBSTANCE— BARRIERS TO INDONESIAN NATIONHOOD H aving p r e s e n t e d a s e r i e s o f h y p o t h e s e s u p on w h i c h L u c i a n W. P y e ' s t h e o r y o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i s b a s e d, we m u s t now s t a r t of t e s t i n g re la tiv e th e a p p l y them t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e a s a m e a n s C o n seq u en tly, th e R e a lity v a li d i ty o f h is g e n e ra l co n cep t. t h i s ch ap ter, The I d e a l o f Form V e r s u s o f S u b s t a n c e —B a r r i e r s t o In d o n e s ia n N ationhood, w ill b a sic a lly serve tw o p u r p o s e s. In th e f i r s t p lace, w ill present a broad s u r v e y o f I n d o n e s i a ' s human and m a t e r i a l resources. T h is d e s c r i p t i o n w ill provide th e g e n eral i n f o r m atio n t h a t n e c e s s a r y in s e t ti n g the s ta g e f o r our study of t h e com plex c h a lle n g e s th a t face th e R ep u b lic. H o w e v e r, b e c a u s e t h i s i s a g e n e r a l s u r v e y an d we c a n not encom pass a l l resources, o u r s e l e c t i o n of d ata w i l l be lim ite d to a f a r m ore s p e c i f i c task. a d iscu ssio n testin g sta te pro v id es flic t P y e 's and, f a c e t s o f I n d o n e s i a ' s human and m a t e r i a l That i s, th is ch ap ter w ill d ire c t i t s e l f o f t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t c a n b e em p lo y ed tw o i n i t i a l h y p o th e s e s: m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y, ( l ) That th e n a ti o n the c h a lle n g e of n a t i o n b u i l d i n g a n e x c e l l e n t a re n a i n w hich t o u n d e rs ta n d created th e con b y t h e c l a s h betw een th e f o r c e s o f t h e p a r o c h i a l 31 === [PDF page 36] === 32 and t h e u n i v e r s a l t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e c u ltu re," " d i f f u s i o n o f w orld (2) T hat t h e c h a l l e n g e of p o l i t i c a l d e v elo p m e n t may b e s t a t e d i n te r m s o f a need f o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n or a f u s i o n of th e s e com peting f o r c e s. I n sum t h e n, t h i s c h a p te r i s not p r im a r ily geared to g i v in g a com prehensive background of th e r i c h le g a c y o f th e arch ip elag o. The s e l e c t i o n u sefu ln ess in te s tin g o f f a c t s w i l l b e b a s e d on t h e i r P y e ’s h y p o t h e s e s. The Form o f t h e N a t i o n: The A r e n a of the C o n flic t I n th e developm ent of h i s th e o ry, th e im pact of th e " d i f f u s i o n of world c u l t u r e " c o u ld b e s t be seen in the d i s t i n c t l y re la te Pye s u g g e s t s t h a t the id e a liz e d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t of t h e a t t e m p t t o concept of the n a tio n w ith th e r e a l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s o c i e t i e s undergoing the a s s a u l t can, therefore, of change. a d d re ss o u rse lv e s to th e i n i t i a l t a s k of d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e s u b s t a n t i a t e s P y e ’s v iew t h a t t h e d r i v e tow ard e v o lv i n g a n a t i o n p r o v i d e s us w i t h t h e most l o g i c a l p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s i n w hich t h e c l a s h b etw een t h e u n i v e r s a l and p a r o c h i a l t a k e s p l a c e. o u r d i s c u s s i o n, we m u s t f i r s t In order to i n i t i a t e seek a d e f i n i t i o n of "n atio n," f o r o n l y t h e n c a n we f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l and r e a l i t y. In definin g " n a t i o n, " I h a v e c h o s e n R u p e r t E m e r s o n ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o t only b e ca u se i t p re s e n ts th o se elem ents === [PDF page 37] === 33 t h a t a r e common I n o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n s, c l a r i t y of t h o u g h t. hut a ls o because of i t s As h e n o t e s: The n a t i o n i s a c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e who f e e l t h a t th e y belong t o g e t h e r i n t h e d o u b le s e n s e t h a t th e y s h a r e d e e p l y s i g n i f i c a n t e l e m e n t s o f a common h e r i t a g e and t h a t t h e y h a v e a common d e s t i n y i n t h e fu tu re. The n a t i o n i s t o d a y t h e l a r g e s t c o m m u n i t y w h i c h when t h e c h i p s a r e d o w n, e f f e c t i v e l y commands m e n ' s l o y a l t y, o v e r r i d i n g th e c la im s of l e s s e r com m unities w i t h i n i t and t h o s e w h ic h c u t a c r o s s i t o r p o t e n t i a l l y enfold i t w i t h i n a g r e a t e r s o c i e t y, r e a c h in g u l t i m a t e l y t o mankind a s a w h o l e. In t h is sense th e n a tio n may be c a l l e d a " t e r m i n a l c o m m u n i t y " w i t h t h e i m p l i c a tio n th a t i t i s f o r th e p re se n t purposes th e e f f e c t i v e e n d o f t h e r o a d f o r man a s a s o c i a l a n i m a l, t h e end o f t h e w o r k i n g s o l i d a r i t y b e t w e e n m e n. 1 E m e r s o n, Prom E m p i r e t o N a t i o n, p p. 9 5 - 9 6. K a r l W. D e u tsc h 's c i t a t i o n of d a r l F r i e d r i c h 's d e f i n i t i o n i s i n s t r u c t i v e when c o m p a r e d t o E m e r s o n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n b e c a u s e i t s h o w s a b a s ic area of agreem ent a s t o t h e e le m e n ts of a n a t i o n b u t r e f l e c t s an a t t e m p t t o e l a b o r a t e upon t h e b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t s of a n atio n. A n atio n... i s any s i z e a b l e of persons w hich can be c a l l e d: p o p u la tio n o r group in d ep en d en t, in th e sense t h a t from t h e o u t s i d e; is not ruled c o h e s i v e, b y v i r t u e o f i t s m a r k e d ly more e f f e c t i v e h a b i t s o f e a s y an d v a r i e d s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n, c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s and m o t i v a t i o n s f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t s i d e r s; p o l i t i c a l l y o rganized, in th e sense th a t i t p ro v id e s a c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r a gov ern m en t w hich exercises e ffe c tiv e ru le w ith in i t; autonom ous, i n t h a t i t a c c o r d s t o t h i s g o v e rn ment s u c h a c c l a i m, c o n s e n t, c o m p l i a n c e and s u p p o r t t o make i t s r u l e e f f e c t i v e; I n te r n a lly le g itim a te, in th e sense th a t i t s h a b its of com pliance w ith th e su p p o rt of th e governm ent, o r, a t l e a s t, tow ard m u tu a l p o l i t i c a l === [PDF page 38] === 34 B efore a p p ly in g t h i s d e fin itio n to th e Indonesian c a s e, we must f i r s t see w hether P y e 's c o n te n tio n — t h a t c o n c e p t of n a tio n i s e sse n tia lly t a k e n from "the d if f u s i o n of world c u l t u r e " e m a n a tin g fro m t h e W e s t — i s In answ ering t h i s the c o rrect. q u e s tio n th ro u g h an ex am in atio n of th e Indonesian e x p e rie n c e, one m ig h t i n q u i r e (1) t h e c o u rs e of I n d o n e s i a n h i s t o r y and o f c o n t e m p o r a r y I n d o n e s i a n s on t h e r e l a t i v e i n t o tw o a r e a s: th e a ttitu d e s Im p o rtan ce t h e c o n c e p t of n a t i o n. In surveying th e r i c h h i s t o r y of th e a rc h ip elag o, i s s t r i c k e n toy t h e f a c t t h a t h e c a n d i s c e r n t h e r i s e of e m p ir e s which a r e o f t e n view ed w i t h Indonesian n a t i o n a l i s t s. Y et, th e n o t claim t h a t th e s e r e p r e s e n t e d and one fall p r id e by c o n tem p o rary present le a d e rsh ip does an In d o n e s ia n n a tio n and t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d would seem t o b e a r th em o u t. T he e m p ires of M a ja p a h it, S r i w i d j a j a em ployed a n d M a t a r a m m ay b e c o o p e r a t i o n and m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e n a t i o n, a r e connected w i t h b r o a d e r b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e and a b o u t t h e i r own n a t u r e, p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d c u l t u r e so t h a t t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e n a t i o n, e v e n i n tim e s of a d v e r s i t y, i s l i k e l y and t h u s I n s u r e s i t s endurance. (T h is i n t e r n a l le g itim a c y, anchored i n t h e b e l i e f o f i t s own p o p u l a t i o n, may b e l a r g e l y independent of o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s o r f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s ). D e u t s c h and F o l t z, N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p p. 11- 1 2. T h r o u g h p u t t h i s c h a p t e r we s h a l l s e e t h a t t h e In d o n e s ia n " n a t i o n " i s n o t " c o h e s i v e " a s t r i b a l and g e o g r a p h ic a l b a r r i e r s p r e v e n t "more e f f e c t i v e h a b i t s o f e a s y and v a r i e d s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n; " t h a t t h e Indonesian " n a tio n " f a c e s a c h a l l e n g e a s t o t h e e x t e n t of i t s l e g itim a c y f o r one c a n n o t r e f e r t o a d i s t i n c t I n d o n e s i a n " c u l t u r e " m u ch l e s s " p e r s o n a l i t y " a n d t h a t i n t h e tim e of t h e a b o r t i v e c o u p o n e c o u l d h a v e won d ered i f an I n d o n e s i a n n a tio n would h a v e e n d u r e d. === [PDF page 39] === 35 a s a means o f d e v e l o p i n g w hat Em erson c a l l s o n e w o u ld b e h a r d - p r e s s e d t o co ntend t h a t " c o m m u n ity, " b u t t h e s e kingdoms w i t h t h e i r c o u r t c u l t u r e s and l a c k o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h th e p easantry c o n stitu te d one i s In d o n esian " n a tio n s." 2 r e lu c ta n t to a ssig n to th ese A ccordingly, p r o t o - n a t i o n s any r e a l c o n tin u u m w i t h t h e p r e s e n t - d a y a t t e m p t t o b u i l d a modern Indonesian n a tio n. the Indeed, p r i o r t o t h e coup a tte m p t, even s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t e r s of I n d o n e s ia n n a t i o n b u ild in g m ight point w ith p rid e to the r ic h h i s t o r i c a l record of t h e a r c h i p e l a g o b u t would t u r n t o t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y f o r t h e developm ent of th e say t h a t Indonesian n a tio n. s u c h a d e v e l o p m e n t was p a r t M o re o v e r, t h e y would of an even g r e a te r tre n d. As P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o s t a t e d: We l i v e, a l l o f u s, a n d e v e r y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d, i n t h e t i m e o f t h e b u i l d i n g o f n a t i o n s and t h e b reak in g of em p ires. T h is i s t h e e r a o f th e em erging n a t i o n s a n d t h e t u r b u l e n c e o f n a t i o n a l i s m. We l i v e, I say a g a i n, i n t h e tim e o f t h e b u i l d i n g of n a t i o n s. 3 2P o r a c o n c i s e s u r v e y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and d e c l i n e of th e s e em pires s e e: B r i a n H a r r i s o n, S o u t h - E a s t A sia. A S h o r t H i s t o r y (London: M a c m i l l a n a n d C om pany, 'I9$rf ), p p. 4 1 - 7 2. I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e a n c i e n t k in g do m s d i d n o t h a v e b o u n d a r i e s r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e modern In d o n e s ia n n a tio n. T h a t was t h e r e s u l t o f t h e o o l o n i a l e x p e r i e n c e. I n d e e d, i f one would a t t e m p t t o d e v e l o p n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s on t h e b a s i s o f a n c i e n t k in g d o m s t h r o u g h o u t S o u t h e a s t A s i a, L a o s c o u l d c l a i m a l l o f t h e I n d o c h i n e s e P e n i n s u l a and Burm a c o u l d c o u n t e r o n t h e b a s i s o f i t s own h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d. T h u s, i t comes a s no s h o c k t h a t I n d o n e s i a ' s c la im t o I r i a n B a r a t w a s n o t b a s e d on b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t k i n g d o m s b u t b e c a u s e i t f e l l i n t o t h a t a r e a t h a t was o n c e p a r t o f t h e N etherlands E ast I n d ie s. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s s e e: R obert B o n e, The D y n a m i c s o f t h e W e s t I r i a n D i s p u t e (New Y o r k: In sti t u t e o^ P a c i f i c R e l a t i o n s, 1 9 5 B J. ^ P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, "To B u i l d t h e W o rl d Anew, A d d r e s s b e f o r e t h e 1 5 t h G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s on === [PDF page 40] === T h i s s t a t e m e n t, made b y t h e f a t h e r o f I n d o n e s i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e and t h e man who w a s o n c e t h e p r i m e sp o k e s m a n for th e people of the a rc h ip e la g o, i n s t r u c t i v e when i t ap p lied P y e 's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e d r i v e toward n a t i o n b u ild in g p a r t o f a u n i v e r s a l v ie w a s r e l a t e d "d iffu sio n th e of world c u l t u r e. " to the f u r t h e r su p p o rte d by h i s t o r i c a l f a c t t h a t th e developm ent of In d o n e s ia n n a tio n alism can p r im a r ily be tr a c e d t o th e presen t century and n o t t o older h i s t o r ic a l epochs. th e developm ent of fra n k ly p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s, f o r In d o n esian indepen dence as not seen in the r i s e the r e s u lt of S a rik a t Thus, I s la m i n 1 9 11-12, was o f lo n g - te r m se q u e n c e s b u t r a t h e r could be traced the general r i s e before a n d a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o rld War a s m a n i f e s t e d in te n sifie d of n a t i o n a l s e n tim e n ts im m ediately attack s a g ain st co lo n ial ru le. in the T h i s d o e s n o t m ea n t o I m p l y t h a t t h e e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f D u t c h c o l o n i a l i s m ^ was n o t a prim e a g en c y f o r th e i n t r o d u c tio n o f W e ste rn c o n c e p t s, I n c l u d i n g t h e coming of F r i d a y S e p t e m b e r 3 0, I 9 6 0. " As t a k e n f r o m: S e l e c t e d Docum ents Book 1 ( D j a k a r t a: D epartm ent of In f o r m a tio n, n. d. J, p. I t i s i r o n ic th a t fiv e y e a rs to th e d a te of t h i s speech, th e a t t e m p t e d coup t h a t t h r e a t e n e d I n d o n e s i a would be l a u n c h e d. **For t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a r i a n work o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m and p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e s t r u g g l e f o r Independence see: G e o r g e Me T. K a h i n, N a t i o n a l i s m and R e v o l u t i o n i n Indonesia (Ith a c a: C o rn e ll U n iv e r s ity P re ss, 1952J. ^ F o r a com prehensive h i s t o r y of D u tc h c o l o n i a l p o l i c y see: J. S. F u r n i v a l l, N e t h e r l a n d s I n d i a. A S tu d y of a P l u r a l Economy ( C am b rid g e: C am bridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 3 9 ). === [PDF page 41] === 37 n atio n alism, to the a rc h ip e la g o. However, w h i l e t h e i s s u e c o l o n i a l i s m would become a r a l l y i n g c r y f o r t h e y o u n g n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t, we m u s t n o t e t h a t m o v em ent i s th e developm ent of t h a t f o u n d p r i m a r i l y i n t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y and n o t i n I n d o n e s ia 's t r a d i t i o n a l or c o lo n ia l h i s t o r y. Thus, P y e 's broad-gauged c o n te n tio n — th a t th e co ncept of th e n a tio n i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p ro d u c t of th e " d i f f u s i o n of w orld c u l t u r e " a s e m a n a t i n g p r i m a r i l y f ro m t h e W e s t — i s c o r r e c t i n t h e I n d o n e s ia n exam ple. T herefore, im portant to s t r e s s t h a t th e developm ent of n a t i o n a l s e n t im e n ts i s recent o rig in, f o r o n l y t h e n c a n we a p p r e c i a t e t h e m o n u m e n t a l ta s k s the le a d e rs h ip of modern I n d o n e s i a f a c e s i n b r i d g i n g th e gap betw een th e i d e a l of n a tio n h o o d th e t r a d i tio n a l o rd er. of very and t h e r e a l i t y We m u s t, t h e r e f o r e, tu rn our a tte n tio n the In d o n esian r e a l i t y. The S u b s t a n c e o f N a t i o n h o o d: The I m p a c t o f Sukubangsa A s s o c i a t i o n When o n e n o t e s t h e r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f an In d o n e s ia n co n cep t of n a tio n, th is we c a n q u i c k l y r e a l i z e new f o r c e h a s h ad b u t a l i m i t e d tim e in a tte m p tin g t o: " d e v e l o p a c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e who f e e l t h a t to g e th e r,in th at th ey belo n g a n a r e a where d i v e r s i t y and n o t u n i t y i s com m onplace. The m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s problem of d e v e lo p in g a i n t h e form o f a n a t i o n i s q u i c k l y b r o u g h t t o E m e r s o n, Prom E m p i r e t o N a t i o n, p. 9 5. "com m unity" l i g h t w h e n we === [PDF page 42] === 38 note th a t one c a n r e a d i l y a s c r i b e alm ost im p o ssib le t o less an I n d o n e s i a n th ere, the "com m unity". The "su b stan ce". The l e a d e r s h i p of In d o n esia fo rm and "form " of th e n a t i o n is w ell-aw are o f t h e gap t h e s u b s t a n c e and h a s a t t e m p t e d p r o b le m on t h e s t a t e m e n t pre of t h e n a t i o n a l m o t t o of th e R ep u b lic — "U nity in D i v e r s i t y ". th is t o a n " I n d o n e s i a n p e o p l e " much b u t h a rd ly the betw een th e sent talk t o t h e view t h a t The i d e a l o f a c h i e v i n g " u n ity " th ro u g h th e developm ent of th e n a ti o n i s ch allen g ed rev ealed by a number o f b a s i c b a r r i e r s by th e as perhaps b e s t im pact of Sukubangsa a s s o c i a t i o n. The term d e n o t e s: In d ig e n o u s g ro u p s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i s t i n c t c u l t u r e w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o l a n g u a e e and a d a t.7 Th e c h a l l e n g e n atio n b u ild in g of bangsa the I n d o n e s ia n governm ent f a c e s i s more c l e a r l y " n a t i o n " and s e e n when t h e d e f i n i t i o n "people", "ra c e ".^ H e n ce, H i l d r e d G e e r t z, " I n d o n e s i a n C u l t u r e and C om m unity," from; I n d o n e s i a, e d. R u t h T. McVey (New H a v e n: Human R e l a t i o n s A r e a P i l e s P r e s s, 1 9 6 3 )* P. 2 4. " A d a t " r e f e r s t o t h e c u s t o m a r y o r t r a d i t i o n a l law of th e a rc h ip e la g o as c o n tra s te d p a r t i c u l a r l y to th e n a tio n a l law t h a t was l a r g e l y a p r o d u c t o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e D utch a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of law. For a d iscu ssio n see: B. Ter A a r, A d a t Law i n I n d o n e s i a, E d i t e d w i t h a n I n t r o d u c t i o n b y A. A r t h u r S c h i l l e r a n d!e. A d a m son H o e b e l ( D j a k a r t a: B h ratara, 1962), pp. 5 f f. J o h n M. E c h o l s a n d H a s s a n S h a d i l y, An I n d o n e s i a n D i c t i o n a r y ( 2 d ed.; I t h a c a: ' C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1963), p. 34. U h l e s s o t h e r w i s e n o t e d t h i s d i c t i o n a r y w i l l b e employed in th e tr a n s la tio n of In d o n esian. === [PDF page 43] === 39 we s e e t h a t t h e R e p u b l i c co n fro n ted by P y e 's reconciling th e u n iv e rs a l w ith th e p a r o c h ia l, p arochial w ith th e p a r o c h i a l. That i s, problem of but indeed, th e on t h e m o s t b a s i c l e v e l of t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s, one c a n n o t r e f e r to a u nity of o u tlo o k. The p r o b l e m o f a t t e m p t i n g f u s i o n i s b e s t n o t e d w h e n we o b s e r v e t h a t: There a r e o v e r t h r e e h u n d re d e t h n i c g r o u p s i n I n d o n e s i a, e a c h w i t h i t s own c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y a n d more t h a n on e h u n d r e d d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s a r e spoken i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o. 9 M oreover, t o f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e th is d i v e r s i t y, we m u s t n o t e t h a t a n u m b e r o f t h e s e sim ply r e p r e s e n t s m a l l o u t c r o p p i n g s archipfelago. Indeed, th ere are of over a m i l l i o n e a c h. in cre d ib le groups do n o t of d if f e r e n c e s w ith in th e t h r e e S u k u 1^ w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s These in c lu d e th e Javanese (36), th e ^ W i l l i a m G. S k i n n e r ( e d. ), L o c a l, E t h n i c a n d N a t i o n a l L o y a l t i e s i n V i l l a g e I n d o n e s i a (New H a v e n: V ale U n i v e r s i ty t r e s s, 195$')V P- T. ---------------------For a h ig h ly d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of th e d ev elo p m en t of t h e n a t i o n a l ' l a n g u a g e — B a h a s a I n d o n e s i a - - a n d how i t a t t e m p t e d to bridge th e b a r r i e r s t o n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n c r e a t e d by a d i v e r s i t y of d i a l e c t s s e e: B e n A n d e r s o n, "T he L a n g u a g e s o f In d o n es ian P o l i t i c s, " I n d o n e s i a, V o l. No. 1 ( A p r i l, 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 89-116. Mr. A n d e r s o n n o t e s i n h i s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e developm ent o f t h e n a t i o n a l t o n g u e, "... s y m b o l i z e s and e x p r e s s e s t h e c o n q u e s t o f m o d e r n i s m v i a a new l a n g u a g e w h i c h a t t h e same t i m e i s b e c o m i n g a n c h o r e d i n a t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d, a n d a d e e p - r o o t e d v i s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e of b e i n g. " I b i d., p. 1 1 6. H is c o n t e n t i o n a p p e a r s t o s u p p o r t P y e ' s view t h a t t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n th e fo rc e s of th e t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r and t h e im p a c t o f m o d e r n i z a tio n I f m e a n in g fu l d e v e lo p m e n t i s t o become a r e a l i t y. 10S u k u w h i c h h a s a s o n e o f i t s d e f i n i t i o n s: "eth n ic g r o u p, t r i b e " i s c o m m on ly e m p l o y e d a s a n a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m f o r Suk u b a n g s a. E c h o l s and S h a d l l y, An I n d o n e s i a n D i c t i o n a r y, === [PDF page 44] === 40 M inangkabau ( 2.7 ) a nd t h e B u r g i n e s e ( 2. 4 ). 11 The i m p a c t o f S u k u a s s o c i a t i o n i s m o s t s t r i k i n g l y rev ealed i n t h e way i t in general to, his p r i m a r i l y grounded c o n d i t i o n s the a t t i t u d e s f e llo w man. on t h e These a t t i t u d e s or In d o n esian s as Indonesians, resu lt of a s e rie s th e rath er, th ey a re the o f s t e r e o t y p e s based on S uku a s s o c i a t i o n. f o l l o w i n g s t e r e o t y p e s have been employed a n d, w h i l e t h e y may n o t b e v a l i d, behav io r to o th ers they n e v erth eless in flu e n c e of d i f f e r e n t Suku. prone t o b lin d Thus, lo y alty, m aking d e c i s i o n s; in d iv id u al e i t h e r by in creasin g the s o c ia l prox im ity o f m e m b e r s o f t h e sa m e S u k u o r d e c r e a s i n g i t th e th e p u rs u it among m e m b e r s t h e A m b oin ese a r e r e g a r d e d as b ein g t h e M inangkabau a s b e i n g i n c a p a b l e J a v a n e s e a s being i n d i r e c t w ith t h e i r r e la tio n s w ith o th e rs, cle v er in are not j u d g m e n t of I n d i v i d u a l s a s i n d i v id u als Thus, of Indonesian^, and s u b t l e and t h e B a t a k a s b e i n g o f b u s i n e s s b u t loud and c r u d e t h e i r p e rso n al conduct. The e m p l o y m e n t o f t h e s e p o p u l a r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s p articu larly s t r i k i n g when one c o n s i d e r s t h a t sim p ly used by th e they a re not p e a s a n t w h o s e s o c i a l u n i v e r s e may n o t e x te n d beyond h i s h a m le t. E v e n members o f t h e u r b a n e l i t e, who c l a i m t o h a v e a m o r e u n i v e r s a l v i e w, a n d who o f t e n a r e p ro p o n e n ts o f th e developm ent v ictim of an In d o n esian n a ti o n, fall t o p r e J u d g m e n t s o n t h e b a s i s of s t e r e o t y p i n g. ■ ^ S k i n n e r, L o c a l, E t h n i c and N a t i o n a l L o y a l t i e s V illa g e Ind o n esia, p. 5. === [PDF page 45] === 41 Ironic to note th a t one o f t h e m o s t m o d er n f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n — t e l e v i s i o n — i s o f t e n used t o r e i n f o r c e an a w a r e n e s s o f d i f f e r e n c e s b y t h o s e who c l a i m t h e y p o s s e s s c o s m o p o l i t a n a ttitu d e s. Thus, I s a p o p u l a r game i n t h e h o u s e o f a l e a d in g spokesman f o r t h e d e v elo p m e n t of a n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s th ro u g h i n d o c t r i n a t i o n program s, t o l i s t e n t o an announcer and, on t h e b a s i s o f h i s pron u n ciatio n of th e n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e —Bahasa I n d o n e s i a — t o t e l l th e s t a r t l e d liste n er, n o t o n l y t h e Suku o f t h e p e r f o r m e r b u t a l s o h i s place of b i r t h. The p o l i t i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f s u c h a t t i t u d e s w i l l be b e s t u n d e r s t o o d i n C h a p t e r 3> when we w i l l i n i t i a l l y r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r P y e ’s " lo g ic of c o m p e ti t iv e t i c s, " a s m a n i f e s t e d i n th e need f o r " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o li govern m e n t, " o f f e r s a m e a n in g f u l s o l u t i o n by which t h e n e c e s s a r y r e c o n e i l a t i o n of t h e d i v e r s e g ro u p s w i t h i n th e a r c h i p e l a g o can ta k e p la c e t o ach iev e p o l i t i c a l developm ent. The c o n c e r n o v e r f o s t e r i n g a n I n d o n e s i a n c o n s c i o u s n ess, th a t can transcend to nation b u ild in g, t h e d i v e r s i t y of t h e Suku and l e a d has beens ta te d develop a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y. i n term s of th e need As D r. H. R o s e l a n A b d u l g a n i noted: E ac h c o u n t r y h a s i t s own i d e n t i t y. The w i s h t o have an i d e n t i t y a l l i t s own i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e po w e r o f A s i a n - A f r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m in the 20t h c e n tu r y. A s t u d y o f o u r n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y w i l l make i t c l e a r t o us t h a t t h e i d e a t h a t h a s s p u r r e d t h e I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n t o a c t and s a c r i f i c e i n i t s s t r u g g l e f o r independence i s, in f a c t, i d e n t i c a l w ith h a v in g === [PDF page 46] === a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a l l i t s own, b o t h w h e r e t h e f o r m o f t h e s t a t e and t h e c o n t e n t s o f i t s s o c i a l l i f e a r e c oncerned Y e t, even a t t h i s most b a s i c flic tin g lev el, v i e w s on how a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y th e re are con i s t o be d e v e l o p e d. On t h e o n e h a n d s t a n d s t h o s e who w o u l d a t t e m p t t o a b o l i s h t h e s u b - c u l t u r e s found i n t h e d i f f e r e n t Suku i n f a v o r o f a sin g le n atio n al c u ltu re. On t h e o t h e r, th e re a re those who w o u l d s u b s c r i b e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s i t i o n? The g r o w t h o f t h e r e g i o n a l c u l t u r e i s n o t a th r e a t to th e N atio n al C u ltu re. On t h e c o n t r a r y, t h e t r i b a l c u l t u r e s may w e l l b e t h e s o u r c e s t h a t f e e d t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e and g u a r a n t e e i t s d e v e l o p m e n t and p r e s e r v a t i o n. 13 A g ain P y e ' s view o f t h e need f o r a m erger i s re c o g n i z e d, b u t a g a i n we s h a l l h a v e t o a s c e r t a i n, in our d is c u s s io n on I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s, w h e t h e r any m e a n i n g f u l s o l u t i o n s h a v e been o ffe re d by th e In d o n e s ia n e l i t e im portance, and, of even g r e a t e r have any of t h e s e s o l u t i o n s b e en put i n t o p ractice 12 D r. H. R o e s l a n A b d u l g a n i, P a n t,1a s i l a; The P r i m e M o v e r of th e Indonesian R ev o lu tio n ( D ja k a rta: P r a p a n t j a, n. d. ), pp. t l - 7 2. tfhe a u t h o r, i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f M i n i s t e r C o o r d i n a t o r w i t h R e l a t i o n s t o t h e P e o p l e, was a l e a d i n g e x p o n e n t o f t h e s t a t e id eo lo g y p re se n te d by th e P r e s i d e n t. U n d ersco rin g i s m i n e — c o m p a r e i t t o P y e ' s v i e w t h a t t h e new n a t i o n s h a v e t h e '’f o r m " b u t n o t t h e " s u b s t a n c e ” o f n a t i o n h o o d. ^■^Dr. 0. L. T o b i n g, C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e S t u d y o f t h e In d o n esian I d e n t i t y (M akassar: J a J a s a n Kebund.laan S u l a w e s i 3 e l a t a n Dan ^ e n g g a r a M a k a s s a r; The C u l t u r a l I n s t i t u t e o f S o u t h e r n S u la w e s i and E a s t e r n M a k a s s a r, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 1 1. Ill The b a r r i e r s t o d e v e l o p i n g a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a r e n o t l im i te d t o th e i s s u e of Suku a s s o c i a t i o n, f o r In d o n e s ia s h a r e s a p r o b l e m common t h r o u g h o u t a l l o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a, t h e s t a t u s === [PDF page 47] === 43 The R e l i g i o u s L a n d s c a p e — The R e a l i t y or D e ce p tio n of U nity I t m ust be n o ted th e d iv is io n s b arriers at th is th a t have in te rp o s e d p o litic s places p r i m a r i l y b a s e d on t h e on P y e 's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t c o m p e titiv e S u b seq u en tly, one c an su g g e st t h a t tra d itio n th em selv es as lead in g may o f f e r a s o l u t i o n t o t h e c h a l l e n g e o f p o l i t i c a l d evelopm ent. Y et, t h a t I have s t r e s s e d t o m ean in g fu l n a t i o n b u i l d i n g w ith in th e a rc h ip e la g o. T h e e m p h a s i s on t h e s e d i v i s i o n s ch allen g e Ju n ctu re we s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h i s i s s u e. th ere of th e a rc h ip e la g o a r e common e l e m e n t s i n t h e t h a t may p r o v i d e a s e n s e o f of th e O verseas C h inese. T h e C h i n e s e c o m m u n i ty i n t h e a r c h i p e la g o h a s n o t been i n te g r a t e d i n t o Indonesian s o c ie ty. The c u l t u r a l e x c l u s i v e n e s s, p r e d i c a t e d a t l e a s t on t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s C h i n e s e c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d, e v e n m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y, on t h e i s s u e o f p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y t o a C hinese n a tio n, has i n t e r p o s e d y e t one more b l o c k t o t h e c r e a t i o n of an I n d o n e s i a n s t a t e in "su b sta n ce " as w e ll as "fo rm." The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a n s o f a l l S u k u and t h e C h i n e s e i s i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e e c o n o m i c r e a l i t y t h a t t h e O v e r s e a s C h i n e s e e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e f a r o u t of p r o p o r tio n t o t h e i r num ber. A ttem pts to re d u c e t h e t e n s i o n th ro u g h su c h l e g a l d e v i c e s a s seeking t o r e g u l a r iz e t h e s t a t u s of th e C hinese a s In d o n e s ia n c it iz e n s, has not b r o u g h t a n y m e a n i n g f u l s o l u t i o n t o t h e d i s t r u s t among t h e C h i n e s e and t h e eom m unity a t l a r g e. The o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s t e n s i o n w i l l b e c l e a r l y s e e n w h e n we e x a m i n e t h e p e rio d of r e a c tio n fo llo w in g th e coup a ttem p t. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p ro b lem of th e Overseas C hinese t h r o u g h o u t S o u t h e a s t A s i a and i n I n d o n e s i a, t h e f o l l o w i n g w orks w i l l p rove u s e f u l: R o b e r t S. E l e g a n t, The D r a g o n S e e d, P e k i n g a n d t h e O v e r s e a s C h i n e s e (New Y o r k: S t. M a r t i n P r e s s, 1 9 5 9 ): M. J. M e. l e r, T h e d h l n e s e i n I n d o n e s i a, A W o rk in g D r a f t (New Y o r k: New ¥ o r k P u b l i c L i b r a r y, 1 9 5 3 ); M o r t o n H. F r e l d ( e d. ), C o l l o q u i u m o n t h e O v e r s e a s C h i n e s e (New Y o r k: I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c r e t a r i a t o f th e I n s t i t u t e bf P a c ific R ela t i o n s, 1 9 5 8 ); V i c t o r P u r c e l l, The C h i n e s e i n S o u th e a s t A sia (2d e d.; London: O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, i ^ l ). === [PDF page 48] === "com m unity" t h a t n a tio n. can s tim u la te th e developm ent of an In d o n e s ia n I n o u r n e x t c h a p t e r we s h a l l b e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p o l it i c a l tech n iq u es of u n i f i c a t i o n as e x e m p lifie d by th e a t t e m p t s t o c o n s t r u c t a n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y and t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f a common en em y i n t h e form o f c o l o n i a l i s m. B u t, t h i s t i m e, we c a n s e e a t an o utw ardly shared "sense of b e lo n g in g " i n th e least human m a t e r i a l t h a t com prises the arch ip elag o. S u p e rficially, m ental b a s i s t h e r e would a p p e a r t o b e a m o st f u n d a fo r u n ity in th e c o n sid e ra tio n th a t p ro fe s s t o be p red o m in an tly Isla m ic deed, n in e ty percent of th e su b scrib es to th e Islam ic in th e ir b e lie f s. p o p u latio n a t faith. Y et, m ust n o t e t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e and t h a t even i f a ct as a source could In don esian s least n o m in ally o n a c l o s e r v i e w, we of u n ity is d ecep tiv e, t h a t a p p e a r a n c e had a n e s s e n t i a l v a l i d i t y, of d iv is io n as w e ll as a source of problem i t m ust be n o te d u n ificatio n. To u n d e r s t a n d th is Islam ic th o u g h t, as im ported ju sted itse lf the c o n d itio n s w ith in th e is la n d s the a rc h ip e la g o, th at has ad and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t be view ed a s h a v i n g a d i s t i n c t in te g rity. Indeed, h ig h ly t h e a d j u s t m e n t h a s m ade I n d o n e s i a n I s l a m e clec tic, and one c a n s e e tw o b a s i c stra in s In th e dom inant r e l i g i o n, w h ic h h a v e n o t a lw a y s c o o p e r a t e d b a s i s o f a common h e r i t a g e. On o n e h a n d I s la m ic t r a d i t i o n w hich i s c h aracterized pre on t h e t h e Abangan a s beingi: === [PDF page 49] === 45 ... made u p p r i m a r i l y o f t h e r i t u a l f e a s t c a l l e d t h e s l a m e t a n, o f a n e x t e n s i v e and i n t r i c a t e c o m p le x o f s p i r i t b e l i e f s, and a w h o l e s e t o f t h e o r i e s and p r a c t i c e s o f c u r i n g, s o r c e r y and m a g i c.! 5 T h is i s th e Islam ic thought of a m y s tic -p ro n e In d o n e s i a w h ic h, b le n d i n g w ith broad and a n i m i s t i c to le ratio n t r a d i t i o n s of t h e p a s t, of b o t h H indu c re a te s a p e cu lia r In d o n e s ia n form. C o n t r a s t i n g t o t h e A ba n gan t r a d i t i o n, the S a n tr i form: ... c o n s i s t i n g n o t o n l y o f a c a r e f u l and r e g u l a r e x e c u ti o n of t h e b a s ic r i t u a l s o f I s la m — t h e p r a y e r s, t h e f a s t s, t h e p i l g r i m a g e s — b u t a whole c o m p le s o f s o c i a l, c h a r i t a b l e and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s. 1® T h e s e two v a r i a t i o n s have c o n s t a n t l y co m p eted and i n t e r a c t e d. As t h e m o d e r n i s t s o u g h t t o p u r i f y t h e b e l i e f f r o m t h e eclecticism of th e p a st, the t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s a tt e m p t e d d istin c tiv e In d o n e s ia n fla v o r of Is la m. d ifferen ces, an e s s e n t i a l d e g re e o f u n i t y was th e B ut, d e s p ite th e s e a c h i e v e d, ^ ^ C l i f f o r d G e e r t z, The R e l i g i o n o f J a v a ( G l e n c o e: The F r e e P r e s s o f G l e n c o e, s p o n s o r e d 6 y The C e n t e r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s, M a s s a c h u s e tts I n s t i t u t e of T echnology, I 9 6 0 ), p. 5. i t is in te restin g r e f le c ts the fa c t S an tri tra d itio n. ""older b r o t h e r. " 6. When one t r a n s l a t e s t h e w o rd A b a n g a n t o n o te t h a t t h e I n d o n e s i a n m eaning t h a t t h e Abangan form i s o l d e r t h a n t h e Abangan s te m s from a b an g w h ic h m eans E c h o l s and S h a d i l y, An I n d o n e s i a n D i c t i o n a r y, ^ T h u s, f o r exam ple, d e s p i t e t h e s p l i t i n t h e I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n, t h e predom inant r e l i g i o n has a c te d a s a u n if y in g force in the p a s t. As Mr. B e n d a n o t e d i n h i s s t u d y o f t h e Japanese o ccu p atio n: "In d o n esian Isla m h as rem ained what f o r t y m onths o f J a p a n e s e r u l e e n a b le d i t t o becom e: one o f th e m ost f i r m l y based p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s, d e r i v i n g p erh ap s u n r i v a l e d s u p p o r t from th e age o f a d h e r e n c e o f I n d o n e s i a n c i t i z e n s i n to w n s and c o u n t r y s i d e s t o t h e I s l a m i c f a i t h. H arry J. Benda, "In d o n esian Islam Under th e Ja p an e se O c c u p a t i o n, " P a c i f i c A f f a i r s, V o l. XXVII, N o. 4, p. 3 1 2. === [PDF page 50] === fo r Islam, i n any f o r m, w o u ld h a v e t o b e r e g a r d e d s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e. The a b i l i t y of Isla m ic a lea d in g forces t o c o o p e r a t e a t t i m e s f o r a common p u r p o s e w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d when we e x a m i n e t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e c o u p a t t e m p t. H ow ever, we s h a l l q u i c k l y n o t e t h a t s u c h c o o p e r a t i o n I s n o t a l w a y s c o m m o n p l a c e when we e v a l u a t e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s d u rin g our survey of th e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l c o n fig u ratio n. Y e t, a t t h i s t i m e, we c a n n o t e t h a t o f I s l a m t o a d j u s t t o I n d o n e s i a n r e a l i t i e s when I t th e a b ility came t o t h e a r c h i p e l a g o I n d i c a t e s t h a t a f u s i o n c a n and h a s t a k e n p l a c e a t l e a s t one l e v e l. Y et, w h ile t h e Abangan t r a d i t i o n I s a n e x a m p l e o f one f o rm o f f u s i o n, we m u s t s t i l l b e e x c e e d i n g l y c a u t i o u s I n s t r e s s i n g t h e employment o f a p r e d o m i n a n t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f as an agency fo r p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n. Isla m ic thought th e re fo re has the c a p a c ity t o u n i t e as w ell a s d i v i d e t h o s e who a d h e r e t o I t s t e n e t s. G eo g rap h ica l B a r r i e r s to the D evelopm ent o f t h e Form o f N a t l o n l s m As we h a v e n o t e d, t h o u g h t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a s u p e r ficial u n ity In th e r e l i g io u s landscape, th e b a sic f a c t rem ain s t h a t th e R epublic of In d o n e s ia i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i v i s i o n. very p h y s ic a l th e r e f o re, not s u r p r is in g th a t even th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e a rc h ip e la g o r e f l e c t b arriers of n a tio n a l i n t e g r a t i o n. and i n t e n s i f y The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e under s c o r e s t h e m agnitude of th e c h a lle n g e i n te r m s o f g e o g r a p h i c a l === [PDF page 51] === 47 c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h o s e who w o u l d a t t e m p t t o b u i l d an I n d onesian n a tio n! The I n d o n e s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o i s t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t is la n d com plex. S t r e t c h i n g from m ain lan d S o u t h e a s t A s ia e a s t w a r d b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s, i t b o r d e r s on t h r e e m a j o r b o d i e s o f w a t e r — t h e I n d i a n a nd P a c i f i c o c e a n s a n d t h e S o u t h C h i n a S e a.... The c o u n t r y h a s a n e a s t - w e s t l e n g t h o f some 3 * 5 0 0 m i l e s... a n d a b r e a d t h o f a b o u t a t h o u s a n d m i l e s. 10 The i m p o r t a n c e t h a t g e o g r a p h i c a l o b s t a c l e s n a tio n b u ild in g cannot be u n d e r s ta te d. th at th is arch ip elag o, When o n e c o n s i d e r s co m p rise d o f o v e r 3000 i s l a n d s, lo n g er east-w eB t d is ta n c e in te n sified again q u e s tio n th e In a d d itio n, c alls among by p h y s i c a l d i s t a n c e. ^ i d e a l of an In d o n e sia n One c a n " c o m m u n i t y. 11 when one n o t e s t h a t n e i t h e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n nor re s o u rc e s a re evenly d is t r ib u t e d is certain ly has a t h a n New Y o r k t o C a l i f o r n i a, we c a n r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d how t h e s o c i a l d i s t a n c e Sukubangsa i s play in among t h e i s l a n d s, 20 a p p a r e n t t h a t n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g and c o - o r d i n a t i o n fo r th e h ig h e s t degree a m ost d i s p a r a t e o f s k i l l and c o - o p e r a t i o n among p eo p le. l 8 K a r l J. P e l z e r, " P h y s i c a l a n d Human R e s o u r c e s, 11 a s t a k e n f r o m McVey, I n d o n e s i a, p. 1. • ^ T h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f I n d o n e s i a o n a map o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i s s e e n on t h e c o v e r l e a f o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b o o k; W i l l a r d A. H a n n a, B u n g K a r n o ' a I n d o n e s i a (New Y o r k: A m erican U n i v e r s i t i e s F i e l d S t a f f, 1961;. ^ ° T h u s, J a v a a n d M a d u ra w h i c h a c c o u n t f o r 6 5 # o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t o f o n l y 7# o f t h e n a t i o n ' s t e r r i t o r y. A ttem pts a t tr a n s m i g r a t i o n have l a r g e l y f a i l e d. One o f t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n f o r t h i s ste m s b a c k t o t h e i s s u e of Suku a s s o c i a tio n. The t i e o f t h e S u k u i s s o s t r o n g a n d a s a r e s u l t, p e o p l e w i l l n o t l e a v e t h e i r a n c e s t o r a l home. F o r a d e t a i l e d b re a k d o w n of the unequal p o p u la tio n d i s t r i b u t i o n se e: P e lz e r, In d o n esia, P. 13. === [PDF page 52] === 48 F in a lly, rein fo rced th e d i v e r s it y by t h e v a r i e t y th ese reso u rces, i n human r e s o u r c e s i s f u r t h e r in m ate ria l resources. I n surveying becomes p a t e n t l y c le a r t h a t th e Indonesian economy c a n n o t b e t a k e n a s a t o t a l i t y. A u t h o r i t i e s do n o t r e f e r t o I n d o n e s i a n r a w m a t e r i a l b u t r a t h e r t o t h e raw m aterial of th e m ajor i s l a n d s, H igg ins n o te i n t h e i r broad a n d a s B e n j a m i n and J e a n s u r v e y of th e R e p u b l i c: I n I n d o n e s i a, s l n o e t h e nu m ero us i s l a n d s a r e d i v i d e d n o t o n l y b y b o d i e s o f w a t e r — some q u i t e l a r g e — b u t a l s o by h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e, th e uneven r e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n c r e a t e s s e r i o u s eco nom ic and p o l i t i c a l p roblem s. F o r t h i s r e a s o n an inventory of re s o u rc e s h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i s l a n d b y i s l a n d.2 1 T h u s, w h i l e t h e R e p u b l i c may have t h e hood, th e d iv e r s ity of i t s cau se d by g e o g ra p h y, "form " of n a t i o n p e o p l e combined w i t h t h e d i v i s i o n s h ig h lig h t th e fact th a t, w hile the n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p may b e c o m m i t t e d t o a n I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w may r e c o g n i z e t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f an In d o n esian s t a t e, we m u s t q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e i s I n d e e d an In d o n esian n a tio n. rep re se n ts T h is, i n t h e se n se t h a t th e Republic "a c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e who f e e l t h a t t h e y b e l o n g t o g e th e r i n th e double sense t h a t they share d e e p ly s i g n i f i c a n t e l e m e n t s o f a common h e r i t a g e and t h a t t h e y h a v e a common d e s t i n y i n t h e f u t u r e. L ucian P y e 's i n i t i a l f o r m u la tio n s a re s tr o n g ly affirm ed B e n j a m i n H i g g i n s and J e a n H ig g in s, I n d o n e s i a; The C r i s i s o f t h e M i l l s t o n e s ( P r i n c e t o n; D. Van N o s t r a n d and Company, 19^ 3 ), p. 1 0. 22E m e rso n, From E m p ire t o N a tio n, pp. 9 5 -9 6. === [PDF page 53] === 49 by th e In d o n e sia n c a s e. n atio n h o o d, The R e p u b l i c may h a v e t h e a s e m a n a t i n g f r o m a W e s t e r n c o n c e p t a nd v e r b a l i z e d by t h e m odern I n d o n e s i a n e l i t e, "su b stan ce" w i l l fo llo w. id ealized "form " o f b u t o n ly tim e w i l l t e l l The l e a d e r s h i p, developm ent, has reco g n ized b u ild in g a n a tio n al Id e n tity. in p u rsu it of an th e c h a lle n g e of H o w e v e r, a s we move i n t o a d is c u s s io n of th e Ind o n esian p o l i t i c a l c o n fig u ra tio n, ponder w hether in th e i n t e r a c t i o n of the we m u s t lead in g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t h e r e w a s a n y a g r e e m e n t — m u ch l e s s a n y c o n c e r t e d gram — t h a t a tte m p te d to re c o n c ile th e s a l in the f in a l r e a liz a tio n pro t r a d i t i o n a l and u n i v e r of th e n a t i o n a l m o tto — "U nity in D iv e rsity." T herefore, I n o u r n e x t c h a p t e r, we s h a l l s u r v e y t h e lea d in g pre-coup p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s f o r t h e p u rp o se of b o t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a t t e m p t t o s e e k r e c o n c i l i a t i o n among t h e f o r c e s o f d i v i s i o n a nd p o s s i b l e in te g ratio n. s h a l l endeavor to gain i n s i g h t i n to th e th reaten ed In so d o in g, ev en ts th a t i n i t i a l l y t o d e s t r o y I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n b u i l d i n g when t h e a b o r t i v e coup plunged th e a r c h i p e l a g o i n t o a p o t e n t i a l l y longed c i v i l c o n f l i c t. pro === [PDF page 54] === CHAPTER 3 THE INDONESIAN POLITICAL CONFIGURATION— THE LOGIC OF COMPETITIVE POLITICS (DIVISION) VERSUS AN OFFICIAL CONSENSUS (NASAKOM) I n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r, we s t r e s s e d d iv isio n s, th at found w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o, a f f i r m in g — 8t th e b a sic s e r v e a s a means o f le a s t in th e In d o n e s ia n c a s e — P y e 's c o n te n tio n t h a t a new s t a t e c a n h a v e t h e of n atio n h o o d. "form " b u t n o t t h e "su b stan ce" I n t h i s c h a p t e r — The I n d o n e s i a n P o l i t i c a l C o n f i g u r a t i o n — The L o g i c o f C o m p e t i t i v e P o l i t i c s (D ivision) V e r s u s a n O f f i c i a l C o n s e n s u s (NASAKOM)— we s h a l l d i s c u s s how such d i v i s i o n s co n ditioned Ind o n esian p o l i t i c s b e fo re th e coup a t t e m p t by exam ining t h e in te rac tio n of th e lead in g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o and t h e n by p r o b i n g t h e v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s em ployed b y t h e g o v e rn m e n t t o s t i m u l a t e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of a n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s to w ard g r e a t e r p o litic a l in te g ratio n. T h e n, we s h a l l i n i t i a l l y P y e 's h y p o th e s is — th a t th e t h e form o f "lo g ic t e s t w hether of c o m p e titiv e p o l i t i c s " " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t " — was a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o p o l i t i c a l developm ent t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l sy ste m b e fo re the coup. The i m p a c t o f t h e v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o on t h e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m c a n f i r s t 50 === [PDF page 55] === 51 v iew ed on t h e b r o a d e s t l e v e l o f t h e consensus. That i s, issu e of a p o l i t i c a l a consensus w hich i s: ... o f t e n t h o u g h t of a s a commonly u n d e r s t o o d a r e a of a g r e e m e n t. W ith in t h i s r e a s o n a b l y d e f i n e d a r e a t h e r e may b e many p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n. The p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m o p e r a t e s t o s e l e c t c o u r s e s o f a c tio n in th e f u l l confidence t h a t a l l s o l u t i o n s w ith in the p erm itted area w i l l prove a c c e p t a b l e t o th e populace. 1 In the e a r l y period of I n d o n e s ia n in d e p e n d e n c e could d i s c e r n a t l e a s t one " a r e a of ag reem en t" i n th e a p p e a l of th e developm ent of In d o n e s ia n n a t i o n a l i s m co lo n ialism. one a g a i n s t D utch T he s u p e r f i c i a l a p p e a r a n c e o f u n i t y, stem m ing from t h e r e c e n t l y co m p lete d s t r u g g l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e, hid t h e more fundam ental c au se s of d i s u n i t y w i t h i n t h e R e p u b l i c. At l e a s t t h e r e was a c o n s e n s u s b a s e d on a n e g a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n — a n ti-co lo n ialism. Y et, w ith th e g ra n t of in d e p e n d e n c e, t h e common p l a t form a g a i n s t t h e D u tc h, i n p a r t i c u l a r, and c o l o n i a l i s m, g e n e r a l, could n o t c o n t a i n t h e f o r c e s of d iv is io n w ith in th e archipelago, and t h e s e would m ake t h e m s e l v e s k n o w n a s t h e R e p u b l i c f a c e d t h e b u r d e n s and c h a l l e n g e s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e. In i t s i n i t i a l form, th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f b a s i c w i t h i n th e p o l i t i c a l aren a could be s e e n i n p a r t y system w here o v e r t h i r t y d iv isio n th e d ev elo p in g groups claim ed speak fo r ^Douglas E. A sh fo rd, " P a t t e r n s o f C o n s e n s u s i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s, " The A m e r i c a n B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n t i s t, V o l. IV, No. 8 ( A p r i l, l £ 6 l ). === [PDF page 56] === 52 v a r i o u s se g m en ts of t h e I n d o n e s i a n com m unity. the case of th e concept of n a tio n, p a r t y s y s t e m b r o k e down i n r e a l i t y. were e s s e n t i a l l y tw o-fold. th e Y et, as in i d e a l of an In d o n e sia n The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s In th e f i r s t place, th ese groups, a s a w hole, d id n o t sp eak f o r v a r i o u s segm ents of th e com m unity. That i s, in te re sts, f o r a s one a u t h o r i t y n o t e s: th e y did n o t a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t v a rio u s The g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f p a r t y a l i g n m e n t w a s.. c o n fu sed by r e g i o n a l f e e l i n g s, f a m ily l o y a l t i e s, b ap ak lsts ( l i t e r a l l y fa th e r-lik e ) te a c h e r-d isc ip le ana i e a < 3 e r - f o l l o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s.3 S econdly, th ese p a r t i e s, w hich d id n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t or a r tic u la te the i n te r e s ts engage in th e im portant fu n c tio n of Or i n o t h e r w o r d s, Indonesian of th e v a rio u s groups, could n o t " in te r e s t a g g re g atio n." th e y could n o t f u l f i l l " th e f u n c t i o n of c o n v e r t i n g demands i n t o g e n e r a l p o l i c y a l t e r n a t i v e s. " ^ Thus, these p arties t h a t w ere o n ly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e th e m ost narrow c o n s t i t u e n c i e s c o u ld n o t a c t as a g e n c ie s th r o u g h w hich t h e c o n f l i c t i n g I n t e r e s t s t h a t were w ith in th e n a ti o n co u ld be s u b je c t t o co m p ro m ise on t h e p a r t c F o r a c o n c i s e s u r v e y o f t h e p a r t i e s and t h e i r p l a t fo rm s p r i o r t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f Guided D em ocracy, s e e: H a r o l d S u n s t r o m, I n d o n e s i a, I t s P e o p l e an d P o l i t i c s ( T o k y o: H o k u s e i d d - P r e s s, i s ) i 5 7 j. ^ H e r b e r t F e i t h, The D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l G o v e r n ment i n I n d o n e s i a ( I t h a c a: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 5 2 ), p. 28. K e i t h 's book c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t s th e b e s t e f f o r t t o p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e an d d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s b e f o r e P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o ' s c a l l f o r "Guided D e m o c ra c y." The a u t h o r ' s m a t e r i a l i s d r a w n l a r g e l y f r o m I n d o n e s i a n s o u r c e m ateria l. ^Almond an d P o w e l l, C o m p a r a t i v e P o l i t i c s, m en tal A pproach, p. 9 8. A D evelop === [PDF page 57] === 53 of th e p o litic a l of an "o u tp u t" l e a d e r s h i p and b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t h e fo r m o f n a t i o n a l p o lic y t h a t could le a d t o program s t h a t c o u ld m eet t h e c h a l l e n g e of s t i m u l a t i n g p o l i t i c a l i n t e g ra tio n w ith in th e ru le th en, th e b asic th e p a ttern the v e r y same a u t h o r i t y t h a t gave to the The f o r m a l i z e d o f d i v i s i o n w ithin the a rc h ip e la g o. "the g en eral o f p a r t y a l i g n m e n t " noted t h a t a t l e a s t as co n trasted re a lity, o p e ra tio n th e n a tio n a l e le c tio n outw ard ly i t was d e e p l y a general p a r t i e s r e i n f o r c e d r a t h e r t h a n l e v e l e d down forces Y et, In d o n esian p o litic a l s y s t e m. A s appeared in v o lv ed i n t h e fo rm th e p a r t y sy ste m was o p e r a t i n g. o f t h e p a r t y sy ste m c o u ld be s e e n o f 1955* At t h a t t i m e, a t l e a s t t h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n m u l t i - p a r t y system in th e p o litic a l process. As he n o t e d: T h e t u r n o u t o f v o t e r s was e x t r e m e l y h i g h... m ore t h a n 39 m i l l i o n I n d o n e s ia n s went t o t h e p o l l s. Of a l l who h a d r e g i s t e r e d 8 7.6 p e r c e n t c a s t a v a l i d v o t e; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 1 *5^ p e r c e n t v o t e d... o n l y 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e g i s t e r e d v o te rs f a i l e d t o use the f r a n c h i s e.0 T h is broad perform ed p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the e l e c t o r i a l tw o f u n c t i o n s. In the f i r s t place, process i t ratio n alized t h e p a r t y s y s t e m b y e l i m i n a t i n g many o f t h e s p l i n t e r g r o u p s th erefo re p r o v i d i n g a n o u tw a rd ly c l e a r e r o u t l i n e o f th e m ajor p a rty a lig n m en ts. exam ine t h e We s h a l l d i s c u s s t h e s e a l i g n m e n t s when we in te rac tio n of the leading p o l i t i c a l fo rc e s of ^ P o r a t i g h t l y w r i t t e n exam ination o f th e v a rio u s f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l system, see I b i d., pp. 73-190. ^ F e i t h, The D e c l i n e of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Government i n In d o n esia, p. 429. === [PDF page 58] === 54 th e a rc h ip e la g o. B ut, p e r h a p s more s i g n i f i c a n t l y, of a g r e a t n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n hid p a r ty system — even i f i t g ro u p s— did the b asic the image f a c t th a t the w a s now l e s s b u r d e n e d b y s p l i n t e r not r e f l e c t a m eaningful consensus o th e r th a n a broad a p p e a l to n a tio n a lis m a n t i - c o l o n i a l program. th ro u g h th e developm ent o f an We s h a l l s e e how P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o a tte m p te d t o a s s e r t h i s p o s i t i o n of "Great L ead er of th e R e v o lu tio n " ^ by p la y in g o f f t h e s e com peting f o r c e s u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of d e v e lo p in g an In d o n e s ia n i d e n t i t y. The P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s: A Facade of U n ity U n t i l th e coup to o k p l a c e, t h e shadow-show of p a r t y p o l i t i c s hid th e r e a l i t y of d i v i s i o n th a t e x is te d w ith in the arch ip elag o. We s h a l l n o t e t h e t r u e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a s we c o n s i d e r how P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o u t i l i z e d a d iv id eand-conquer p o lic y in an attem p t to m ain tain h is p o s itio n under the r a tio n a le o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f Guided D e m o c ra c y. one m u st s t u d y t h e p a r t i e s, fo r in t h e ir d e clin e Y et, in th e period b e f o r e t h e a b o r t i v e c o u p, we c a n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r " t h e l o g i c o f c o m p e titiv e p o l i t i c s " m eets th e c o n d it i o n of th e In d o n e s ia n experien ce as a r e q u is ite f o r p o l i t i c a l developm ent. Out* s t r e s s w i l l b e on t h e m a j o r p a r t i e s t h a t r e m a i n e d a f t e r the '5 5 e l e c t i o n, f o r t h e y w i l l h e l p us i s o l a t e th e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s i n a n a t i o n m o v in g t o w a r d t h e i m p e n d i n g c risis. ^ T h i s was a t i t l e c om m only em p lo y ed by t h e P r e s i d e n t. === [PDF page 59] === 55 The S u p e r f i c i a l F r a m e o f R e f e r e n c e: The C o n c e p t o f NASAKOM B efore th e coup a tte m p t a t le a s t a s u p e r f ic ia l con s e n s u s on how t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w e r e t o o f f i c i a l l y d e cree d by t h e P r e s i d e n t. The m a j o r p a r t i e s w a rd ly accepted th is tiv e The o f f i c i a l a c c e p t a n c e, purposes. o f f i c i a l consensus fo r t h e i r a fram e i n w hich t h e c o n f l i c t s to tak e place. o p e r a t e was th en, own r e s p e c sim ply provided of I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s were One m u s t b e a r i n m in d t h a t t h i s c o n s e n s u s had th e r e a l i t y of d i v i s i o n. L i p s e r v i c e was p a id t o t h e of agreem ent, b u t l i t t l e by the e lse. p a rtie s out of n e c e s s ity, little to le ra tio n of an o f f i c i a l l y d e c l a r e d area o u t bearin g o fficial I t was e i t h e r a c c e p t e d as in th e case of th e n a t i o n a l i s t and m i n o r i t y C h r i s t i a n p a r t i e s, or by p a r t i a l c h o ic e, as i n th e c a s e of th e com m unists. P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o was t h e spokesm an f o r t h i s enforced c o n se n s u s to w hich he r e f e r r e d a s NASAKOM— a u n i t e d front of the N a tio n a lists the R e lig io u s P arkindo a n d P a r t a i K a t h o l l k ), and t h e C o m m u n i s t s ( P. K. I. ) — w h i c h w a s i d e a l l y supposed t o c r e a t e t h e g ran d d e s i g n o f m aking t h e P re s id e n t's endeavor— to e s t a b l i s h a n a tio n a l id e o lo g y — a rea lity. As P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o n o t e d: NASAKOM i s a p r o g r e a s l v e - n e c e s s i t y o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n. W h o e v e r i s o p p o s e d t o NASAKOM i s not p r o g r e s s iv e. W h o e v e r i s a g a i n s t NASAKOM, in re a lity c rip p le s the re v o lu tio n, d isb a la n c e s th e === [PDF page 60] === 56 R e v o l u t i o n I W h o ev e r i s anti-NASAKOM i s n o t f u l l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y, nay i s h i s t o r i c a l l y c o u n t e r - r e v o lu tio n ary. ° In th e co n tex t of th iB "unholy t r i n i t y, " th re e of the leading p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w hich, w h ile m a n if e s tin g t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e fo rm o f p a r t i e s, tied in w ith th re e t r a d i t i o n s c u l t u r e. A we c a n i s o l a t e w e re r e a l l y m ore d e e p l y of th e In d o n e sia n fo u rth fo rc e, w h ile n o t s ta te d f o r m u l a t i o n b u t alw ays a c t i v e i n "p o litica l the P r e s id e n t's In d o n esian p o l i t i c s, w ould a s s e r t i t s e l f i n a m o s t d i r e c t wa y w h e n t h e c o u p a t t e m p t took p l a c e. T hat, of c o u rs e, was t h e m i l i t a r y. The N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y: P roclaim ed Agent f o r the Concept of an I n d o n e s i a n N atio n In our ex am ination of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t t h e R e p u b l i c, t h e main d i s c u s s i o n w i l l p o s i t i o n of th e P.N.I. fo rc e s w ith in e v o lv e around (P a rta i N asion al In d o n e s ia ). th e T h e NA P re sid e n t Sukarno, A Y e ar o f L iv in g D a n g e r o u s ly (T ahun * V lv ere P e r l c o l e s e ) A ddress by t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c on i t t h August (D jakarta: D epartm ent o f I n f o r m a tio n, s e r i e s B and!b No. 1 0 03, n. d. ), p. 7« ^As d e f i n e d b y Almond a n d P o w e l l, " p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e " " c o n s i s t s of a t t i t u d e s, b e l i e f s, v a l u e s, and s k i l l s w h ic h are c u rr e n t in the e n t i r e p o p u la tio n, a s w e ll a s th o s e s p e c i a l p r o p e n s i t i e s and p a t t e r n s w h i c h m ay b e f o u n d i n s e p a r a t e p a r t s o f t h a t p o p u l a t i o n... We r e f e r t o t h o s e s p e c i a l p r o p e n s i t i e s lo cated in p a r t i c u l a r gro u p s a s s u b c u l t u r e s. Alm ond a n d P o w e ll, C om parative P o l i t i c s. A D e v e l o p m e n t a l A p p r o a c h, p. 2 3. In r e a l i t y, i t i s e x c e e d in g ly d i f f i c u l t t o accept; t h e t h r e e o f f i c i a l l y designated " s u b c u ltu r e s " i n t h e I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e, f o r e a c h Suku, i n e s s e n c e, was a s u b c u l t u r e. Y et, th e P r e s i d e n t 's c o n o e p t d id a t t e m p t t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t at l e a s t th re e basic o r i e n t a t i o n s tow ard I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s. === [PDF page 61] === 57 i n NASAKOM s t o o d e sse n tia lly for th is p arty, and t h e c o u r s e o f I n d o n e s i a n h i s t o r y would r e i n f o r c e t h e p u b l i c image t h a t t h e P. N. I. was t h e l e a d i n g v o i c e f o r I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m. The P. N. I. p r o u d l y and c o n s t a n t l y t r a c e d ment h a c k t o P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o. In itia lly i t s develop e stab lish ed J u n e *1, 1927> i t w a s a n o u t g r o w t h o f t h e B a n d u n g S t u d y C l u b w h ic h was le d b y t h e fu tu re P r e s id e n t i n h i s days as a s t u dent of th e te c h n ic a l I n s t i t u t e e a r l y d a t e, S u k a rn o 's s k i l l made t h e P. N. I. of th a t c ity. E ven a t t h i s in a c h ie v in g p o p u la r support " th e m ost p o w e rfu l n a t i o n a l i s t i n I n d o n e s i a. " 10 However, i t s raised on t h e p a r t o f t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n, a reactio n stro n g stand organization an d i n 1 9 2 9, w h e n S u k a r n o was a r r e s t e d, f o r independence t h e P. N. I. was o u t law ed. F ollo w in g th e Japanese o ccu p atio n, e m e r g e d an d d o g g e d l y a t t e m p t e d to present th e party re itse lf as th e l e a d i n g a d v o c a te o f an I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n b o t h because of i t s l o n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t m ovem ent and i t s c l o s e a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e P re sid e n t. Even l a t e r c o n t e n d e d t h a t h e was a b o v e p a r t i e s Guided D em o cracy, on when S u k a r n o u n d e r h i s c o n c e p t of t h e P. N. I. would s t i l l p r e s e n t its e l f as t h e p a r t y o f t h e P r e s i d e n t and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n most c l o s e l y Id en tifie d w ith h is s t a te id eo lo g y. to g ain p o l i t i c a l d iv id en d s The p a r t y t h e n s o u g h t f r o m t h e m a s s a p p e a l of t h e 10K a h i n, N a t i o n a l i s m and R e v o l u t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a, p p. === [PDF page 62] === 58 P r e s i d e n t by keeping a liv e th e t r a d i t i o n th a t i t h is rep resen ted v iew s. o rd er to rein fo rce th is co n sistan tly a d h e re d t o a program based a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y by u t i l i z i n g Thus, th e demanded by th e of th e on t h e p r o m o t i o n o f t h e sym bols o f n a t i o n a l i s m. o u s t e r of D u tch i n t e r e s t s I r i a n B arat d isp u te. th e L ater, over th e t e n s io n cre ate d on t h e e v e o f t h e c o u p p a r t y would b e e x c e e d i n g l y v o c a l i n P r e s i d e n t 's K onfrontasl M alay sia, the p a r t y w a s on t h e f o r e f r o n t o f t h o s e g r o u p s who th e a ttem p t, asso ciatio n, (C onfrontation) t h e n c o n s id e re d an o u tp o s t of B r i t i s h its support p o lic y w ith im p erialism i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a. 11 The m a n i p u l a t i o n of n a t i o n a l i s t i c seen in th e p latfo rm of the s e n t i m e n t s was a l s o p a r t y ' s v iew t o w a r d i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s. M a r h a e n i s m. 12 P.N.I. adhered Thus, th e t o t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n c e p t of W h i l e we s h a l l e l a b o r a t e on t h i s c o n c e p t more ^ F o r a n o f f i c i a l I n d o n e s i a n view on t h e M a l a y s i a n d i s p u te, se e: T h e M a l a y s i a I s s u e, B a c k g r o u n d and D o c u m e n t s (D jak arta: d e p a r t m e n t of f o r e i g n A f f a i r s, iR epublic o f in d o n e s l a, J u ly, 1965). ^ 2 T h e o r i g i n o f t h e word w i l l h e l p i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e p h ilo so p h y. As o n e a c c o u n t n o t e s: "The f i r s t who i n t r o d u c e d t h e w o r d; ' M a r h a e n ' was S u k a r n o a f t e r h e m et a p o o r p e a s a n t a t a v i l l a g e S o u t h of Bandung i n 1 9 2 7. The p e a s a n t c a l l e d h i m s e l f ' M a r h a e n * — a name t h a t i n d i c a t e s a g r o u p o f common p e o p l e l i v i n g i n v i l l a g e s t o whom t h e p e a s a n t s b e l o n g e d. w a s n o t t h e name w i t h w h i c h p e o p l e o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s, t h e n o b le s o r th e r i c h id e n tifie d them selves. T oday t h e u n d e r p r i v i le g e d i n o u r s o c i e t y c a l l them s e l v e s ' M a r h a e n ' and t h e f o l l o w e r s and t e a c h e r s ' m a r h a e n i s t s. ' T h e m a r h a e n s a r e t h e v i c t i m s o f c o l o n i a l i s m and f e u d a l i s m and t h e y w ere s y s t e m a t i c a l l y k e p t b a ck w a rd." J u t i. "What i s M a r h a e n i s m, " Ampera R e v ie w, N o. 1 ( A u g u s t 1 7, 1 9 6 4 ), P« 8. T h i s m a g a z in e was l a r g e l y an E n g l i s h lan g u ag e h o u s e o rgan f o r th e P.N.I. === [PDF page 63] === 59 fu lly upon t u r n i n g t o t h e r o l e of S u k a rn o, th at I ts I t can be observed p r e c e p t s were I n l i n e w ith t h e N a t i o n a l i s t s ’ d e s i r e t o p r o c l a i m t h e m s e l v e s spokesmen f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f an I n t e n s i v e n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h i n t h e R e p u b li c a s a means o f g ain in g su p p o rt. In I t s a d h eren ce t o a d o c tr in e based on a n a t i o n a l i s t i c e t h i c, we c a n s e e t h a t t h e P. N. I. ' s p r o g r a m r e f l e c t e d the n a t u r e o f I t s m em b ersh ip and a l e a d i n g w e a k n e s s I n I t s a t t e m p t to speak f o r th e In d o n esian p eo ple. That I s, as F e lth n o tes, t h e p a r t y w a s p r i m a r i l y u r b a n - b a s e d an d c o m p r i s e d l o w e r r u n g s o f I n d o n e s i a n a r i s t o c r a c y. ”1 ^ th erefo re, not a s u rp ris e th a t th e "the id e o lo g ic a l p o s itio n of the p a rty e s s e n t i a l l y had m e a n in g t o an u r b a n m e m b e r s h ip, f a m i l i a r w ith th e sym bols o f n a ti o n a l i s m t h a t were th ro u g h P y e 's " d i f f u s i o n o f w o r l d c u l t u r e, " and n o t t o t h e b a s i c tan l ( p e a s a n t ) w h o s e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l u n i v e r s e w a s much m o r e lim ited and p a r o c h i a l. could m o tiv a te Thus, w h ile th e N a t i o n a l i s t ' s a p p e a l the u n c r i t i c a l peasan try in th e stru g g le fo r I n d e p e n d e n c e, w i t h t h e coming of I n d e p e n d e n c e, th e gap b e tw een th e P. N. I. l e a d e r s h i p I n D j a k a r t a a nd t h e I n h a b i t a n t o f the desa (v illag e) In r u r a l Indonesia w idened. w ith I t s secu lar n a tio n a list The p a r t y program, c o u ld n o t e s t a b l i s h an ■ ^ F e l t h, The D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Governm ent I n In d o n e s ia, p. 142. F o r an ex am ination of th e r o l e of th e J a v a n e s e a r i s t o c r a c y I n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t movement, s e e: R obert v a n N i e l, The E m e r g e n c e o f t h e Modern I n d o n e s i a n E l i t e ( T h e H ague: Vsn Hoeve, 19b0. === [PDF page 64] === 60 organic l i n k, m u ch l e s s a g g re g a te the i n t e r e s t s of a ru ra l Indonesia w here th e c o n c e p t of n a t i o n d id n o t go beyond th e boundaries of th e r i c e of the be a p p r e c i a t e d field. The e x t e n t by n o tin g b r i e f l y abyss can th e P.N.I.'s d e f in itio n M arhaenism and c o n s i d e r i n g w h e t h e r t h e p e a s a n t c o u l d on a m ore b a s i c lev e l, understand th e rela te fo llo w in g passage: M arh aen ism i s n o t M arxism o r W e s t e r n s c i e n t i f i c so c ia lism p lan ted In In d o n e s ia, but th e sc ie n c e of th e p e o p l e 's n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e (kem arhaen) w hich h as b e en fo r m u la te d i n t h e t h i n k p r o c e s s o f M arx. Y et, t h i s d o e s n o t mean t o not attem p ted to e sta b lish In donesia. A ctu ally, did a t t e m p t as th e p rio r to th e support coup a t t e m p t, 1955 e l e c t i o n, of I t s c a n d i d a t e s. the its ev o lu tio n upon t h e iro n ic, P resid en t th a t i n th e d ay s b e fo re the p a r t y would a g a i n a t t e m p t t o r e a c h t h e not because speak f o r th e p eo p le, but ra th e r the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l of the P. K. I. who h a d in itia tiv e How ever, p o sitio n. p e a s a n try t h r o u g h m ass o r g a n i z a t i o n s, claim ed t o fo r such o rg a n iz a tio n p a r t y i n c r e a s i n g l y depended p articu larly had th e p arty s u p p o r t ended w i t h t h e the n e c e s s ity as a means o f m a i n t a i n i n g a lin k w ith th e m asses of r u r a l for e le c to rla l of G u i d e d D e m o c r a c y, declined the o rg an ize v i ll a g e - l e v e l o rg a n iz a tio n s m obilize p e a s a n ts i n once t h e n e e d im ply t h a t still in response to seized em ploying t h e sym bols of n a t i o n a l i s m ■ ^ Ju ti, Aropera R e v i e w, th e tow ard === [PDF page 65] === 61 I t s own e n d s. th erefo re, more t h a n o f p a s s i n g to note t h a t th e P. N. I., under th e lea d ersh ip Sastroam ld Jo j o, changed the c o lo rs of i t s th e w ater b u f f a l o, from b l a c k to re d. of A ll n atio n al The P. N. I. r e l y i n g on t h e P r e s i d e n t who i n c r e a s i n g l y stood m uch l e s s a g g r e g a t e, sym bol, t h e n, by t o t h e p a r t y s y s t e m and b y a p e i n g t h e c o m m u n i s t s, lo n g er claim t o sp e ak f o r, In terest o p p o sitio n c o u ld no th e in te re sts of an I n d o n e s i a n p e o p l e. There w e re, of c o u rs e, a t t e m p t e d c o u p who a d h e r e d alism. o th er p a r tie s b e fo re a p o lic y B ut, a s a g e n e r a l r u l e, the of in te n s iv e n a tio n th ey did not attem p t to re p re s e n t a broad segm ent o f a n I n d o n e s i a n s o c i e t y. P. I. R. (The G r e a t e r I n d o n e s i a n U n i o n ) d r e w i t s Thus, support the from t h o s e who c l a i m e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e h i g h e r Javanese a r i s t o c r a c y, and I. P. K. I. f o r Indonesian In d e p e n d e n c e ), close a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e Y et, reflected w hich drew i t s support from a arm y. one p a r t y d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e the r e a l i t i e s b u t was a v i c t i m (The L eague o f U p h o ld e r s of In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s of th e r e a l i t i e s on t h e (the In d o n esian S o c i a l i s t P arty ). The P. S. I. m i r r o r e d t h a t i t was e l i t e on one h a n d, o th er. T h i s was t h e th e r e a l i t i e s of th e c h a r a c te r of sense th a t m ade n o c l a i m S p e c ific a lly, f r a n k ly co n ten d ed 1948 and Indonesian p o l i t i c s in t h e be a m ass-b ased p a r t y. in n a tu r e. Founded led === [PDF page 66] === 62 S o e t a n S j a h r i r, 3^ th e s o c i a l i s t s concentrated up a h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e m e m b e r s h ip. on b u i l d i n g W hile s m a l l i n num ber, t h e p a r t y e n j o y e d a n i n f l u e n c e f a r p u t of p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s size. F o r i t s mem bers, by v i r t u e c ru c ia l a d m in istrativ e because of i t s trasted of t h e i r e d u c a tio n, p o s t s w i t h i n t h e governm ent. c a ll to ra tio n a l t h e p a r t y was b a n n ed a s o rien tatio n. s u p p o rt an in d e p e n d e n t f o r e i g n p o lic y, th at However, e c o n o m ic p l a n n i n g a s c o n to em otional n a tio n a lis m, b e in g to o W estern in i t s held T h u s, w h i l e i t its did p la tf o r m contended s u c h I s s u e s a s t h e I r i a n d i s p u t e w ere d r a w i n g away s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s t h a t were needed f o r econom ic and s o c i a l r e f o r m a t home. the p arty m irro red In i t s d o w n fall, a n o th e r p o rtio n of th e Indonesian r e a l i t y. sta n d in g in o p p o sitio n to the not presen tin g a t p arty, least p o licies That i s, still of t h e P r e s i d e n t and t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a s s - b a s e d th e P. S. I. could n o t m a in ta in i t s e l f a s a v o ice of reaso n in Indonesian p o l i t i c s. The l e s s o n was n o t l o s t th e rem ain in g p o l i t i c a l who would a t l e a s t p arties t h e im age o f s p e a k i n g f o r a n u n d i f f e r e n c i a t e d to broad-based a p p e a ls to n a ti o n a l sen tim en ts. present mass by r e s o r t i n g Y et, s h a l l n o t e, w i t h t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e coup a t t e m p t, a s we th e form er m em b e r s a n d a d h e r e n t s o f t h e P. S. I. would r e a s s e r t t h e i r p o s i t i o n a s t h e m i l i t a r y i n c r e a s i n g l y l o o k e d f o r t h o s e who ^ s o e t a n S J a h r l r w a s a f o r m e r Prime M i n i s t e r o f I n d o n e s i a. H i s a c c o u n t o f - h i s e x p e r i e n c e s I n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t m ovem ent p ro v id e s a p e rs o n a l re c o rd of In d o n e s ia 's s tru g g le f o r in d ep en dence. S e e h i s b o o k, Out o f E x i l e (New Y o r k: J o h n Da y and === [PDF page 67] === w e r e c a p a b l e o f p r o b l e m s o l v i n g and n o t m e r e l y m o b i l i z i n g th e m ass. The R e l i g i o u s P a r t i e s: The I m p a c t o f U n i t y and D i v e r s i t y As we h a v e o b s e r v e d, I n d o n e s i a n I s l a m p o s s e s s e s a s u p e r f i c i a l e x t e r i o r o f u n i t y t h a t b r e a k s down when o n e takes i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e A b a n g an a n d S a n trl trad itio n s. th e r e a lity Islam The a p p e a r a n c e o f o u t w a r d c o h e s i o n and of d i v i s i o n can be seen i n th e in f lu e n c e of In t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e R ep u b lic a s m an ifested The force in th e p a r t y system. ad h eren c e t o Is la m ic b e l i e f s indeeda c te d as a toward i n t e g r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e J a p a n e s e O c c u p a tio n and th e s tr u g g le f o r Independence th a t fo llo w e d. th at in d e p e n d e n c e was a c h i e v e d, t h e c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n t h e m o d ern ists Y et, and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s w o u ld come t o once thefo re i n t h e f a t e of t h e Masjumi p a r t y. The M a s j u m i, ( Mad.1111s S. j u r o M u s l l m l n I n d o n e s i a ) — C o u n c i l o f I n d o n e s i a n M uslim A s s o c i a t i o n s — was i n i t i a l l y e stab lish ed i n 19*13 w i t h t h e aim o f s e e k i n g p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l c o - o p e r a t i o n among t h e I s l a m i c c o m m u n i t y. As K e r s t e i n n o ted: I t t r i e d t o g r o u p a l l t h e f o r m e r Muslim o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s Mohammadyah, P a r t a i S a r e k a t I s l a m I n d o n e s i a and N a h a d a t u l U l a m a. I n t o t a l, i t g r o u p e d === [PDF page 68] === a r o u n d e l e v e n M u s li m r e l i g i o u s, s o c i a l and e d u c a t i o n a l g r o u p s an d was t h e r e f o r e q u i t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s. 1 ^ The p a r t y t h e r e f o r e a t t e m p t e d to aggregate th e I n te r e s ts o f a d i v e r s e I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n i t y I n t o one c o h e s i v e o r g a n i zatio n. How ever, w h i l e t h e d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e M asjumi could be obscured d u rin g th e s t r u g g l e f o r In d ep e n d en c e, th e o r g a n i z a t i o n was l i k e n e d "an e l e p h a n t w i t h b e r l - b e r l. The d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e p a r t y f i n a l l y emerged I n J u l y o f 1 9 5 2, when o n e o f t h e c o r p o r a t e u n i t s — N a h a d a t u l Ulama ( A s s o c i a t i o n o f I s l a m i c S c h o l a r s ), b o l t e d from t h e p a r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n and b e c a m e a s e p a r a t e p a r t y. The b r e a k, in p a rt, re fle c te d t h e two s t r a i n s i n I n d o n e s i a n I s l a m i c presented itse lf th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th o u g h t. The M a s j u m i as th e p a rty of Isla m ic m o d e rn ists in the S a n t r l t r a d i t i o n and a d h e r e d t o a p o lic y of developm ent p r e d ica te d on c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e W e s t. In c o n tr a s t, favored th e P r e s i d e n t 's c a l l f o r an in d ep en d en t p o lic y In f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s b e c a u s e t h e y a s s o c i a t e d such a p o lic y w ith th e p r e s e r v a t i o n of an In d o n e s ia n t r a d i t i o n. Thus, in th is in stan ce, com m unity was m a n i f e s t e d th e f a i l u r e th e b a sic d iv is io n w ith in the Islam ic in a d is tin c tly p o l i t i c a l realm by o f t h e a t t e m p t t o h a v e o n e g r o u p a g g r e g a t e and ■^Thom K e r s t e i n, The New E l i t e i n A s i a a n d A f r i c a. C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d y o f I n d o n e s i a a n d Ghana (New Y o r k: F r e d e r i c k A. r r a e g e r, 1 9 b 6 ], p. 1 4 4. H e r e a f t e r, c i t e d a s The New E l i t e i n A s i a and A f r i c a. 17I b l d. === [PDF page 69] === 65 speak f o r th e predom inant r e l i g i o n N ev erth eless, the b o th p a r t i e s did 1955 e l e c t i o n. 1® of v o tes a f t e r tem p o rarily, th e its su rp risin g ly stro n g to n o te th a t th is th e force was t h e fo u rth success, teach ers of tr a d itio n of the t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s the l a r g e s t number and t h e r e f o r e m a i n t a i n e d, a t l e a s t p o sitio n as a c ru c ia l th e coup a tte m p t, of th e Islam ic e x c e p t i o n a l l y w ell in The M asjum i g a i n e d of perhaps g r e a te r s ig n ific a n c e of th e R ep ublio. in the e le c tio n. p art, p o litic a l of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s i s im portant d em o n strated the s tr e n g th The a b i l i t y t h e m a s s on t h e b a s i s and a d h e r e n c e t o th e tra d itio n a l i n t e n s i t y of the re a c tio n ag ain st the c o m m u n ists w ould pay h e a v i l y f o r u n d e r e s t i m a t i n g the fo rc e of Islam a fte r i n d r a w i n g on su p p o rt.^ o r d e r o f t h e h a m l e t, m ay h e l p e x p l a i n t h e of th e desa to m o b ilize B ut, o u r s tu d y o f the r e a c t i o n f a c t t h a t N.U. f i n i s h e d for p o l i t i c a l force. th e coup a tte m p t. The in v i l l a g e I n d o n e s ia,2^ ^^For a d e t a i l e d e x a m in a tio n o f t h e 1955 e le c tio n, se e: H e r b e r t P e i t h, The I n d o n e s i a n E l e c t i o n o f 1955 ( I t h a c a: Modern In d o n esian P r o je c t, 1957). ■^^Por a n e x c e l l e n t e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f t r a d i t io n a l b e li e f s in In d on esian p o l i t i c s se e: M o c h t a r Naim, T h e N a h a d a t u l U l a m a P a r t y, An I n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n s o f i t s E l e c t o r l a l Success (M o n treal: M cG ill U n i v e r s i t y d e n te r f o r I s l a m i c S t u d i e s, u n p u b lis h e d M a ste r o f A r ts t h e s i s, i 960). M r. Naim, a n I s l a m i c s t u d e n t fro m S u m a t r a, m ak es e x c e l l e n t use of In d o n esian so u rce m a t e r i a l. wI t m u s t b e n o t e d, h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e P. K. I. a t t e m p t e d t o a v o id t h e im age o f b e i n g a n t i - r e l i g i o u s. Though, th e y w o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s i s s u e f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s. === [PDF page 70] === 66 The s p l i t b e t w e e n t h e M a sju m i and N. U., b y b r e a k i n g down a w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p in the Islam ic com m unity, helped the P re sid e n t e lim in a te y e t a n o th e r p a r ty u nder th e b a n n er of Guided D e m o c r a c y. F o r, by e n l i s i n g the support of N.U., S u k a r n o w a s a b l e t o a p p l y h i s d i v l d e - a n d - c o n q u e r p o l i c y and th u s e l i m i n a t e t h e M asjum i w h ic h he r e g a r d e d m oderate t o p a r t i c i p a t e as b ein g too In th e c o n tin u in g In d o n esian re v o lu tio n. Y et; one m ust em p h asize t h a t w h ile develop a p a r t y t h a t could I s l a m i c com m unity i n t h e th resh o ld f o r renew ed attem p t. For u nited p o l i t i c a l realm in te re sts failed, of th e a b asic th e coup Ju s t as the g e n e ra l s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e D utch c o m m u n i t y i n a p r o g r a m o f common a c t i o n, so w o u ld t h e c r y t h a t w ith a v e n g ea n ce. u n i t y would endeavor to tak e p lace a f t e r the Isla m ic pendence, aggregate th e th is the P. K. I. was a n t i - A l l a h r e u n i t e As i n t h e c a s e o f t h e the c a l l f o r u n ity a g a in st the stru g g le fo r in d e w hich i n c r u d e s t f o r m t o o k on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a H o l y W a r, d i d th at the Islam ic e s s e n tia lly n eg ativ e th at u n ific a tio n cen tered We m u s t b e a r t h i s i n m ind, go b e y o n d a n e g a t i v e c o n stru ctiv e p o s itiv e today. in d ic ate around program s--nam ely a n ti - c o l o n i a l i s m program t o f i t a nd f o r one m u st r a is e th e q u e s tio n as to w hether th e Isla m ic a ro h lp e la g o could its f o r c e s had a c a p a c i t y t o w ork t o g e t h e r. H o w e v e r, we m u s t n o t e anti-com m unism. them f o r c e s w ith in the program and th e need offer a of th e R ep ublic === [PDF page 71] === The I s l a m i c represent p o litic a l p arties, of c o u rs e, did n o t th e t o t a l r e l i g i o u s lan d sca p e of th e a r c h i p e l a g o. F o r exam ple, t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i ty, i n i t s cap acity as a p e rm a n e n t m i n o r i t y, employed p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a m e a n s o f p r o t e c t i n g I t s e l f from b e i n g s u b m e r g e d b y t h e m ajo rity. T he t w o l e a d i n g m i n o r i t y p a r t i e s on t h e e v e o f t h e c o u p a t t e m p t w e r e P a r k i n d o (The I n d o n e s i a n C h r i s t i a n P arty) an d P a r t a i K a t h o l i k of In d o n e s ia ). (The C a t h o l i c P a rty of th e R epublic B o t h t h e s e p a r t i e s s h a r e d common p r o b l e m s and common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. The p r i m e c o n c e r n o f b o t h t h e s e p a r t i e s w a s t h e i r co n stan t fe a r th a t t h e developm ent of m i l i t a n t im pinge upon t h e i r p o s i t i o n and r i g h t s a s s p o k e s m e n f o r t h e m in o rity r e l i g i o n s w ith in Indonesia. tim e of th e coup a tte m p t, la rg e ly predicated to the sectio n s t h e view t h a t T herefore, th e ir support of the up t o t h e P r e s i d e n t was on t h e f a c t t h a t h e s t r o n g l y s u b s c r i b e d of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 19^5 w h ich a f f ir m e d t h e s t a t e w o u ld n o t g r a n t s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e t o any s i n g l e r e l i g i o n. document r e a d Is la m could The p e r t i n e n t p r o v i s i o n s of the as fo llo w s: S e c tio n 1: The s t a t e s h a l l b e b a s e d i n God o f a l l m a n k i n d. S ectio n 2: The s t a t e s h a l l g u a r a n t e e t h e f r e e d o m o f p e o p l e t o p r o f e s s and e x e r c i s e t h e i r own r e l i g i o n.21 21 The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n, 195b), p. 3. on t h e b e l i e f of Indonesia (D jakarta === [PDF page 72] === 68 P r e s id e n t Sukarno d e c la re d th e o u tlo o k o f no p r e f e r ence In th e f o llo w in g p a s s a g e: Not o n l y s h o u l d t h e p e o p l e o f I n d o n e s i a h a v e a b e l i e f I n God, b u t e v e r y I n d o n e s i a n s h o u l d h a v e a b e l i e f I n h i s own p a r t i c u l a r G o d. The C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d w o r s h i p God a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s C h r i s t, Moslems a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e P r o p h e t Mohammad, B u d d l s t s s h o u l d d i s c h a r g e t h e i r b e l i e f s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own b o o k. B u t, l e t a l l o f u s h a v e a b e l i e f I n God. The I n d o n e s i a n s t a t e s h a l l be a s t a t e where ev ery p e r s o n c a n w o r s h i p God i n f r e e d o m.22 T h i s b e l i e f i n God, w h i c h was i n c o r p o r a t e d as a g u ild in g p r i n c i p le in th e s t a t e ideology, appealed t o t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t i e s not o n ly because i t offered o fficial r e c o g n i t i o n of r e l i g i o n b u t a f f i r m e d a s w e l l t h e v ie w t h a t no p r i v i l e g e s would b e b e s t o w e d on any s i n g l e r e l i g i o n. C onsequently, s i n c e th e P r e s id e n t upheld t h e o p in io n t h a t t h e I s l a m i c c o m m u n i ty was n o t t o b e g i v e n s p e c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n by t h e s t a t e b e c a u s e o f i t s predom inant p o s i t i o n, i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e why t h e m i n o r i t y p a r t i e s supported S u k a r n o, f o r he s t o o d a s a p r o t e c t o r o f t h e i r r i g h t s. Leimena, a lo n g tim e spokesm an f o r P a r k i n d o, would s u p p o r t the s t a te p h ilo so p h y i n t h e fo llo w in g m anner: I n my o p i n i o n, P a n t j a s i l a a s a s t a t e p h i l o s o p h y m u s t be g iv e n our b e s t a t t e n t i o n, p a r t i c u l a r l y so a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e when t h e I n d o n e s i a n s t a t e an d t h e I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n a re i n th e s t a t e of b u i l d i n g one n a t i o n and one s t a t e... we C h r i s t i a n s c a n a c c e p t P a n j a s l l a P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, The B i r t h o f P a n j a s l l a ( L a h i r n j a P a n j a s l l a ), An O u t l i n e o f t h e f l l v e I P r l n c l p l e s o f t h e I n d o nesian S ta te (D jakarta; M in is tr y of I n f o r m a t io n, f te p u b lic of I n d o n e s i a, n. d. j, p. 2 8. H e r e a f t e r, c i t e d a s The B i r t h o f P an.laslla. === [PDF page 73] === 69 a s a s t a t e p h i l o s o p h y, p r o v i d e d we know and a r e a w a r e o f i t s l i m i t s an d p r o v i d e d we f i l l e a c h S l l a ( p r i n c i p l e ) w ith the C h r is tia n s p i r i t. 2 3 •Thus, t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t i e s w o u l d f a v o r t h e P r e s i d e n t b e c a u s e he s t o o d a s a d e f e n d e r a g a i n s t t h e w h i c h was a s d a n g e r o u s t o t h i s "Red T e r r o r. " However, " G r e e n T e r r o r " 2 ** perm anent m in o r i t y as th e in th e C h r i s t ia n com m unities' w i l l i n g ness to support th e p o lic ie s of S ukarno, th e y helped t o e ncourage th e r e s u r g e n c e of t h e P. K. I. w hich produced an a l t e r n a t i v e t h r e a t t o th e f e a r of Isla m ic d o m in a tio n. again the P re sid e n t e f f e c t i v e l y u t il i z e d Thus, the d iv id e-an d - c o n q u e r p o l i c y b y p l a y i n g on t h e a p p r e h e n s i o n s o f t h e m i n o r i t y t o the m a j o r i t y. Y et, a s K e rs te in n o te s, fluence d e s p ite t h e s e two p a r t i e s had i n th e f a c t t h a t t h e y were s m a ll f o r v i r t u a l l y t h e same r e a s o n a s t h e P. S. I. had p o w e r o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s m embers. T h e i r i n f l u e n c e h a s b e e n much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n u m b er o f C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d make p l a u s i b l e, a s i n b o t h g r o u p s we f i n d a g r e a t n u m b e r o f h i g h l y - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e and o u t s t a n d i n g l e a d e r s s u c h a s D r. L e i m e n a and M r. T am b u nan f o r P a r k i n d o and D r. J. K a s i m e f o r P artai K a to lik.25 is iro n ic to note th a t th ese p a r t i e s, because 2 ^A bdulgani, P a n j a s l l a, nesian R e v o lu tio n, p. 2b. The P r i m e Mover o f t h e I n d o 2 **The t e r m " G r e e n T e r r o r " w a s b a s e d t h e p a r t y f l a g o f. N. U, was g r e e n. 2 5 K e r s t e i n, The New E l i t e on t h e f a c t t h a t i n A sia and A f r i c a, === [PDF page 74] === 70 t h e i r m i n o r i t y s t a t u s and s m a l l num ber, enjoyed a c o h e s io n th at th e o th er p a rtie s lack ed. ag g reg ate th e o f a g iv e n group in th e In d o n e s ia n p o litica l sy stem. in te rest But t h i s w hich, by n e c e s s i t y, co u ld I n a sense th e n, th e y did group rep resen ted a m in o rity n o t c l a i m to speak f o r a broad segm ent of I n d o n e s ia n s o c i e t y. support as in a lso of th e P r e s id e n t's th e case t o b e a r i n mind t h a t t h e p r o g r a m b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i ty, o f a n a p p e a l t o a n t i - c o l o n i a l s e n t i m e n t s, was p rim a rily based a p p ea l. in stru ctiv e on a n e g a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a c o n s t r u c t i v e The m i n o r i t y p a r t i e s w e re l a r g e l y fo rc e d t o a c t out of f e a r in ste a d o f c o n v i c t i o n f o r t h e f u t u r e developm ent of th e arch ip elag o. sh ip o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y may y e t a g a i n p l a y a n i m p o r tan t ru le in the Y et, by v i r tu e post-co u p o f t h e i r s k i l l s, £ h e member p eriod. The Com m unist P a r t y — A F o r c e f o r I n t e g r a t i o n th a t C reated D iv isio n The a c t i v i t i e s iro n y. For, attem p ted did the z atio n s of th e i n m an y w a y s, to ag g reg ate th e P. K. I. a r e marked b y a b a s i c th is p a r t y more e f f e c t i v e l y in te rests o th e r p a r t i e s by b u i ld i n g th a t tran scen d ed th e c a p i t o l. th e Y et, w h ile th e of the p e a s a n try than u p a w id e v a r i e t y p o litics of o rg a n i of th e e l i t e w i t h i n p a r t y did e s t a b l i s h a l i n k w ith t h e m a s s a n d w a s m o r e h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d and d i s c i p l i n e d th e m ajor n a t i o n a l i s t s or relig io u s p arties, than t h e t h r u s t of === [PDF page 75] === 71 Its o r g a n iz a tio n did n o t encourage th e I n t e g r a ti o n a n I n d o n e s i a n com m unity I n t h e would b r i n g t h e s p e c t r e sense th a t the p a r ty 's actio n s of c i v i l war t o th e a rc h ip e la g o. The d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e arch ip elag o is traced th e product of a long e v o lu tio n t h a t can be back to the c o lo n ia l p e rio d. S o u th e a s t A sian p a r t i e s, its As I n t h e c a s e o f o t h e r g e n e s i s c a n b e found i n E u r o p e t h e r e b y a f f i r m i n g P y e ' s view t h a t t h e c u ltu re" " d i f f u s i o n o f w orld fu n d am en tal i n u n d e rs ta n d in g th e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e new s t a t e s. rad ical so c ia lis t, th e E ast In d ie s, T h u s, a s e a r l y a s 1913» M r. H. J. M. P. S n e e v l i e t, who l i v e d d irec te d h i s a t t e n t i o n to d evelo ping a p ro gram t h a t would e n d, w h a t he r e g a r d e d to be, the c o lo n ia l o p p re s s io n of th e m other c o u n tr y. I n 19 1^* w i t h h i s c o l l e a g u e s J. A. B e n s t e d e r, H. W. _ D e h k e r and P. B e r g s m a n, S n e e v l i e t ' s i d e a l s were t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f — The S o c i a l D em ocratic A s s o c ia tio n of th e I n d i e s ( I. S. D. V. ) — w hich b ro u g h t th e r a d ic a l t r a d i t i o n the arch ip elag o. T he l e a d e r s o f t h e W est t o o f t h i s new p a r t y i m m e d i a t e l y s o u g h t t o en ter c o lo n ia l p o litic s movement i n s t e a d based p arties th r o u g h t h e em erging n a t i o n a l i s t of c o o p eratin g w ith th e in th e In d ie s. ThuB, lo y a l E uropeanfrom t h e s t a r t, they w ere com m itted t o w o rk in g w i t h i n t h e in d ig e n o u s a s p i r a t i o n s for i n d e p e n d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n s e e k i n g p o l i t i c a l power i n t h e === [PDF page 76] === 72 co n tex t of th e co lo n ial a d m in is tr a tio n. C onsequently, t h i s Infant 26 o r g a n iz a tio n attem p ted in filtra te and t a k e c o n t r o l o f S a r e k a t I s l a m a s a m e a n s o f asse rtin g its th is p u rsu it, lead ersh ip failed of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t movem ent. f o r such Isla m ic m o d e rn ists as A u gu s S a l i m d i d n o t w a n t t o s e e t h e r i s i n g fo rce of Indo n e s i a n I s l a m become a n a d j u n c t t o, w h a t w a s r e g a r d e d an a l i e n ideology. As a r e s u l t, to be, i n S e p te m b e r o f 1921 t h e c o m m u n i s t mem bers of S. I. r e s i g n e d en m ass and form ed a r i v a l o r g a n i z a t i o n —S a r e k a t R a j a t s. T h is s p l i t w ith th e Isla m ic p o l i t i c a l forces served m unist t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e 0om- P a r t y l e a d e r s h i p was m oving to w a rd a h a r d e r l i n e — o ne t h a t p r e c l u d e d c o o p e r a t i o n on t h e b a s i s of a u n ited fro n t. I t was a t t h i s Juncture, th a t the lead ersh ip y o u n g c o m m u n i s t p a r t y was d r a w n i n t o a c o n f l i c t of th e t h a t was p l a g u i n g c o m m u n i s t m ov em en ts t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d — t h e ° I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e D u t c h r a d i c a l s w e r e e x p e l l e d f r o m t h e a r c h i p e l a g o b y t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y and t h a t " i n d i g e n o u s l e a d e r s h i p would t a k e i t s p l a c e. In a d d itio n, t h e i m p a c t o f t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n c o u l d b e s e e n w hen t h e I. S. D. V. w a s r e n a m e d, t h e I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n i s t P a r t y on May 2 3 i 1 9 2 0. F o r an e x c e l l e n t t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of t h e F. K. I. s e e A rno ld C. B r a c k m a n, I n d o n e s i a n Communism— A H i s t o r y (New Y o r k: F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r, 1 9 6 3 ). ( J h a p te r 1, “tfh'e Road t o S e m a r a n g, 11 i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l i n t r a c i n g t h e e a r l y developm ent of t h e P a r t y. F o r t h o s e who w o u l d l i k e a v e r y d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e com m u n i s t p a r t y, t h e f o l l o w i n g b o o k may p r o v e u s e f u l. R uth T. McVey, The R i s e o f I n d o n e s i a n Communism ( I t h a c a: C o rn ell U n i v e r s i t y? r e s s, 19& 5). The I n t e n s e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n t h i s work c a n b e s e e n i n t h e f a c t t h a t 510 p a g e s o n l y c o v e r t h e p a r t y from i t s i n c e p t i o n t o t h e f i r s t comm unist a t t e m p t t o s e i z e pow er. I t i s d e c i d e d l y a w o r k f o r t h e s t u d e n t o f com m u n i s t movements i n A s i a. === [PDF page 77] === 73 S t a l i n - T r o t s k y b a t t l e. 2 *^ The d i v i s i o n s i n Moscow w o u l d b e m a n i f e s t e d by a n a b o r t i v e a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t n e s i a n c o m m u n i s t s t o s e i z e po w e r f r o m t h e t r a t i o n in 1926. in te restin g of the p a rty 's first v i o le n t m ethods. applied 1965* b u t of th e attem pt to o b ta in p o l i t i c a l The p a s s a g e b e l o w c o u l d t o t h e e v e n t s t h a t would Indo c o lo n ia l ad m in is The a c t o r s w o u ld c h a n g e i n to n ote the fo llow ing a cc o u n t of the lau n ch in g power th ro u g h alm o st be read take p lace alm o st fo u r decades l a t e r. On November 13* 1926 a t 1 2: 3 0 a. m. 2 0 0 a r m e d men s e i z e d t h e t e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h b u i l d i n g i n B a t a v i a and s e v e r e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d. The c a p i t o l o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s E a s t I n d i e s w a s i s o l a t e d from t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d. B u t a t d a w n, t h e D u t c h arm y e a s i l y r e t o o k i t. The sab o tag e c o in c id e d w ith m inor d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e suburbs. S i m i l a r e v e n t s o ccu rred i n W est J a v a ( t h e P r i a n g a n ) and C e n t r a l and E a s t J a v a ( S o l o, B a n j u m a s, P e k a l o n g o n, Kedu, K e d i r i ) As we s h a l l s e e, e v e n t h e sam e g e o g r a p h i c would be c i t e d i n contem porary d i s p a t c h e s lo ca tio n s com ing from a n i n d e p e n d e n t I n d o n e s i a s o many y e a r s l a t e r. 2 ^ B rac k m a n i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s p l i t b y d i s c u s s i n g t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n A l i m i n, who f a v o r e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y u p h e a v a l a s p r e a c h e d b y T r o t s k y, a n d T a n M a l a k a, w ho a d h e r e d to S t a l i n 's d i c t a t e th a t the r e v o l u t io n m ust w a it u n t i l c o n s o lid a tio n took place w ith in th e S o v ie t U nion. I t Is in stru c t i v e t o n o t e t h a t B ra ck raa n c o n t e n d s t h a t i t i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r S t a l i n s u p p o r t e d Tan M a l a k a. F o r, I t has been su g gested t h a t "Alim in inform ed S t a l i n... t h a t Tan M alaka h a r b o r e d T r o t s k y i t e s y m p a t h i e s. " Brackm an, I n d o n e s i a n Com munism--A H isto ry, p. 16. Such f e a r s were j u s t i f i e d b y l a t e r e v e n t s, when M a lak a b e c a m e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a n a t i o n a l i s t communist p a r t y. 28I b i d., pp. 18-19. === [PDF page 78] === The a b o r t i v e u p r i s i n g was a c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e. p a r t y w a s p o o r l y arm e d and o r g a n i z e d. Thus, an I n d o n e s i a n r e s o l u t i o n rem ained a d rea m. The th e v i s i o n of As a r e s u l t, the s u r v i v o r s of t h e coup went underground a s th e n a t i o n a l i s t m o vem en t t o o k t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s t a g e i n t h e s t r u g g l e independence. D uring th e condemn t h e r i s e o f F ascism, lo s t the i n i t i a t i v e o u tset, but the t h e P. K. I. would p a r t y had t e m p o r a r i l y as a lead in g fo rce in Indonesian p o litic s. However, w i t h t h e In d o n esia, ^ O ' s an d p ro c la m a tio n of an ind ep en d en t th e P. K. I. reem erged i n O ctober of 1945. Prom t h e i t s m e m b e r s a g a i n s o u g h t t o be c o m e s p o k e s m e n f o r a n I n d o n e s i a n r e v o l u t i o n and o u t w a r d l y s u b m e r g e d t h e i r gram t o j o i n a u n i t e d forces. waged, for B ut, f r o n t a g a i n s t t h e r e t u r n i n g D utch e v e n a s t h e s t r u g g l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e was b e in g th e uneasy tru c e w ith th e n a t i o n a l i s t As i n t h e own p r o 1926 a f f a i r, R e p u b l i c would fo rc e s ended. e v e n ts o u ts id e of th e b o r d e r s of the l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e com m unist p a r t y. 2 ^ 2 9 The s e c o n d u p r i s i n g l a r g e l y ste mmed f r o m t h e s p e e c h b y A n d r e i Z h d a n o v a t t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e C o m in f o r m i n 1 9 4 7. At t h a t t i m e, i t was d e c i d e d t h a t t h e w a r ti m e p e r i o d o f c o o p e r a t i o n w a s o v e r, and r e n e w e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e i n t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s s i n c e com m unist p r o g r e s s i n W e s t e r n E u ro p e was l a r g e l y c h e c k e d t h r o u g h United S t a t e s p ro g ra m s o f b r o a d econom ic a i d. As a r e s u l t o f t h i s t o n e f o r renew ed b e l l i g e r e n c e, comm unist r e n e w a l of c o n f l i c t s t o o k p l a c e t h r o u g h o u t S o u t h e a s t A s i a. F o r a n e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f th e com m unist p a r t y i n I n d o n e s i a, se e J e a n n e M i n t z, " M a r x is m i n I n d o n e s i a, 1 o n e o f a s e r i e s o f c h a p t e r s I n F r a n k N. T r a g e r ( e d. ), M a r x i s m I n S o u t h e a s t A s i a. A Study of F o u r C o u n trie s ( S ta n f o r d: S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1959;. b r. T r a g e r ’ s c h a p t e r, "The I m p a c t o f M a r x i s m, " i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n d i s c u s s i n g com m unist movements i n S outheast A s ia. === [PDF page 79] === 75 w ith in Upon t h e r e n e w a l o f a c i v i l w a r a t M a n d iu n i n 19^8> a n atio n t h a t was s t i l l fa c in g a c h a lle n g e of th e of c o lo n ia l ru le, a w hole rein tro d ac tio n sale condem nation of Sukarno. him w e r e p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o p erated led w ith th e was w i l l i n g m aste r. issued The c h a r g e s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t o n t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t he had c o J a p a n e s e and t h a t t h e y o u n g g o v e r n m e n t h e s e e k a c o m p r o m is e w i t h t h e e x - c o l o n i a l T h e i s s u e w a s J o i n e d and t h e b a t t l e waged In c o n tra st force the P.K.I. overestim ated the o f I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m, now t h e y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the same f o r c e w hen i t stru g g le 1 9 2 6 when t h e P. K. I. was d i r e c t e d fo r in d ep en d en ce. a g a i n s t th e D utch in the C onsequently, and r e l i g i o u s forces M in is te r H atta a n d c o n d e m n e d t h e P. K. I. a s a p a r t y t h a t was b e tra y in g ra llie d the n a t i o n a l i s t th e R ep u b lic a r o u n d t h e P r e s i d e n t and P r i m e a p o i n t o f h i s t o r y when I n d e p e n d e n c e was b e c o m in g a r e a l i t y. The s e c o n d c o m m u n i s t a t t e m p t a t a seizu re as the d iv erse groups, to g e th e r w ith o f power f a i l e d th e co o p eratio n of th e m ilita r y, d e f e a t e d th em d e c i s i v e l y i n t h e name o f a n I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n. W ith t h e i r d e f e a t an o th er n a d ir in Y et, on t h e p arty had a r i s e n its i n 19^8* t h e P. K. I. a g a i n a r r i v e d a t e x i s t e n c e and was f o r c e d t o g o u n d e r g r o u n d. eve of th e a b o r t i v e coup o f 1965, t h e communist f r o m t h e a s h e s and was on t h e t h r e s h o l d 3 ° F o r a n e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e M a n d iu n r e v o l t,. see: K a h i n ' s a c c o u n t i n N a t i o n a l i s m and R e v o l u t i o n i n I n d o n e sia. pp. 262-303. === [PDF page 80] === 76 o b t a i n i n g power th r o u g h t h e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s. Indeed, the B a r t y was s o s t r o n g t h a t i t would b e d i f f i c u l t to d is c e r n w hether th e P re s id e n t c o n tro lle d p o l ic y o f d iv id e - a n d - c o n q u e r o r was, In e f f e c t, p u la te d by i t. defeated M oreover, th e P.K.I. b e in g m ani th e v ery m i l i t a r y t h a t had e f f e c t i v e l y in th e f ie ld d iv isio n s w ith in i t s th ro u g h h is i n 19^ 8, was c o n f r o n t e d own m e m b e r s h i p and a p p e a r e d t o b e s t a n d i n g by h e l p l e s s l y a s t h e com m unists s o u g h t t o e x e r c i s e c o n tro l over th e m ilita r y e sta b lish m e n t. onewewe t o s u g g e s t t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e r e s u r g e n c e of the P. K. I., t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s w o u ld p r o v e h e l p f u l? We h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e o th er p o litic a l p a r t i e s w ere l a r g e l y b a sed upon t h e th e f a c t i o n s w ere v ic ti m iz e d Indonesian s o c ie ty. of th e P. N. I. t h a t w ith, by th e fragm ented r e a l i t i e s the p a tties failed th e mass w hich th e y cla im e d h ad n o t e s t a b l i s h e d th e m ilita r y to rep resen t. We s h a l l r e t u r n of th e e l i t e in Indo ( 3 ) We s h a l l s u g g e s t i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n th a t th e s p l i t s a r c h i p e l a g o would a lin k t o aggregate th e I n t e r e s t s i s s u e w h e n we s t u d y t h e r o l e nesian p o l i t i c s. ( 2 ) We h a v e s e e n t h r o u g h a n e x a m i n a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e, to th is fa c t th at t h a t were s o p r e v a l e n t i n t h e l e s s e n th e a rm y 's a b i l i t y u n ify in g fo rc e in Indonesian p o l i t i c s. se e where t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s to a c t as a (5) F i n a l l y, c o n c e p t o f NASAKOM p l a y e d we s h a l l in to the only th e s e f a c t o r s su p p o rte d the hands of th e P.K.I. Y et, to propose th a t === [PDF page 81] === 77 g r o w t h of th e c o m m u n ists would h e s h o r t - s i g h t e d. th e ex ternal f a c to rs as rep re se n te d the by th e d i v is io n s w ith in Indonesian p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a ti o n, i n w hich the com m unist c o u ld F o r, w hile furnished an atm o sph ere pose as an i n t e g r a t i v e does n o t e x p lain th e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s t h a t enabled t o t a k e advantage of th e d i v i s i o n s in i t s force, the p a rty quest fo r p o litic a l pow er. The R e s u r g e n c e f r o m M a n d i u n C onfronted w i t h a d e c i s i v e d e f d a t a t M andiun, t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Com m unist P a r t y would f a l l in to th e new a n d c a p a b l e h a n d s o f s u c h men a s D l p a N u s a n t a r a Aid i t and h i s c o l l e a g u e s N j o t o and Lukman. m ined t o b u i l d a s t r o n g m a s s - b a s e d co uld survive th e h o s t i l e T h e s e men w e r e d e t e r p arty th a t, on i t s f o rc e s t h a t surrounded own, As a l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t y on t h e p a r t y n o t e d: ... the P. K. I. l e a d e r s s e t t h e P a r ty th e t a s k o f u n i t i n g t h e m a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e P a r t y ' s own m a s s o rg an izatio n s. T h is was t h e l o n g - t e r m t s s k, b u t t h e l e a d e r s had ack n o w led g ed t h e p r o t r a c t e d n a t u r e of the r e v o l u t io n. The p e r i o d o f f u t i l e a p p e a l s f o r n a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t had e n d e d. The P. K. I. would b u i l d i t s own s u p p o r t w i t h w h i c h t o f o r c e or b a r g a i n e n t r y i n t o t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t.3 1 ^ D o n a l d H i n d l e y, The C o m m u n i s t P a g t y o f I n d o n e s i a 1951-1963 (B e rk e le y: The U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s, 1 9 o 4 ), p. 5 6. T he a u t h o r e n g a g e d i n f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n I n d o n e s i a. His v e r y c o h e s i v e w ork d raw s h e a v i l y upon p a r t y r e c o r d s and d o c u m e n t s. I n a d d i t i o n, he o f f e r s a c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e P. K. I. ‘s i d e o l o g y a n d p r o g r a m. H Indley, t h e r e f o r e, p r o v i d e s one o f t h e b e s t a c c o u n t s o f t h e co m m u n ist p a r t y a s i t a g a i n became a l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e i n t h e archipelago. === [PDF page 82] === 78 In seeking to ad h ere t o t h i s now i n i t i a t e a flex ib le s e rie s p o lic y, of t a c t i c s the p a r t y would t h a t w ould b e i n keeping w ith th e c o n d itio n s w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o. would n o m i n a l l y f o l l o w t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c a l l united fro n t. However, i n l i n e w i t h i t s stra te g y would not re ly f o r p a s t e v e n t s had I n d i c a t e d th at t h e m em bers of t h e c o a l i t i o n, u s in g t h e f o r c e, o f n a t i o n a l i s m could d e s t r o y th e P a r t y. to e s ta b lis h i t s Thus, the P a r ty 's f o r a NASAKOM broad of a c h i e v i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l p o w e r, th is fro n t, Thus, as a cry, p r i m a r y g o a l was own p o w e r b a s e t h a t w o u l d n o t b e d e p e n d e n t on and c o u l d w i t h s t a n d, groups t h a t surrounded i t. necessary, Thus, th e p o ten tially th e fo llo w in g h o stile t a s k s w ere p u r s u e d *. In the f i r s t p la c e, m em bership d r i v e s t o b u i l d the p a rty i n i t i a t e d up i t s su p p o rt. and t r a i n i n g d r i v e s n o t o n l y a p p l i e d but to i t s r e la te d m ass-based ■30 the a series These r e c ru itm e n t P arty p roper, o rg a n iz a tio n s.^ 2 C o n seq u en tly, J The P. K. I., p r i o r t o t h e c o u p a t t e m p t, h a d a m e m b e r s h i p o f a b o u t two m i l l i o n. I n a d d i t i o n, about 1 2.5 m i l l i o n I n d o n e s ia n s belonged t o c o m m u n is t- s p o n s o r e d m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s. N a t u r a l l y, th e e x t e n t of com m ittm ent t o t h e P. K. I. v a r i e d from secto r to se c to r. One c a n h a r d l y c o m p a r e t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e p e a s a n t who a t t e n d e d t h e m o n t h l y m a s s - r a l l y o f t h e B. T. I. (B a r i s a n T a n l I n d o n e s i a ) — I n d o n e s i a n P e a s a n t ' s O r g a n i z a t i o n — w i t h t h a t o f a member o f t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e w h o w o r k e d long h o u rs a t p a r ty h e a d q u a r t e r s. We m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e c a u t i o u s i n a p p l y i n g t h e n u m b e r s ga me t o t h e P. K. I. The c o u p i t B e l f would i n d i c a t e t h a t I s r g e m e m b e r s h i p r o l l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t m a s s s u p p o r t w o u l d d e v e l o p i n t h e P. K. I. ' s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e arm y. P o r a l i s t i n g o f t h e m ass o r g a n i z a t i o n s, s e e H i n d l e y ' s " A b b r e v i a t i o n a n d G l o s s a r y, " p. X V I, and f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s, s e e " P a r t B u i l d i n g Mass S u p p o r t. " Ibid., pp. 119-222. === [PDF page 83] === 79 t h e p a r t y engaged I n two i n t e n s i v e m em b ersh ip cam paigns i n an attem p t to s o l i d if y its p o s i t i o n among l e a d i n g g r o u p s w i t h i n In donesian s o c ie ty. These In clu d ed th e p e a sa n try, stu d en ts, e d u c a t o r s and p a r t i c u l a r l y m e m b e r s o f a g r o w i n g t r a d e u n i o n m ovem ent. S eco n d ly, lin e w ith i t s s u p e r f i c i a l l y adhered In p a rt, tan ce fle x ib le th e BBrty to th e P r e s id e n t's n a tio n a l p o lic ie s. th is reflected the P. K. I. '3 a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i m p o r o f S u k a r n o 's m ass a p p e a l w hich i t on f o r i t s ta c tic s, own p u r p o s e s. attem pted to c a p ita liz e T hu s, f o r exam ple, by tak in g a d v an tag e of th e P r e s i d e n t 's a v e r s i o n t o a P a r t y system, t h e c o m m u n i s t s saw t h e i r lead in g o p p o n e n t s b e i n g b a n n e d as i n t h e c a s e s o f t h e M asjum i, t h e P. S. I. and p a r t y — P a r t a i M urba. Thus, w h ile t h e n a t i o n a l i s t comm unist su p p o rtin g th e P resident, t h e P. K. I. would s e e t h e p o s i t i o n of i t s underm ined w h ile i t own p o s i t i o n o n t h e b a s i s b u ilt up i t s s t r o n g e s t enem ies of m o b iliz in g m ass-based s u p p o rt. The P. K. I. a l s o found i t d istin c tly advantageous to s u p p o r t t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s a n t i - W e s t e r n f o r e i g n p o l i c y which to o k i t s m ost v i t r i o l i c p o lic y a g a in s t M alay sia. form i n t h e e x te n d e d T he B a r t y ' s a d h e r e n c e t o t h i s p r o g ram w a s i n a c c o r d w i t h i t s pred icated "co n fro n tatio n " own i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s upon an a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t p o l i c y. ^3 Y et, perhaps ^^Por a d i s c u s s i o n of In d o n e s ia n F o re ig n p o lic y b e fo re t h e c o u p, i n t h e f o r m o f a d i s c u s s i o n o f " t h e Newly E m e r g i n g F o r c e s " a s c o n t r a s t e d t o " t h e Old E s t a b l i s h e d O r d e r, " s e e: New F o r c e s B u i l d a New W o r l d ( D j a k a r t a: D e p a r t m e n t of === [PDF page 84] === 80 m ore s i g n i f i c a n t l y, rep ercu ssio n s t h e m i l i t a n t f o r e i g n p o l i c y had b a s i c on t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e a r c h i p e l a g o t h a t w e r e d e f i n i t e l y t o th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e comm unist p r o gram. That i s, b y s u p p o r t i n g S u k a r n o ' s c a l l f o r t h e Con fro n tatio n P o l i c y and t h e a m b i t i o u s a t t e m p t t o o f f e r a n a ltern a tiv e ence t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n t h e fo rm o f t h e C o n f e r o f Newly E m erg ing F o r c e s (C o n e fo ), a r c h i p e l a g o w ere b eing a llo c a te d je c ts in stead th e r e s o u r c e s of the to expensive p r e s t i g e p ro o f b e i n g em p lo y ed i n t h e n e c e s s a r y e c o n o m io p r o g r a m s t h a t w e r e e s s e n t i a l i n c h e c k i n g t h e g r o w i n g e con o m ic and s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n a t home. was w i l l i n g for i t The Communist p a r t y t h e n s u p p o rt th e f o r e ig n p o lic y of th e P r e s i d e n t, d iv erted a t t e n t i o n from t h e r i s i n g I n f l a t i o n a f f e c t i n g v irtu a lly a ll lev e ls of In d o n e s ia n s o o i e t y. The P a r t y t h u s in d ire c tly e n c o u r a g e d t h e r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n a t home b e c a u s e not o n l y would g iv e th e an o p p o rtu n ity of p re s e n tin g i t s e l f as th e a c t t o d i s c r e d i t th e governm ent, b u t a l s o o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e to d isa ste r. o th er powers w i t h i n th e a r c h i p e l a g o, p o litic a l The P a r t y t h e r e f o r e, u n lik e to o k advantage r a t h e r t h a n b e in g v ic tim iz e d by th e d i v i s i o n s c h a r a c t e r izin g th e arch ip elag o. F o r e i g n A f f a i r s, R epublic of I n d o n e s ia, issu e d by th e E x ec u tiv e Com mand, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, F i r s t A s i a n - A f r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e, I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e to n o te t h a t the o f f i c i a l In d o n esian p e r c e p t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s r e v o l v e d a ro u n d t h e "have and h a v e n o t " n a t i o n s in s te a d of t h e c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n " E a st" and " W e s t." F o r t h e o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n on why t h e R e p u b l i c l e f t th e U nited N a tio n s, see: I n d o n e s ia Leaves th e U n ite d N a tio n s (D jak arta: E x e c u t i v e Command, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, t f i r s t A s ia n - A f r ic a n C onference, n. d. ). === [PDF page 85] === 81 In ad d itio n, t h e P. K. I. h ad f u r t h e r a d v a n t a g e s t h a t th e o th e rs lack ed. ideology th a t In th e f i r s t place, t h e p a r t y ha d a n p ro v id e d a b a s e f o r a program of a c t i o n. c o n t r a s t w e r e t h e n a t i o n a l i s t s, who w e r e p r i m a r i l y in appeal to a g e n eralized n atio n alism lim ited a nd t h e I s l a m i c p arties who f a c e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f f u n d a m e n t a l c l e a v a g e i n t h e i r own ranks. In ad d itio n, P. K. I. ha d a u n i f i e d g ram i n t o a c t i o n. u n lik e th e o th e r m ajor p a r t i e s, l e a d e r s h ip t h a t co uld U n l i k e t h e M asjum i, th e tran sfo rm a p ro f o r exam ple, the a f t e r p a y in g a h eav y p r i c e f o r d i v i s i o n a t M andiun, had l e a r n e d the n e c e s s ity f o r u n ified lea d ersh ip. As H i n d l e y noted: A n o t a b l e f e a t u r e of th e c e n t r a l l e a d e r s h i p of t h e P. K. I. s i n c e J a n u a r y 1951 h a s b e e n t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e i n n e r c o r e. 3** Thus, th e P.K.I. to o k advantage of th e s p l i t s w ith in t h e I n d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l sy stem. B ut, a s we s h a l l s e e i n o u r c h a p t e r on t h e c o u p a t t e m p t and r e a c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d, t h e p a r t y would p ay a h e a v y p r i c e f o r a s s u m in g t h a t, through i t s mass o r g a n i z a t i o n s, on i t s i t could m o b il i z e t h e p u b l ic b e h a l f and f o r u n d e r e s t i m a t i n g t h a t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f relig io u s s e n t i m e n t s and n a t i o n a l i s m c o u ld a t least a n e g ativ e b a s is fo r in te g ra tio n of a n ti- P.K.I. provide forces. The Armed F o r c e s In t h is s e c t i o n we s h a l l l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o a n ^ H in d le y, The Communist P a r t y o f I n d o n e s i a 1951-1963. === [PDF page 86] === 82 e x a m in a tio n of t h e I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y a s a means of o f f e r i n g sp ecific i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t may b e e m p l o y e d i n o u r c o n c l u d i n g rem arks c o n c e r n in g t h e r o l e in the c h a lle n g e I f the o f t h e arm e d f o r c e s, in g en eral, o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n new s t a t e s * P. K. I. e n jo y e d a r e s u r g e n c e a f t e r M andiun, was s t i l l c o n f r o n t e d by th e I n d o n e s ia n m i l i t a r y, c o n sta n tly a c t as a le a d in g b a r r i e r to the who w o u l d p a r ty 's am b itio n s. F o r t h e a rm e d f o r c e s, w i t h i t s m o n o p o l y on t h e p h y s i c a l t o o l s of c o n f l i c t, was d e e p l y i n v o lv e d in th e p o l i t i c a l l i f e t h e a r c h i p e l a g o and m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e v i e w e d a s a k e y e l e m e n t i n the In d o n e sia n p o l i t i c a l sy stem. P re sid e n t could that f e l l talk A ccordingly, w h ile th e i n t e r m s o f NASAKOM, t h e t h r e e f o r c e s u n d e r t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a r d l y made u p t h e sum t o t a l of a l l the f a c tio n s in Ind o n esian p o l i t i c s. The b i r t h of the Indonesian m ilita r y back t o t h e c o l o n i a l e p o c h. D uring t h a t can be tra c e d perio d, The R o y a l N e t h e r l a n d s I n d i e s Army ( K. N. I. L. ) w a s c o n c e r n e d p rim a rily w i t h t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a c e an d o r d e r u n d e r t h e c o l o n i a l a d m in istratio n. E ssen tially, th e m i l i t a r y 's to th at of a n a tio n a l p o lic e e stab lish m en t, o p e ra tio n s w ere lim ite d t a s k was s i m i l a r a nd f u l l s c a l e t o p a c i f i c a t i o n cam paigns a g a i n s t re b e llio u s groups. At t h a t army, tim e, was d i f f i c u l t talk of an In d o n e sia n f o r t h e c o r e o f e a c h u n i t y was b a s i c a l l y d ra w n from t h e N etherlands. N ev erth eless, members o f Suku t h a t w e re r e g a r d e d as b e in g l o y a l t o t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ere i n tr o d u c e d === [PDF page 87] === 83 t o W estern arm s. filled F o r, many o f t h e e n l i s t e d b ille ts w ere ... M e n a d o n e s e a n d A m b o i n e s e, w ho m o r e t h a n any o t h e r p e o p le had b e e n c u l t u r a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e D u tch and had b e e n v e r y l o y a l. 35 But, as a g e n e r a l r u l e, m ean in g fu l c o n ta c t w ith W estern m i l i t a r y t e c h n iq u e s was d e n ie d th e Ind o n esian s and t h e h i g h e s t r a n k s t h a t c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d w ere p r i m a r i l y th o s e of non-com m issioned th erefo re, su rp ris in g to note t h a t o fficers. i t w ould tak e the not Ja p an ese O ccu p atio n to s tim u la te th e developm ent o f a m odern I n d o n e s i a n arm y. Ju st as in th e c a s e of th e Isla m ic J a p a n e s e would a t t e m p t t o b u i l d the an In d o n esian m il i ta r y c a p a b i l i t y f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s. c l e a r t h a t the a l l i e d o rg an izatio n s, E s p e c i a l l y when i t v i c t o r y was i n e v i t a b l e, th e became occupying a d m i n i s t r a t i o n so u g h t t o em ploy I n d o n e s i a n s o l d i e r s o rd er to e x tr a c t a heavy t o l l f o r any p ro je c te d C onsequently, q u a s i - m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d on b o t h a n I s l a m i c and s e c u l a r b a s i s. th e Indonesian m i l i t a r y, The r e a l o rig in h o w e v e r, was em bodied in th e for m atio n of th e S o e k a r e l a T e n t a r a Pem bela T an ah A i r V o l u n t e e r Army o f D e f e n d e r s o f t h e F a t h e r l a n d ) of 19^3. Japanese tr a in e d body p ro v id ed t h e i n i t i a l in v asio n. and I n d o n e s i a n train in g (The in Septem ber o fficered, th is f o r many o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y ^ A m r y V a n d en b O B ch, T h e D u t c h E a B t I n d i e B: I t s G overn m e n t, P r o b l e m s and P o l i t i c s ( C a m b r i d g e: (Sam bridge t l n i v e r s i t y t r e s s, l§3§)> p. $8. === [PDF page 88] === 84 members o f t h e o ffic e r corps. 1 2 0, 0 0 0 men an d numbered o v e r "was t o b e c o m e t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e p u b l i c a n A r m y." 38 C o n s e q u e n t l y, w h i l e t h i s c o r p s was f o r m a lly d isb a n d e d by t h e n a tio n a lists By 1945* i t Japanese in 1945* t h e I n d o n e s i a n had a l a r g e b o d y o f t r o o p s t h a t would s e e a c tio n ag ain st th e r e t u r n i n g D utch. W ith t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of in d e p e n d e n c e, the fo rm a tio n o f an I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t became a r e a l i t y. A d iscu ssio n of i t s a c t i v i t i e s d u rin g th is struggle i s beyond t h e k e n o f t h i s r e p o r t, 3^ b u t t h e s t r u g g l e coupled w i t h t h e i m p a c t o f t h e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a t i o n l e f t b a s i c m ark s o n t h e a ttitu d e s of th e o ffic e r corps. In th e f i r s t p lace, the le a d e rs o f t h e new m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s h a r e d a common b a c k g r o u n d a s members o f Japanese-sponsored in itia lly u n its. T h is s h a r e d background c o u ld be seen in th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e Japanese d o c tr in e "fig h tin g s p ir it" " s e m a n g a t. "3 8 That i s, b e g a n, s t r e s s was p l a c e d as th e Indo n esian s c a ll i t as th e stru g g le on d e v e l o p i n g t h e e l a n o f t h e r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e b a s i c tra in in g. T h is d o c tr i n e s u ite d ^ K ah in, f o r independence tro o p s problem s of t e c h n i c a l th e occasion, fo r in th e N a t i o n a l i s m an d R e v o l u t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a, 105. 37por a c o n c i s e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e developm ent o f th e Indonesian m ilita r y, se e: Guy J. P a u k e r, "The R o l e o f t h e M i l i t a r y i n I n d o n e s i a, " f r o m J o h n J. J o h n s o n ( e d. ), The R o l e of th e M i l i t a r y i n U n d erdeveloped C o u n tr ie s ( P r in c e to n: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 19o 2 ). 38I b id., p. 199. === [PDF page 89] === e arly th e p h a s e s of th e s t r u g g l e, a s tro n g se n se of purpose In fo rm o f a n a t i o n a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n held u n til need course o f independence. th is troops to g eth er f o r t r a i n i n g c o u l d c a t c h up w i t h t h e o n r u s h i n g We s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h e i m p a c t o f o r i e n t a t i o n when we d i s c u s s t h e d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e m ilita ry estab lish m en t. ag ain st t h e D u t c h f u r n i s h e d a s e n s e o f c a m a r a d e r i e among t h e o f f ic e r corps. The s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f b a t t l e C o n se q u e n tly, th e p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p s of t h e m e n wh o w o u l d become t h e s e n i o r o f f i c e r s on t h e e v e o f t h e c o u p a t t e m p t must be s t r e s s e d. force F o r, a s we s h a l l n o t e, t h e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s would, i n p a r t, s t r o n g r e a c t i o n o f t h e arm y a g a i n s t t h e P. K. I. exp lain th e W ith t h e m urder of s i x generals a t th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e coup, the a r m y ' s r e a c t i o n would n o t b e s o l e l y b a s e d on p o l i t i c a l issu es. The i n t e n s i t y of t h a t r e a c t i o n r e f l e c t e d a desire a v e n g e t h e m u r d e r o f l o n g and c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e field s. Y et, t h i s d o e s n o t m ean t o i m p l y t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y w a s im m u n e t o t h e d i v i s i o n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e o t h e r p o litic a l fo rces w ith in the arch ip elag o. d iv e rsitie s reflected In p a rt, the t h e p u l l o f S u k u b a n g s a a s s o c i a t i o n and th e r e a l it i e s of In d o n e s ia n g e o g r a p h ic a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s. In ad d itio n, t h e d i v i s i o n i n t h e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t was rela te d P y e 's c o n te n tio n t h a t th e r e i s a c o n f l i c t betw een th e forces o f t h e u n i v e r s a l and t h o s e o f t h e p a r o c h i a l. That t h e r e was i n th e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e a s p l i t b etw een t h o s e === [PDF page 90] === 86 who s u p p o r t e d th e tr a d itio n a l o rd er, th e d ir e c tio n of m o d ern izatio n. The s t r e n g t h an d t h o s e who t u r n e d of Suku a s s o c i a t i o n, r e i n f o r c e d b y g e o g rap h ical b a rr ie rs, has: a l w a y s a c t e d u n i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e armed f o r c e s. f o r independence, Even d u r i n g t h e s t r u g g l e p l a n n i n g and s u p e r v i s i o n e x c e e d i n g l y T herefore, own, and a l l e g i a n c e e a c h a rm y c o m m a n d e r w a s o f t e n on h i s o f h i s t r o o p s was l a r g e l y a fath er-so n re la tio n sh ip a s bapaklsm as an o b sta c le to t h e la c k o f a c l o s e - k n i t com m unication s y s t e m made m i l i t a r y d iffic u lt. predicated t o w h i c h w a s com m o n ly r e f e r r e d ( f a t h e r i s m ) T h e bond o f Suku a s s o c i a t i o n, s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f i n D jak arta, gave th e p r o v in c ia l f i e l d o f freedom of a c t i o n. T herefore, commander a w id e d e g r e e w hen t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y Government o f t h e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s i a estab lish ed i n F e b r u a r y o f 1958* t h e m i l i t a r y w o u l d f a c e d iv is io n w ith in i t s own r a n k s. The b a p a k ( f a t h e r ) re la tio n s h i p would o f t e n i n d u c e r e g i o n a l comm anders t o b o l t fro m t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e h i g h e r command i n t h e c a p i t o l a n d t h r o w i n th eir l o t w i t h t h e r e b e l s who c h a r g e d t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t w ith adhering to a Ja v a c e n tric c o n d itio n s favored p o lic y. such o u tb u r s ts, In a d d itio n, econom ic f o r r e g i o n a l comm anders— m ost n o t a b l y i n S u m a tra — could r e a l i z e g r e a t p r o f i t by 3 9 p e i t h, The D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D e m o c r a c y i n In d o n e sia, p. 12?. === [PDF page 91] === tra d in g d i r e c t l y w ith S ingapore in stead o f t u r n i n g th e revenue back to D ja k a rta. Y et, tran scen d ed occasio n, in th is co n flict, o ld arm y a s s o c i a t i o n s reg io n al fe e lin g s. Thus, often o n m o r e t h a n one o fficers from t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t would c o n s u l t w ith re b e l m ilita r y lead ers i n an a tte m p t t o av oid co n flict. d istin c t Indeed, t h e w h o l e r e v o l t w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a la c k of m i l i t a r y h o s t i l i t i e s. As o n e o b s e r v e r n o te d: "the r e b e l s b e lie v e d more i n t h e f o r c e th an th e fo rc e N ev erth eless, of a r m s." ^ Suku a s s o c i a t i o n, tin u ed m ilita ry open in te n sified in te rp o se a th reat o f argum ent t h e p r e s e n c e of by g e o g ra p h ic a l b a r r i e r s, to th e u n i f ic a t i o n con o f the estab lish m en t. W h ile t h e m i l i t a r y was e v o l v i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e s n e c e s s a ry fo r actio n in th e acq u irin g a b i l i t y of th is field, still to ex ercise a c q u isitio n w i l l be r e a liz e d c ise m ore f u l l y in p a rtic u la r, of p o l i t i c a l p o litic a l of s k i l l s beyond upon t h e r e a c t i o n t o th e coup a tte m p t. t h e arm y, h a d t o f a c e t h e p r o b l e m of Y et, the pow er. The n e c e s s i t y tac tic s of w arfare s t u d y o f t h e im m ediate i t m ust be noted th a t has been co n fro n te d w ith the exer power i n th e a r c h i p e l a g o o v e r a n extended p erio d. Ohfc o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u s i o n s b y t h e m i l i t a r y in th e p o litic a l life of th e a r c h ip e la g o d a t e s back to ^ ° D e n i s W a r n e r, "A R e v o l u t i o n F a d e s Away i n P a d a n g p a n j a n g, T h e R e p o r t e r, V o l. 1 8, N o. 10 (May 1 5, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2M. === [PDF page 92] === 88 October 17, 1952. The O c t o b e r 1 7 t h a f f a i r two c o u n t s. In th e first p lace, Im p o rtan t th e d iv is io n w ith in th e army b e t w e e n t h o s e who d e e m t h e m s e l v e s m o d e r n i s t s a n d th o se who s t o o d f o r a n o l d e r o r d e r. S eco n d ly, th e r e s u l t s t h i s a f f a i r would h e l p t o c o n d i t i o n t h e a r m y ' s a t t i t u d e s regard to fu tu re p a rticip a tio n th e In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l process. On O c t o b e r 1 7, 1952 a g r o u p o f arm y o f f i c e r s the P r e s id e n t t o d i s s o l v e, p arliam en t. Upon h i s what th e y c o n s id e r e d refu sal, troops p e titio n ed to be a c o rru p t surrounded the p alace, and t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o be a coup i n t h e m ak in g. H ow ever, when t h e P r e s i d e n t s p o k e t o t h e arm y u n i t s t h e demon s t r a t o r s who h a d Joined s o n a l i t y and h i s a b ility them, th rough th e fo rc e as an o r a t o r, them t o a b a n d o n t h e i r a t t e m p t. In re g a rd and th e u t i l i z a t i o n an e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n of th e f r i c t i o n of h is he e f f e c t i v e l y of th is created betw een t h e m o d e r n i s t s and t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s, per convinced coup a tte m p t as w i t h i n t h e arm y in te restin g to note th e p r e c i p i t a t i n g c a u s e of th e m i l i t a r y ' s in te r v ention. t h a t would The c o n f l i c t w a s i n i t i a t e d have d e m o b i l i z e d ill-tra in e d th e ir p o sitio n s durin g th e independence. over a b i l l o fficers ch ao tic a n d m en who h a d days of th e The m e a s u re r e p r e s e n t e d the obtained stru g g le effo rts for of such ^ F o r a h i g h ly - r e a d a b le a c c o u n t o f th e e v e n ts of O ctober 17th, s e e: L o u i s F i s c h e r, T h e S t o r y o f I n d o n e s i a (New Y o r k: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r ^ 1 9 5 9 ), p p. ^ 3 3 ^?. === [PDF page 93] === 89 men a s C h i e f - o f - S t a f f G e n e r a l A. H. N a s u t i o n, and t h e D e f e n s e M i n i s t e r, S u l t a n Hamengku Buwono IX, t o m o d e r n i z e t h e I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y by r e f i n i n g and e s t a b l i s h i n g h i g h e r q u a l i f i c atio n s fo r i t s men. t h e arm y, g a in e d a b asis th eir on a c c o u n t o f t h i s. p o sitio n s rea liz e th at C i v i l i a n p o l i t i c i a n s, who d i s t r u s t e d o f s u p p o r t o f t h o s e who w o u l d t h e v e r y men c a l l i n g f o r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n w o u l d a g a in e n jo y a c l o s e w orking r e l a t i o n s h i p in stru ctiv e lose f o llo w in g th e coup G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n, rem em bering t h e S u l t a n ' s w o u l d c a l l him b a c k t o p o sitio n, n a tio n a l service a s th e m ilita r y faced t h e c h a l l e n g e o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e a r c h i p e l a g o i n t h e wake o f the P. K. I. 's attem p t to se iz e c o n tro l. S eco n d ly, th at t h e O c t o b e r 1 7 t h a f f a i r r e m i n d e d t h e a rm y c o u ld n o t d i s c o u n t t h e unique p o s i t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t as a n a tio n a l lead er, m ass. Thus, h av in g th e cap a city t o m o b iliz e th e u n t i l t h e r e c e n t coup a tte m p t to o k p l a c e, m i l i t a r y would b e r e l u c t a n t the t o engage i n o v e r t p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y b e c a u s e i t w a s w e l l - a w a r e of t h e f r i c t i o n s w i t h i n its own r a n k s a n d, m o r e o v e r, tia litie s of the poten of th e P re s id e n t t o obtain su pp ort by an a p p ea l to th e m asses. s e e why i t f u l l y co g n izan t E ven a f t e r t h e coup a t t e m p t o f ' 6 5, we s h a l l i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t th e m i l i t a r y h a s o n l y, w i t h extrem e h e s i t a t i o n, As a r e s u l t estab lish m en t, a s s u m e d m ore d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l. of th e d i v is io n s w ith in th e m i l i t a r y com bined w i t h th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e r o l e of the P re sid e n t, t h e arm e d f o r c e s would o u t w a r d l y a d h e r e t o === [PDF page 94] === 90 S u k a rn o 's c a l l f o r a u n ite d Democracy. f r o n t under th e b a n n e r of G uided T h u s, w h i l e t h e a rm y was a w a r e o f t h e t h r e a t posed by t h e P. K. I. and c o n t i n u e d t o a t t e m p t t o c h e c k I t s r e s u r g e n c e w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o open c o n f l i c t, rem ained t h a t t h e G e n e r a ls, c o m m u n ist a c t i v i t i e s, th e f a c t lo n g having re c o r d s o f a n t i would d i s p l a y t h e m s e l v e s a s b e i n g n o n -co m m u n ists t o g i v e a t l e a s t a s u p e r f i c i a l view t h a t were w o rk in g w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s B efore tu r n in g to the r o l e be i n s t r u c t i v e of the P r e s id e n t, t o comment on t h e s t r a t e g i c t h e m i l i t a r y and i t s p hysical re s o u rc e s. th ey p o lic ies. i t w ould o rien tatio n Such i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l p r o v e h e l p f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g how t h e a rm y a c t e d ag ain st the P.K.I. in th e post-coup p e rio d. In r e f e r e n c e to th e broad i s s u e of s t r a t e g y, G eneral N asution p re s e n te d contem porary In d o n e sia n m i l i t a r y th o u g h t in a se rie s of books. lip His b a s i c e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e I n d o n e s ia n arm y. stance r e f le c te d th e past T hus, s t r e s s was p l a c e d on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e, s in c e such m ethods, be re fin e d e m ployed a g a i n s t t h e D u t c h, c o n t i n u e d a s a r e a c t i o n t o t h e n e e d s imposed b y t h e C o n f r o n t a t i o n p o lic y w ith M alaysia. lip The f a c t o f t h e m a t t e r i s, The f o l l o w i n g b o o k s b y t h e G e n e r a l a r e m o s t h e l p f u l in e x p la in in g In d o n esian m i l i t a r y th o u g h t: Fundam entals of G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e and t h e I n d o n e s i a n D e f e n s e S y s t e m P a s t a n d Present (D jak arta: I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e of t h e I n d o n e s i a n Armed F o r c e s, n. d. ); Toward a P e o p l e ' s Army ( D j a k a r t a: D e l e g a s i, 1 9 6 4 ); and S a f e g u a r d t h e B a n n e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n (D jakarta: C. V. D e l e g a s i, l £ b 4 ). === [PDF page 95] === 91 t h a t i n th e cam paigns th e D u tch, t h e r e b e l movem ent i n t h e t h e com m unists a t M andiun, ' 5 0 ' s and t h e c l a s h e s w i t h t h e B r i t i s h i n B o r n e o, t h e I n d o n e s i a n a rm y had a n e x t e n d e d period i n w h i c h t o l e a r n and u t i l i z e n o n -co n v en tio n al w a rfa re. the o p e ra tio n a l a r t th erefo re, not iro n ic t o n o t e t h a t t h e same " c r a c k " u n i t s t h a t had c r u s h e d the c o m m u n i s t i n s u r g e n c y i n 19^8 w o u l d a g a i n b e e m p l o y e d i n 19&5 i n th e extended m i l i t a r y o p eratio n s th a t follow ed th e coup a ttem p t. In i t s p h y sic al p o t e n t i a l, th e Indonesian m ilita r y b e f o r e t h e coup a t t e m p t c o n s i s t e d of b a s ic a lly t h e a r m y, n u m b e r i n g some 2 0 0,0 0 0 m en; t h e a i r i n g o f a b o u t 1 0,0 0 0 m e n; t h e n a v y, th e n a tio n a l p o lice The l a s t as i t s force, force, d esp ite size, n u m b e r s w o u l d se em t o p o l i c e were t r a i n e d force, c o n sist c o m p r i s i n g 1 0,0 0 0 m en, and constructed its four se c tio n s: around 1 0 0,0 0 0 t r o o p s. d i d n o t h a v e much i n f l u e n c e in d icate; for, a lth o u g h th e as a r e g u la r m i l i t a r y u n i t, th e y were p o o r l y armed and l o o k e d down u p o n b y t h e o t h e r s e r v i c e s b e c a u s e t h e y had n o t m e a n i n g f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d in the s tru g g le a g a in s t th e D utch. As i n o t h e r f a c e t s of In d o n e s ia n l i f e, p r e s e n t i n t h e arm e d f o r c e s, a r m s and t r a i n i n g, a ir force, e x isted in th e varied a nd m o r e b a s i c a l l y, in term s of i t s d iv ersity, in th e case types of the own r u d i m e n t a r y i d e o l o g y. ^ H a n n a, Bun g K a r n o ' s I n d o n e s i a, One === [PDF page 96] === 92 one h a n d, such "crack u n its " in th e arm y a s t h e p a la c e g u a r d — t h e T j a k r a b l r a w a — and t h e S i l l w e n g l D i v i s i o n, co u ld c o m p a r e f a v o r a b l y w i t h a n y m o d e r n - d a y a rm e d f o r c e. on t h e o t h e r h a n d, m an y u n i t s b a s e d p elag o resem bled n o th in g less H o w ev e r, thro u g h o u t th e a r c h i th a n q u a s i- m ilita r y groups. T h e i n c o n s i s t e n t d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h i n t h e army w a s, i n p a r t, due to th e tiv e great d iv e rs ity u n its w ith in the stan d ard iza tio n lo g istic s arm ed e s t a b l i s h m e n t. of weapons c r e a te d co n sid erin g th a t w ith A m erican a u to m a tic m issies. The a i r w ith i t s c o lle c tio n the tic a l for p o litic a l stood s i d e - b y - s i d e t a n k s and S o v i e t ranks, situ atio n o f M. I. G. f i g h t e r s and p lan es. T h is, p articu larly re p a th of In d o n e sia n fo reign p o lic y. p r e - c o u p p o s i t i o n of th e m i l i t a r y. th e d iv is io n s w ith in th e pow er, trem endous problem of Japanese r i f l e s of v ario u s types tw istin g t o m odernize i t s The n e e d f o r a f o r c e a l s o was c o n f r o n t e d by t h i s T h u s, we h a v e t h e R e flectin g th e weapons, B r i t i s h A m erican H e r c u le s t r a n s p o r t p resen ted i n w e a p o n s employed by t h e r e s p e c a rc h ip e la g o, attem p tin g and r e l u c t a n t t o assum e d i r e c t p o l i t h e arm y becam e a d e c i s i v e power i n t h e c h a o t ic elem ent i n t h e b a t t l e perio d t h a t follow ed th e coup a tte m p t. ' P re s id e n t Sukarno; A C a ta ly st in the In d o n esian P o l i t i c a l C o n fig u ratio n In th e d iv is io n th a t c h a ra c te riz e d p o litic a l process, the In d o n esian o n l y o n e m an p r o v i d e d a n a t m o s p h e r e o f === [PDF page 97] === 93 s u p e r f ic i a l u n ity — P re sid e n t Sukarno. In h is ro le “The G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n, " h e was a c a t a l y s t upon w hich t h e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s would i n t e r a c t. p o s itio n b e fo re th e coup a ffirm e d th w arted H is P y e 's c o n te n tio n th at: T he c h a r a c t e r o f p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y g i v e s p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s a h ig h d e g re e of freedom of a c t io n in d e te rm in in g p o lic y The r e a s o n f o r t h i s d o m in a n t p o s i t i o n c a n b e e x p l a i n e d by a v a r i e t y of c o n d itio n in g nesian c a se. In th e first facto rs t h a t ap p ly to th e Indo p l a c e, men l i k e S u k a r n o, w i t h l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l i s t m ovem ent, w ere view ed as b e in g f a t h e r s was r e i n f o r c e d ru le. of t h e i r c o u n tr ie s. by th e le a d e rs h ip Thus, S ukarno contended th e n a tio n becau se he re scu e d co n tin u in g T his order to force leg itim ize th e ir from t h e of n atio n alism t o guide c o l o n i a l p a st w hile to a c t as th e keeper of th e n a tio n to m ain tain h is of co u rse, t h a t he was e n t i t l e d f o r m s o f i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s u b v e r s i o n. endeavored im age, upon a g a i n s t newer Thus, Sukarno p o s i t i o n by u t i l i z i n g a s a means o f p r e s e r v i n g h i s th e em otional p o lic y. C onsequently, b e ca u se of th e d i v i s i o n s w ith in th e n a tio n, le a d e r co u ld cla im t h a t he, by n e c e s s ity, of u n i t y i f th e n a tio n 's stru g g le the m u st b e t h e symbol to m ain tain i t s in te g rity were t o be s u c c e s s f u l. S eco n d ly, Pye, the n a tio n a l P o lltic S i l e a d e r would a t t e m p t t o p l a y P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t I o n - B u i l d i n g, p. 19. === [PDF page 98] === up t h e i s s u e s o f c r i s i s as a means of e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t s t r o n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n p r a c t i c e s w ere n e c e s s a r y i n t h e p r e s e rv a tio n of th e n a tio n a l id e n tity. Sukarno c o n s t a n t ly in s is te d was n o t y e t c o m p l e t e. ratio n ale In th is lig h t, th a t th e s tru g g le P resid en t f o r independence T h i s was h i s m e a n s o f f u r n i s h i n g a f o r s tro n g lead ersh ip under h is d i r e c ti o n. w h ile p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e had b e e n a c h i e v e d, That th e fo u n d e r of th e s t a t e must c o n t i n u e t o g u i d e t h e c i t i z e n s whom h e c l a i m e d t o speak, a g a in s t the t h r e a ts in te g rity. C o n se q u e n tly, Sukarno m a in ta in e d was n o t y e t ended. F urtherm ore, for to the n a tio n a l th a t th e b a ttle t h e r e v o l u t i o n t h a t had b r o u g h t i n d e p e n d e n c e must c o n t i n u e i f n a t i o n b u i l d i n g were t o be s u c c e s s f u l. The c o n t i n u i n g r e v o l u t i o n was c h a r a c t e r i z e d in the f o llo w in g m anner: ... a R e v o l u t i o n i s a symphony o f d e s t r u c t i o n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n, a symphony o f u p r o o t i n g and u p b u i l d i n g, b e c a u s e d e s t r u c t i o n and u p r o o t i n g a l o n e w i t h o u t c o n s t r u c t i o n o r u p b u i l d i n g i s t h e sam e a s a n a r c h y; o r on t h e o th e r h a n d, c o n s t r u c t i o n o r up b u i l d i n g a lo n e w ithout d e s t r u c t i o n or u p ro o tin g m eans c o m p ro m ise o r r e f o r m.^5 T h e e m p h a s i s on t h e c o n t i n u i n g r e v o l u t i o n, a c c e n t on t h e s y m b o l s o f n a t i o n a l i s m, d id n o t p ro v id e an a t m o s p h e r e f o r c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a nd th e c a s e of S ukarno, the w ith i t s "u p ro o tin g " to o k p reced en ce over ^ P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, " T A V I P," P a n t.la s i l a, A M o n t h l y M a g a z i n e on I n d o n e s i a n C u l t u r e a nd, P o l i t i c s, V o l. 2, N o. 13 (.C n r i s t n ia s '-N e w V e a r 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 ), p. 5 • === [PDF page 99] === 95 " c o n s t r u c t i o n " and t h e d o o r was o p e n f o r "anarchy" the fo rm o f t h e a t t e m p t e d c o u p. Y e t, a s we h a v e s e e n i n C h a p t e r Two, t h e P resid en t d i d h a v e a c o m m itm e n t i n mind and t h a t w a s o f c o u r s e, th e b u i l d i n g o f an " I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n. " end— as of em erging s t a t e s — he o f f e r e d h is case of o th er le a d e rs To t h i s own i d e o l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n t o P y e ' s o p i n i o n t h a t had " t h e f o r m " b u t n o t th e the new s t a t e s "the su b sta n c e " o f n a ti o n h o o d. The P r e s i d e n t i a l I d e o l o g y The P r e s i d e n t i a l i d e o l o g y n o t o n l y p r e s u m e d a n s w e r s t o t h e e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s th e R epublic b ut a l s o t o f u r n i s h th e s o l u t i o n th at for pro v id e co n fro n ted a ll problem s t h a t plagued a people u n d e rg o in g t h e b a t t e r y change. th e re fo re, not su rp risin g t h a t of th e he d e fin e d ideology in th e b ro a d e st sense as: ... a w orld o f i d e a s, o r a view o f t h e w o rld and s o c i e t y, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s, a g u i d e a nd a p i l o t f o r t h e i r l i v e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s and m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y. S u k a rn o 's c o n c e p t, shared in d icated th at th e P y e 's concern t h a t th e b u i ld i n g o f a v i a b l e w a s d e p e n d e n t u po n a l l b u ild in g, beyond then, therefore, l e v e l s o f human e x p e r i e n c e. was a s e a r c h f o r i d e n t i t y P resid en t n atio n N atio n t h a t went f a r in s titu tio n a l reform s. I n h i s program f o r a c t i o n i n e s t a b l i s h i n g ^A b d u lg an i, n e s ia n R ev o lu tio n, an In d o n e s ia n P a n t i a s i l a, The P r i m e M o v e r o f t h e p. lfl. Indo === [PDF page 100] === 96 n a t i o n, S u k a r n o a g a i n would r e i n f o r c e a n o t h e r o f P y e ' s hypotheses. That i s, th e developm ent o f a v i a b l e n a t i o n h i n g e d u p o n t h e f u s i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s a l and p a r o c h i a l forces. Thus a s t h e t i o n was a r e s u l t w orld c u l t u r e. " P resid en t noted, th e In d o n e s ia n R evolu o f, w h a t Py e c a l l e d, "the d i f f u s i o n of S u k a rn o 's r e c o g n iti o n of t h i s phenomenon can be seen in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t. I say t h a t th e sou rces of th e In d o n esian re v o l u t i o n conform w ith t h e s o u r c e s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d.**7 Thus, even t h i s m ost n a t i o n a l i s t i c w o u ld r e a d i l y a d m i t t h a t t h e of P re s id e n ts "tran sfo rm atio n " facin g i n t h e form o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a t i o n h o o d, s o l e l y from t h e Indonesia did n o t s p r in g s o i l of th e a rc h ip e la g o. To S u k a r n o, the f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s a l and the p a r o c h i a l would e v o l v e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n I n d o n e s i a n sta te i d e o l o g y t h a t would m o d i f y t h e i d e a l s a s t a k e n from t h e W est, Indonesian p e o p le. of dem ocracy, t o m eet th e p e c u l i a r needs of th e The m o d i f i c a t i o n w ould be c a l l e d "so cial j u s t i c e " a nd w o u l d t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m: I f we a r e s e e k i n g d e m o c r a c y, t h e n e e d i s n o t f o r th e dem ocracy of t h e W est, b u t f o r c o n f e r r i n g, w h ic h b r i n g s l i f e, w h ic h i s p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c demo cracy, a b le to b rin g about s o c ia l p ro s p e rity. The peo p le of In d o n e s ia have long spoken a b o u t t h i s m a t t e r, What i s m e a n t ' R a t u A d i l. 1 ( R a t u A d i l a s d e f i n e d i n a f o o t n o t e o f t h e s p e e c h i s ' t h e name ^ P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, R e f l e c t i o n s Upon t h e I n d o n e s i a n R ev o lu tio n (D ja k a rta: Government o f t h e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s i a, n.d. ), p. 3^ • === [PDF page 101] === 97 g iv e n in Java to th e goddess of ju s tic e.) What i s m e a n t b y t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f R a t u Ad 11 i s s o c i a l.j u s t i c e, T h e p e o p l e w i s h f o r p r o s p e r i t y... T h e r e f o r e i f we t r u l y u n d e r s t a n d, rem embe r and l o v e t h e p e o p le o f I n d o n e s i a, l e t us a c c e p t the p r i n c i p l e of s o c i a l. j u s t i c e w h ic h i s n o t only p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y g e n tlem e n. I n t h e f i e l d o f e c o n o m i c s t o o, we m u s t c r e a t e e q u a l i t y, t h e b e s t common p r o s p e r i t y. ^ The P r e s i d e n t id e a l of "so cial th en o ffered ju stic e" w h e r e S u k a r n o made h i s concept S u k a rn o 's h i s c o n c e p t o f how t h e c o u ld be r e a l i z e d. i s here own s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o w h a t f o r m P y e ' s "re p re se n ta tiv e g o v ern m en t" should t a k e. view p ro m o te s t h e Again, p r e m i s e o f f u s i n g t h e c o n c e p t of "rep re se n ta tiv e g o v e r n m e n t" w i t h t h e unique needs w i t h i n th e R ep u b lic. h i s form For, e m an ate from t h e in th e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i d e a l l y was t o tra d itio n s u tiliz a tio n w i t h i n th e a r c h i p e l a g o as se e n o f m u s j a w a r a h and m u f a k a t. The P r e s i d e n t, th ere fo re, lo n g em ployed in r u r a l In d o n esia. refe rrin g th e p rac tic e h a m l e t on t h e b a s i s arb itratio n process. (consensus) o f a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e w ish e s of th e em ploym ent of th e v o t e. o f i n t e n s i f y i n g d i v i s i o n t h r o u g h an e l e c t o r a l t h r o u g h m u sjaw arah ( c o n s u l t a t i o n ), m ufakat would d e v e l o p. S u k a rn o 's a tte m p t in n a tio n al In its c o m p e t i n g i n t e r e s t s would b e c o m p r o m is e d t h r o u g h In stead That By m u s j a w a r a h, h e was o f l o n g d i s c u s s i o n and d e l i b e r a t i o n r a t h e r th a n th ro u g h th e U to p ia n form, tu r n e d toward p r a c t i c e s u t i l i z i n g t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s on a le v e l can n o t be d isco u n ted ii R P re sid e n t Sukarno, as sim p ly b e i n g f a b r i c a t i o n s. The B i r t h of P a n t j a s l l a, p. 2 7. === [PDF page 102] === 98 M usjaw arah, a s J e a n M intz n o te d; ... h a d a c o m f o r t a b l e r i n g t o many I n d o n esian s. S eeking gu idance in p u b lic a f f a i r s from t h e e l d e r s o f t h e c o m m u n ity, i s b y no means an a l i e n concept in In d o n e s ia. T rad itio n al v illa g e s o c i e t y t h r o u g h o u t I n d o n e s i a r e l i e d h e a v i l y on j u s t su ch an e x e r c i s e of l e a d e r s h i p by th e e l d e r s. Nor i s t h e a p p ro a c h o u t of l i n e w i t h t h e I s la m ic t r a d i t i o n.... F u rth e rm o re th e c o re of the J a v a n e s e a p p r o a c h t o t h e w o r l d i s t o s e e k harmony i n a l l r e l a t i o n s; and t h e J a v a n e s e t r a d i t i o n i s t h e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n of a m a j o r i t y of th e In d o n e sia n p eo p le. I n p r a c t i c e t h i s g e n e r a l l y means t h a t i n s te a d of t r y i n g t o a l t e r th e d e c i s i o n s t o m eet h is own d e s i r e s, t h e I n d o n e s i a n t r i e s t o b r i n g h i m s e l f t o harm ony w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g s i t u a t i o n by a d j u s t i n g h i s b e h a v i o r and a t t i t u d e s.^ 9 The c a l l f o r of th e trad itio n s an aly sis, "so cial ju stice" th ro u g h the of t h e a r c h i p e l a g o w ould, acco rd in g to Sukarno, lead u tiliz a tio n in th e u ltim a te to th e; ... p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t, t h e p r i n c i p l e of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e governm ent, th e p r i n c i p l e of con s u l t a t i o n.5 0 Thus, lea st i n form, co n cep t of r e p r e s e n ta tio n b u ild in g. Thus, of ag reem en t. th e s t a t e ideology o ffe re d as a p r e r e q u is ite the for n atio n o u t w a r d l y, b o t h P y e a n d S u k a r n o h ad a n a r e a Y et, a s we s h a l l s e e, w h i l e P y e, t h e W e s t e r n p o litic a l sc ie n tist, w o u l d a d o p t t h e sa m e w o r d s a s S u k a r n o, th e n a t i o n a l i s t flec te d lead er, th e d e f i n i t i o n d is tin c t d ifferen ces N ev erth eless, o f t h e s e words r e in v a lu e s. b o t h Pye and S u k a r n o h e ld shared id eals ^ 9 J e a n n e S. M i n t z, Mohammed, M a rx a nd M a r h a e n. The R o o t s o f I n d o n e s i a n S o c i a l i s m (New Y o r k; F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r, 1964), p. 165. 5 ° P re s id e n t Sukarno, The B i r t h of P an tJas1 1 a, p. 28. === [PDF page 103] === 99 i n r e f e r e n c e t o th e need f o r f u s i o n, d iffered i n t h e means b y w h i c h i t and a l t h o u g h t h e y w a s t o b e a c h i e v e d, we c a n n o t d is m is s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f a common p r o b l e m. s h o r t n o t i n, w h a t Pye c o u l d th is c a ll, j u n c t u r e, Sukarno f e l l the w hich i t "fo rm " of h i s c o n c e p t i o n, failed stu d y the r o le to ta k e. Indeed, but in th e "S ubstance" We s h a l l t u r n to th is i s s u e a s we of th e P r e s i d e n t a s a p o l i t i c i a n in the Indo n esian p o litic a l co n fig u ratio n. P resid en t Sukarno: B e fo re th e coup, The P o l i t i c i a n th e P r e s id e n t ou tw ard ly attem p ted a c t a s a u n i f y i n g a g e n t t h r o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f NASAKOM. B ut, th e t e s t of perform ance u n d e rs c o re s th e f a c t t h a t he played o f f th e leading p o l i t i c a l in h is a tt e m p t to m a in ta in h i m s e l f a s t h e spokesm an of t h e In d o n e s ia n peo ple. ?To t h e fo rces a g a in st each other lead ers of th e r e s p e c tiv e p o li tic a l p arties and t h e m i l i t a r y h e o f f e r e d b o t h t h e c a r r o t and t h e c l u b. To t h e l e a d e r s h i p of th e P.N.I., he p r e s e n te d a d o m e s t i c and f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h a t w ould m ax im iz e t h e s y m b o ls o f n a t i o n a l i s m, y e t he w a s a b l e t o c l u b t h e p a rty in to sub m i s s i o n b e c a u s e i t was d e p e n d e n t u p o n h i s a b i l i t y su p p o rt f o r the P.N.I.'s program. to m o b ilize M oreover, Sukarno fo rce d t h e P a r t y i n t o t a k i n g a more r a d i c a l s t a n c e by e n a b l i n g t h e t o s e i z e the i n i t i a t i v e of n a t i o n a l i s t slogans. as the lead in g m an ip u lato r To t h e P. K. I., p r o g r a m t h a t would s u p p o r t i t s th en, he o f f e r e d id eo lo g ical p o sitio n y e t, === [PDF page 104] === 100 t h e same t i m e, p r o m o te d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l a r g e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t t h a t had n o t f o r g o t t e n t h e lesso n o f M andiun. C o n v e r s e ly, t o t h e m i l i t a r y he e x t e n d e d a means of m o d ern i zatio n through an a g g re s s iv e f o r e i g n p o l i c y b u t never t h e m f o r g e t t h e pow e r p o t e n t i a l o f t h e r e s u r g i n g m o v em en t. To t h e I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s, tiv e ly secu lar base. F in ally, of the to th e com m unist he g a v e t h e o f a n i d e o l o g y t h a t would d e v e l o p a n I n d o n e s i a n c o n c o m i t a n t l y p l a y e d on t h e i r f e a r s name o f u n i t y, "red " and " g r e e n " C h r i s t i a n com m unity in itiatio n terro r. H is a tte m p t " c h e c k s and b a l a n c e s " would r e s u l t of t h e coup. but P.K.I. 's d i s t i n c Thus, S u k a r n o p l a y e d on a n d a c c e n t e d o f d i v i s i o n s f o r h i s own e n d s. "carro t" Id e n tity he p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f a s t h e i r p r o t e c t o r b y u t i l i z i n g f e a r s o f both the let th eir in th e th e forces use th ese in open w a r f a r e w ith th e The P r e s i d e n t may h a v e c l a i m e d re p re s e n t the Ind o n esian p eo p le, b u t he e n co u rag e d sp lits f o r h i s own g l o r i f i c a t i o n and n e a r d e i f i c a t i o n. The I n d o n e s i a n E l i t e Though t h e p a r t i e s, P resid en t, the m i l i t a r y, and c e r t a i n l y, who s e r v e d a s a f o c a l p o i n t f o r t h e of th e s e f a c t i o n s, t o g e t h e r composed t h e b a s i c in te ra c tio n power s t r u c t u r e; how ever, i n t h e narrow realm, of d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g, note th a t the conduct of In d o n esian a f f a i r s an e x t r e m e l y s m a l l g r o u p, d r a w n f r o m a l l archipelago. The m a s s, t h r o u g h t h e th e In ten se t h e s y m b o l s o f n a t i o n a l i s m, may h a v e h a d th e one m ust was l i m i t e d forces p ro m o tio n a sense th e of in v o lv em en t === [PDF page 105] === 101 the th e coup, b o lic a ll p o litic s in the lev e ls. of the R ep u b lic, th is i n v o l v e m e n t may h a v e b e e n m o r e t h a n sym form o f t h e I n t e n s i t y o f a n t i - P. K. I. f e e l i n g Y et, p a rticip a tio n. dne c a n q u e s t i o n t h e d e g r e e For, as is th is of m ean in g fu l common w i t h o t h e r e m e r g i n g s t a t e s, th e a c tu a l o p e ra tio n of th e placed a nd d u r i n g t h e r e a c t i o n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m was p r i m a r i l y the hands of th e p o l i t i c a l e lite. We m u s t b e a r i n m in d w h e n, a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r, we discuss P y e 's "lo g ic of co m p etitiv e p o litics" in our Indo n esian case stu d y. I n h i s m onograph, F e i t h d e f i n e s t h e I n d o n e s ia n e l i t e i n t h e f o llo w in g m anner: ... t h o s e p e r s o n s who c o n t r i b u t e a c t i v e l y t o d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g w hich p ro d u c e s p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s o r t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s t h a t e n d s t h e m. 51 lim ited strik in g in term s to note of s i z e, th at th is but in n o te s, n o t only i s D ja k a rta group i s lo ca tio n. the c e n te r For, n o t only as F e ith of d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s, b u t a l s o t h e home o f: ... t h e n e w s p a p e r r e a d i n g g r o u p ( w h i c h ) may be r e g a r d e d a s p u b lic o p in io n, a t l e a s t in th e s e n s e o f t h e d a y - t o - d a y and m o u t h - t o - m o u t h p o l i t i c s o f t h e c a p i t o l a r e c o n c e r n e d. I t s members h a v e b e e n i n a p o s itio n to p re s s, th ro u g h a v a r ie ty of o rg a n iz a tio n s, for p a rtic u la r sectio n al in te re s ts. At t h e same t i m e t h e i r f e e l i n g s on p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s h a v e b e e n i m p o r t a n t i n k e e p in g t h e governm ent a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a common n a t i o n a l c o n s e n s u s. 52 ^ H e r b e r t F e i t h, The W l l o p o C a b i n e t, A T u r n i n g P o i n t i n R ev o lu tio n ary In d o n esia ( Ith a c a: M o n o g r a p h S e r i e s, M o d e rn I n d o n e s i a n P r o j e c t, 1958)> p. 2 1. H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s The W llopo C a b i n e t. 52 l b l d., p. 23. === [PDF page 106] === 102 By n o t i n g suggest th a t p art, t h e above I n t e r p r e t a t i o n by F e i t h, I n d o n e s i a n p r e and p o s t - c o u p p o l i t i c s may b e, u nderstood su p e rfic ia l u n ity a broad-gauged i n t h e fo llo w in g m anner. appeal to own p u r p o s e s, p resen ted the co n fin es of a u n ited lead in g t h e members o f t h e e l i t e attem p t to b u ild to the that r e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s could a c t w i t h i n t h e f r o n t p o licy. S u k a rn o 's broad a lte rn a tiv e the n a t i o n a l i s m, was o p e r a t i v e b e c a u s e I n o t h e r w o r d s, by program, a s t a l e m a t e — however i m p e r f e c t — was e f f e c t u a t e d. its That i s, u n d e r t h e NASAKOM c o n c e p t, a s em bo d ied i n fo r th eir adhering to one c a n B ut, o nce t h e P. K. I., up m ass-b ased s u p p o r t, through p r e s e n t e d an p o l i t i c a l system, th e ten u o u s c o a l i t i o n w as b r o k e n and t h e e l i t e was t h r e a t e n e d. T h erefo re, as the P.K.I. began to assert i t s e l f as a leading fo rc e, In ste a d ju st lead in g fo rc e s in the c a p i to l, the m il i ta r y, one o f t h e n a tio n a list and r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s no l o n g e r f e l t secure, and t h e i r I n s e c u r i t y would b e v e r i f i e d by t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e reactio n a fter and the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n of p o l i t i c s th e coup. In a d d itio n, Im m ediate p e r io d F e ith outside D jakarta understand of re a ctio n, Indonesian p o l i t i c s two b r o a d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s b y c o n c e r n i n g t h e e l i t e w i l l prove h e l p f u l. th a t th ere w ere b a s i c a l l y On. o n e h a n d, He s u g g e s t e d two o r i e n t a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s g r o u p. t h e r e w ere th e f o r pow er on t h e b a s i s in the " a d m i n i s t r a t o r s " who " co m p e te d of th e ir tech n ical s k i l l s. 5 3 p e i t h, T h e D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D e m o crac y i n I n d o n e s i a, p. 11;}. === [PDF page 107] === 103 co n trast, t h e y w ere c h a l l e n g e d by t h e " s o l i d a r i t y m akers" who " c o m p e t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r m a s s a p p e a l and on t h e s t a t u s t h e y had a c q u i r e d w ith h is th e a s a r e s u l t."-’11 e m p h a s i s on i m a g e - b u i l d i n g, Under S ukarno, would a p p e a r t h a t " s o l i d a r i t y m ak e rs" were i n a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n s i n c e l i t t l e s t r e s s was p l a c e d have to se e i f the on a p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a p p r o a c h. We s h a l l " a d m i n i s t r a t o r s " have r e a s s e r t e d p o s i t i o n now t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e wake o f t h e c o u p. fac es the ta s k th eir of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n We s h a l l a l s o h a v e t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r a r e t u r n t o s u c h a n o r i e n t a t i o n means a r e t u r n t o, w h a t Pye c a l l s, im p lica tio n s "p rio r ro le o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " ^ a nd t h e o f t h i s s t a n c e on t h e f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e In d o n e sia n p o l i t i c a l sy stem. F in a lly, we w i l l e x a m i n e t h e r o l e o f t h e v a r i o u s s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s who w e r e m o b i l i z e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t support of h is p o lic ie s pow er. p r i o r to the attem pted s e i z u r e As we s h a l l n o t e, in th e p o st-co u p p e rio d, Sukarno m i g h t r e g r e t h a v i n g t a u g h t th e m t h e a r t m ass-dem o nstration p o l i t i c s. learned o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and F o r th e s t u d e n ts, hav ing th e le s so n s of the m aster a g i t a t o r, 56 su c h m ethods a g a i n s t him. w ou ld u t i l i z e 5*Ib id., p. 114. 55 Pye, A s p e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent, p. 56 14. Even i n t h e p r e - c o u p p e r i o d, s t u d e n t s a t t h e h ig h s c h o o l a nd u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l w e r e i n v o l v e d i n p o l i t i c s t h r o u g h various stu d en t o rg an iz atio n s rep re se n tin g d if f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l forces. T h u s, t h e I s l a m i c s t u d e n t s w e r e o f t e n m em bers o f === [PDF page 108] === 104 P y e 's Logic of C o m p etitiv e P o l i t i c s as A pplied to th e I n d o n e s i a n P o l i t i c a l System B e f o r e t h e Coup A t t e m p t I t we w e r e t o a p p l y P y e ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e of co m p etitiv e p o l i t i c s " i n t h e form o f governm ent" i s n e c e s s a r y t o e f f e c t forces "rep resen tativ e a f u s i o n b etw een th e o f t h e u n i v e r s a l and p a r o c h i a l i n p o l i t i c a l developm ent i n s o c i e t i e s "lo g ic o rd e r to achieve undergoing a t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e, we w o u l d h a v e t o n o t e t h a t only t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu s io n s co uld be r e n d e r e d. our i n i t i a l c o n c l u s i o n s would b e b a s e d th e pre-coup p e rio d, A ctu ally, on o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s a f t e r exam ining th e a tte m p te d o f p o w e r and t h e r e a c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d. M oreover, seizu re in the f i n a l a n a l y s i s, we s h a l l h a v e t o e m p l o y P y e ' s c o n c e p t s w he n ascertain in g, d irec tio n in a h i g h l y - t e n t a t i v e m anner, the fu tu re of I n d o n e s i a n a f f a i r s. H. M. I. ( Himpunan M a h a s i w a I n d o n e s i a ) A s s o c i a t i o n o f I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s, w h i l e t h e c o m m u n is t s t u d e n t s w e r e members oi 6. 6. M. I. (C o n s e n t r a s i G e r a k a n Mahasiwa I n d o n e s i a ) - - C o n c e n t r a t i o n B efore th e coup, a l l t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ere m o b iliz e d by t h e P r e s id e n t f o r outw ard s u p p o r t o f h i s p o l i c y. a d d i t i o n, the s t u d e n t s w ere r e q u i r e d t o t a k e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n c o u r s e s in the P r e s i d e n t i a l i d e o l o g y. Thus, th e fo rm a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s was em ployed a s a p o l i t i c a l t o o l t o s o c i a l iz e th e stu d en ts in su p p o rt of th e P r e s id e n t. However, a f t e r th e coup, th e s t u d e n t s, i n c o n ju n c t i o n w ith th e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s th ey r e p r e s e n t e d, would employ t h e i r new -fo u n d s k i l l s f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s a n d n o t m e r e l y b e a p p e n d a g e s t o t h e regim e i n pow er. I n f o r m a t i o n on s t u d e n t p o l i t i c s i s i n p a r t, drawn from t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n t a c t w i t h s t u d e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of I n d o n e s i a, C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y o f I n d o n e s i a a nd B a n d u n g T e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e. === [PDF page 109] === 105 I n a p p ly in g P y e's t h e o r y t o t h e In d o n esian ex p erien ce, our i n i t i a l c o n c lu s io n s w i l l b e m ix e d. S in c e he offers broad p o s t u l a t e s, is ex ceed in g ly d i f f i c u l t r i g h t o r wrong. That i s t h e b e n e f i t p r o v e h im of g e n eralize d h y p o th eses. Y e t, we c a n d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r h e d o e s p ro v id e a m ean in g fu l foundation in the understanding of th e p o litic s p e la g o, and i t our I n i t i a l co n clu sio n is in th is sp irit th at of th e arch i is reached. a lists is in s tru c tiv e to n o te t h a t even su c h av id n a tio n a s P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o would a d m i t t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f an I n d o n e s ia n "concept o f n a t i o n " was n o t s o l e l y th e product of fo rc e s w ith in th e a r c h i p e l a g o. view, H is w o rld i n term s of a " r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " A s ia and A f r i c a, r e i n f o r c e s th roughout P y e 's c o n t e n t i o n. th e h i s t o r y of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t movement and of th e P.K.I. underscores th e fact th at In a d d itio n, th e developm ent th e c re a tio n t h e R e p u b l i c m u s t, by n e c e s s i t y, b e v i e w e d In a broader p e r s p e c t i v e th a n m erely t h e p o l i t i c s arch ip elag o. of th e The w h o l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — "From E m p i r e t o N a t i o n " - - w a s i n w i t h powers t h a t t r a n s c e n d e d the b o rd ers H o w ev e r, w h a t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t th e very groups d e d ic a te d of th e a r c h i p e l a g o. strik in g th e a c tu a lity to d e v e lo p in g an In d o n e sia n i d e n t i t y, were w e l l- a w a r e o f t h e f a c t theory, tie d th at, least t h e y had t o s e e k a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n P y e ' s f o r c e s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l and p a r o c h i a l. of th e P r e s i d e n t 's concept of M arhaenism The P. M. I. ' s in d ic ate d a d o p tio n th at === [PDF page 110] === 106 t h e r e was a n a t t e m p t to fu se the Id e a ls g o v e rn m e n t" I n t h e W est w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n s so c ia l order. The a b s t r a c t i o n s point to th a t d ir e c tio n. sta te Thus, "rep resen tativ e of th e Indonesian o f m u f a k a t and m u s j a w a r a h i n form, th e developm ent of a id e o lo g y em phasized th e f a c t t h a t th e In d o n e s ia n e l i t e w a s a c u t e l y a w a r e o f P y e ’s c o n c e r n f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f am algam ation. In the id e o lo g ic a l sense, a p o litic a lly independent In d o n esia t h e l e a d e r s h i p of knew o n l y t o o w e l l t h a t th e developm ent of an In d o n e s ia n n a tio n i n w ell as In " fo rm " was o f t h e e s s e n c e. Y et, in the o p e ra tio n a l a re n a, " s u b s ta n c e " as th e t r a n s p o s i t i o n of an a w a re n e s s o f t h e problem i n t o a program o f a c t i o n in achieving "u n ity " out of The a t t e m p t tic a l " d i v e r s i t y " did n o t ta k e p la c e. t o b r i d g e th e gap betw een th e r e s p e c t i v e f o r c e s would n o t b e e f f e c t i v e c o n stan tly, an e s s e n t i a l l y n e g a t iv e a n a n t i - c o l o n i a l s t a n c e was u s e d. of th e sym bols of n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e l o n g r u n when program i n t h e That i s, form o f t h e e m plo ym en t co u ld be u t i l i z e d a g a i n s t t h e D u tc h; h ow ever, beyond p o li in the s tru g g le th e c a l l f o r a stand a g a i n s t a common e n e m y, t h e program of t h e l e a d e r s h i p did n o t o f f e r s o lu tio n s to the b a sic e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s f a c i n g t h e new n a t i o n. program s by t h e v icio u s c ir c le Indeed, the s t r e s s on n a t i o n a l i s t i c " s o l i d a r i t y m a k e rs'1 ten d e d t o d e v e lo p a of n a tio n a l d i s i n te g r a t i o n r a t h e r than in te g ratio n. In th is case, rev o lu tio n obscured th e c o n s ta n t p le a s f o r a co n tin u in g th e need f o r a p ro b le m - s o lv in g o rien tatio n === [PDF page 111] === 107 and d i s c r e d i t e d tra d itio n." and t h o s e who a d h e r e d t o t h e Inv ersely, so c ia l secto rs to rein fo rc e th e by i n c l i n a t io n c o n fro n ted "ad m in istrativ e c o n t i n u a l d e c l i n e i n t h e economic o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n ity o n l y t e n d e d p o s i t i o n o f t h o s e who w e r e l e a s t c a p a b l e o r t a l e n t to s e t t l e th e c o n c r e te problem s t h a t th e arch ip elag o. The " s o l i d a r i t y m a k e r s, " w i t h th eir relian ce o n e m o t i o n a l i s m a s a m eans o f m a i n t a i n i n g th eir p o sitio n, w ere h e a r t i l y com m itted t o p lanned d e v e l o p ment. Y et, by rec o g n izin g the d isu n ify in g fa c to rs w ith in th e R e p u b lic, c a n r e a d i l y be se e n t h a t only t h e b r o a d e s t program o f n a t i o n s l i s t s e n t i m e n t c o u l d e s t a b l i s h a minimum degree o f common p u r p o s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e f r a g m e n t e d c o n fig u ra tio n of the s t a te. p o litica l i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e why t h e re sp e c tiv e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s had " t o t a k e a w o r l d v i e w and represent a way o f l i f e. " - ^ fo r n a tio n alism Only t h r o u g h t h e b r o a d e s t c a l l s c o u l d a common d e n o m i n a t o r be f o u n d com plex s o c i a l d iv is io n s th a t c h a ra c te riz e d Y et, in the the a rc h ip e la g o. t h e p e rio d b e f o r e t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f 'buided D e m o c r a c y, " t h e r e was a n o v e r t e n d e a v o r t o e m p l o y P y e ’s "lo g ic o f c o m p e t i t i v e p o l i t i c s " i n t h e form of a n e x t e n s i v e p a rty sy stem. effe ctiv ely However, b e c a u s e t h e s e p a r t i e s c o u ld n o t a g g r e g a t e th e i n t e r e s t o f th e people th e y supposed ly rep re se n te d 57pye, due to the e l i t e P o litic s, n atu re of I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p. 1 7. === [PDF page 112] === 108 and s i n c e t h e y c o u l d n o t c o m p r o m i s e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h e a c h o t h e r on a c c o u n t o f t h e b a s i c d i v i s i o n s t h a t w ere so p re v a le n t in th e In d o n e sia n p o l i t i c a l system, not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t e v e n o u t w a r d c o o p e r a t i o n b r o k e down o n c e a g en eral appeal to n atio n alism u n ity. In a sense then, th e re d u c tio n of th e p a r t i e s th e P r e s id e n t on ly tended in te rests tic s to affirm under th e f a c t t h a t com peting could n o t be r e c o n c i l e d. In th is attem p ted c o u ld no l o n g e r m ask t h e d i s lig h t, t o Im pose a t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e why t h e P resident le a s t a s u p e r f ic ia l u n ity in th e p o li o f t h e n a t i o n i n t h e form o f a n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y. he f a i l e d in h is endeavor f o r th e very re a s o n t h a t, the g u ise of a c a l l f o r a united d iv isio n s to secure h is Thus, under Sukarno played p o sitio n. i t w o u l d a p p e a r on t h e e v e o f t h e a b o r t i v e coup t h a t t h e "lo g ic the c o n f lic ts of a div id ed c h allen g es fro n t, Y et, of co m p etitiv e of developm ent. p o l i t i c s " did n o t r e s o lv e n a ti o n faced w ith m eetin g th e Y et, at th is ju n ctu re, i t would be f a r t o o e a r l y t o condemn P y e 's t h e o r y f o r b a s i c a l l y tw o reasons. In th e f i r s t of th e p lace, one c a n s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d e c l i n e p a rty system r e f l e c t e d the vario u s p arties the fa c t th a t th e had n o t l e a r n e d the lead ers im portance of th e " b r o k e r a g e " f u n c t i o n by l e a r n i n g t o com prom ise t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e m s e l v e s o r, not choose to do s o. as in th e case of th e P.K. I., One c a n n o t, however, d i s m is s th is did === [PDF page 113] === 109 shortcom ing a s I m p e r f e c t p o l i t i c a l e d u c a ti o n. n e s s to e f f e c t com prom ise i m p l i e s a b a s i c ru les of t h e game an d i n t h e T he w i l l i n g agreem ent on t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e - w b t h e r t h a n a broad a p p e a l t o n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t s — t h e r e was a l a c k o f c o n s e n s u s i n the In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e. S eco n d ly, m ean t h a t t h e the f a i l u r e "lo g ic of th e p a r t y system d id of co m p e titiv e p o l i t i c s " in th e " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v ern m en t" co uld n o t be a p p lie d Indonesian c a s e. For a l l h is errors, t h a t the a r c h i p e l a g o m ust d e v e lo p i t s was n o t w i t h o u t m e r i t. form of to the the P r e s id e n t's view own f o r m o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n W h ile one c o u ld c o n te n d p r a c t i c e, S u k a r n o was n o t c o m m itte d not th at, to d ev elo p in g a d i s t i n c t i v e I n d o n e s i a n fo rm o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b e c a u s e he would n o t to lerate o p p o sitio n to h is in his c a l l f o r b rin g to lig h t own form o f " c o n s u l t a t i o n " and th e problem t h a t " d e l i b e r a t i o n, " he d id Indonesiavm ust evolve i t s and a g g r e g a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s was e f f e c t i v e l y of a d iv id ed P e r h a p s m u f a k a t and m u s j a w a r a h a r e n o t t h e a n s w e r s, b u t w ith th e r e s u r g e n c e of the accom m odation o f i n t e r e s t s t o be a v e r te d. of the a r c h ip e la g o, we c a n s e e w h e r e some necessary if a n o th er c r i s i s w hich has n o t escap ed the d iv isio n s c a n go bey o n d S u k a r n o i n p r e s e n t i n g n o t "form " b u t a l s o th e governm ent." I n o u r c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r we s h a l l h a v e t o q u e stio n w hether a m i l i t a r y, o n ly the th e f a c t rem ain s t h a t, " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e governm ent" i f to a rtic u la te n atio n. co n cep tio n, "su b sta n c e " of "rep resen tativ e === [PDF page 114] === 110 I n sum t h e n, now t h a t we h a v e s e e n w h e r e P y e ' s t h e o r y h a s p r o v i d e d us w i t h a m e a n i n g f u l s e t of h y p o th eses t h a t s e r v e to illu m in a te th e m onum ental c h a l l e n g e s th e R epublic f a c e s i n i t s a t t e m p t t o b e c o m e a v i a b l e n a t i o n, we c a n t u r n t o t h e co up and r e a c t i o n t h a t t h r e a t e n e d to plunge th e a rc h ip e la g o in to a prolonged c i v i l c o n f l i c t. e x a m in a tio n of t h i s c r i s i s, Through an we s h a l l n o t o n l y b e a b l e a s c e r t a i n the i n t e r a c t i o n of th e lead in g p o litic a l th ey struggled fo r s u r v i v a l, b u t g a in an i n s i g h t p r o g r a m s w h i c h may, I n t h e c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r, th e f u t u r e course of I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s. forces in to th eir h e lp us c h a r t === [PDF page 115] === CHAPTER 4 THE ATTEMPTED COUP AND REACTION— A CRYSTALLIZATION OF CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE IN INDONESIAN POLITICS I n o u r l a s t c h a p t e r we saw w h e r e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p o licy of a u n ited f r o n t im posed a s u p e r f i c i a l a p p e a r a n c e of u n i t y w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o, b u t t h a t s u c h an a p p e a r a n c e was d e c e p t i v e b e c a u s e i t created failed t o r e c o n c ile the c o n f l i c t s by th e b a s i c d i v i s i o n s w ith in th e In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l c o n fig u ra tio n. I n d e e d, we n o t e d t h a t S u k a r n o ' s p o l i c i e s may h a v e, in te n sified because h is in r e a l it y, p ro g ra m was p r e d i c a t e d the d i v i s i o n s upon p l a y in g o f f c o m p e tin g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s and d i d n o t p r o v i d e f o r a m e a n i n g f u l d e v e l o p ment of m eth o d s th r o u g h w hich c o m p e tin g i n t e r e s t s c o u ld be a rtic u la te d, aggregated I n view o f t h i s, p rim arily re ste d and r e c o n c i l e d. p o litics o n t h e e v e of t h e c o u p in th e hands of th e e l i t e and o n l y t h e m ost t e n u o u s e q u i l i b r i u m the leaders of th e r e s p e c t i v e own p u r p o s e s, th is to su b scrib e to b a l a n c e would c o l l a p s e seized th e In itia tiv e in the c a p i t o l, was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e s w ere w i l l i n g, for th e ir t h e NASAKOM c o n c e p t. Y et, as a re s u r g in g P.K.I. t h a t had i n I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s and h a d t h r e a t e n e d 111 === [PDF page 116] === 112 t o b r e a k down_jbhe d e l i c a t e c o a l i t i o n, turned fr o m a p r o g r a m o f p o l i t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n t o one o f v i o l e n c e a s I n t h e tra d itio n o f 1926 and M a n d i u n. T h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o u p and r e a c t i o n i n t h i s ch ap ter, w i l l be c o n d u c te d toward a c h i e v i n g t h e f o llo w in g purposes. In th e f i r s t power d e stro y e d, u n ity, p lace, the P. K. I. 's attem pt to g ra s p on o n e h a n d, the s u p e r f i c i a l appearance of b u t provided, on t h e o t h e r, a p o t e n t i a l b a s i B f o r I n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e form o f a b r o a d - b a s e d a n ti- c o m m u n is t fro n t. I n t h i s s e n s e, we s h a l l n o t o n l y v i e w t h e e v e n t s g ro w in g out of th e c o n f l i c t as an i n d i c a t i o n of In d o n esian d iv isio n, tow ard b u t s u g g e s t t h a t a n e w e r and m o r e r e a l i s t i c approach n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n may h a v e d e v e l o p e d. S econ d ly, exposed t h e c o u p and r e a c t i o n c r y s t a l l i z e d the c o n flic ts and t h a t had b e e n o b s c u r e d u n d e r S u k a r n o ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f Guided D e m o c r a c y. T h e re fo re, by studying th e ro les o f t h e l e a d in g a c t o r s i n t h e coup a s th e y were s t r u g g lin g f o r s u r v i v a l, we may o b t a i n a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e o f w h a t th eir r e a l p o s i t i o n s were as c o n t r a s t e d gram o f u n i t y. strip p ed th e The f u n d a m e n t a l c r i s i s t o an e n fo rced p r o th e archipelago faced, away t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f i d e o l o g i c a l r h e t o r i c c o n t e n d e r s f o r p o l i t i c a l power e x p o s e d t h e i r t r u e p o s i t i o n s by t h e i r c risis a c tio n s taken d u rin g t h i s c h a o tic then, the ro le s p r o v i d e s us w i t h a more l u c i d of the le a d in g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s. u n i t y was d e s tr o y e d. We m u s t, th erefo re, p eriod. The understanding of The f a c a d e o f stu d y t h i s period === [PDF page 117] === 113 clo sely, f o r I t may g i v e u s a c l e a r e r - c u t p ictu re of th e I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h a n we c o u l d o b t a i n f r o m a s tu d y of contem porary e v e n ts such as th e t a s k f a c in g m i l i t a r y o f p l a y i n g down d i v i s i o n s a new o r d e r i n t h e R e p u b l i c. in i t s effo rts The c o u p p e r i o d, the to co n stru ct th erefo re, f u r n i s h e s u s w i t h a r a r e moment o f t r u t h in Indonesian p o l i tic s. H o s t i l i t i e s w hich rem ained f i n a l l y came t o t h e fore, a nd t h e y m u s t b e s t u d i e d. the laten t F or in post-coup In d o n e sia, lead in g p o l i t i c a l fo rc e s a re ag ain a ttem p tin g to a c t behind th e sc re e n of p u b lic F in a lly, know ledge. t h e coup and r e a c t i o n w i l l b e exam ined a s a means o f a g a i n t e s t i n g P y e ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e of c o m p e titiv e p o l i t i c s " a "logic i n t h e form of " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e rn m e n t" t h a t c a n be employed a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e for p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n I n d o n e s i a a nd t h e o t h e r new s t a t e s o f A s i a and A f r i c a. In p a r t, th e f a ilu r e I f th e coup a tte m p t, rep resen ted of th e p o l i t i c a l system t o e f f e c t i v e l y a r t i c u l a t e a nd a g g r e g a t e d e m a n d s, t h e r e a c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d may s e r v e to In d icate R epublic t h a t P y e 's h y p o th eses s t i l l have v a l i d i t y as th e f a c e s t h e c h a l l e n g e o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e wake o f an i n t e n s e c r i s i s. I n e x a m i n i n g t h e c o u p and r e a c t i o n t h a t word o f c a u t i o n i s in o rd e r. fo llo w ed, T h is c h a p t e r d o e s n o t presum e t o g iv e a com prehensive d e s c r i p t i o n of th e e v e n ts t h a t rounded t h e c r i s i s. sur A f u l l a c c o u n t of t h e s e e v e n t s must a w a it th e hands of th e h i s t o r i a n, a rm e d w i t h t h e b l e s s i n g s === [PDF page 118] === 114 In sig h t g ain ed from t h e p a s s a g e d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l be lim ite d of tim e. C o n seq u en tly, th is to th o se a v a ila b le w i l l h e lp us u n d e rs ta n d th e r e a c tio n f o r c e s a s th e R ep u b lic raced tow ard of th e its facts th at lead in g p o litic a l r e n d e z - v o u s w ith c risis. T h e I n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e Coup On t h e m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 1, what appeared t o be J u s t a n o th e r h e c t i c of any n a t i o n a l c a p i t o l. of tr a f f ic, o ffices, area carry in g had 1965* D j a k a r t a awoke t o On t h e c i t y day in th e ro u tin e roads, th e u su a l rush th e In d o n esian bu reau cracy to th e ir ju st sta rte d. Y e t, when p e o p l e a r r i v e d df th e g re a t park th a t surrounded ( t h e N a t i o n a l M onum ent), arm ed t h e Tunggu N asional t h e y w ere g r e e te d t r o o p s who, w i t h I n d o n e s i a n f l a g s In th e b y t h e s p e c t a c l e of on t h e i r m u f t i., were g u a rd in g th e r e c e n t l y com pleted T elec o m m u n ica tio n s B u ild in g. In itia lly, th e presence of th ese troops re s u lte d more i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f i d l e c u r i o u s i t y t h a n a s e n s e o f im pending c risis; f o r t h e c i t y h a d g r o w n u s e d t o t h e m o v e m e n t of u n f a m i l i a r t r o o p s a s Armed F o r c e s D a y, b r i n g i n g i n v a r i o u s u n its from t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o was t o tak e place th e p o l i t i c a l t h a t t h i s would n o t b e w h ile D ja k arta i n a m a ssiv e parade, on t h e 5 t h. Y e t, by m id -m o rn in g, by degrees p a rticip a te slep t on t h e n i g h t c o n t r o l of R.R.T. p u b lic had lea rn ed Ju st an o th er day. For, o f S e p t e m b e r 3 0 t h, armed u n its seized (R ad io I n d o n e s ia ) casted th e fo llo w in g m essage t o th e R ep ublic and b r o a d and t h e w o rld. === [PDF page 119] === 115 For th e s a f e t y of th e R ep u b lic of In d o n e s ia, f o r th e s e c u r i t y of t h e i m p l i m e n t a t i o n of P a n t J a s i l a and P a n t j a A z l m a t R e v o l u s i, f o r t h e s a f e t y o f t h e Army a n d t h e a r m e d s e r v i c e s i n g e n e r a l, a p u r g e a g a in st th e s o - c a l l e d C o u n c il of G e n e ra ls w hich a t t e m p t e d a c o u p b e f o r e Armed S e r v i c e s D a y o f O c t o b e r 5, 1965 w a s l a u n c h e d i n D j a k a r t a a t m i d n i g h t on Thursday th e 3 0 th of S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 5. A num ber of G e n e r a ls w ere a r r e s t e d, means o f c o m m u n ic a tio n and oth er v i t a l o b j e c ti v e s i n D ja k a r ta w ere f u l l y u n der th e c o n t r o l o f t h e 3 0 t h o f M ovem ent. The 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Mov em ent w a s a m o v e m e n t p u r e l y d i r e c t e d tow ards t h e g e n e r a l s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e C o u n c il o f G en erals. T he m o v e m e n t w a s s u p p o r t e d b y a r m e d t r o o p s o u ts id e t h e arm y. T h is s ta te m e n t, a lo n g w ith o t h e r s, co u ld n o t be i n i t i a l l y o b ta in e d i n p r i n t e d form b e c a u s e t h e s i t u a t i o n was so ch ao tic. C o n s e q u e n t l y, I had a n I n d o n e s i a n f r i e n d, who w o rk e d a t A ntara P r e s s ( t h e o f f i c i a l news a g e n c y ), c o m p i l e a s e r i e s of pronouncem ents b y t h e r e b e l s and o t h e r s d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w ith the a ttem p ted co u p. I owe h i m a d e b t o f t h a n k s, f o r many o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s w e r e o r a l d e c l a r a t i o n s m ade o v e r t h e rad io. L a t e r, a num ber o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s would be p r e s e n t e d i n w r i t t e n fo rm by A n t a r a, b u t I c o u l d n o t o b t a i n c o p i e s o f them. I n p a r t, t h i s was a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e news a g e n c y was s u s p e c t. I t w ould u n d e rg o a p u r g e b y t h e m i l i t a r y b e c a u s e a n u m b e r o f i t s e m p l o y e e s cam e o u t i n f a v o r o f t h e reb els. I s h a ll e n t i t l e th e sourse a s: T ra n s la tio n s of th e S t a t e m e n t s o f t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r M o v e m e n t a n d Rela-fc'ecl M aterial, p. S in c e th e i n i t i a l w r i t i n g of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n, a number of t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e c o n t e n d i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s i n t h e coup a t t e m p t h a v e b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r t i c l e. “S e l e c t e d D o c u m e n t s R e l a t e d t o t h e S e p t e m b e r 3 0 t h M o v e m e n t a n d i t s E p i l o g u e. " (C om piled b y t h e E d i t o r s ). In d o n e s ia. V ol. 1 (A p ril, 19665, p p. 1 3 1 - 1 8 3. I h a v e c h e c k e d my t r a n s l a t i o n s of the m a t e r i a l w i t h t h e p ro n o u n cem en ts a p p e a r i n g i n t h e a r t i c l e and w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s d u e t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s e l e c t e d w o rd s, t h e r e i s no m e a n in g fu l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m a t e r i a l I c o l l e c t e d i n t h e f i e l d and the m a te r ia l a p p e a r in g i n t h e a r t i c l e. The e d i t o r s o f I n d o n e s i a h ave p r o v i d e d a n e x c e l l e n t b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r h i s t o r i c a l treatm ents of th e coup a tt e m p t. I a p p re c ia te th e ir candor when t h e y n o t e: "... t h a t th e c o l l e c t i o n o f docum ents... i s very f a r from p r o v i d i n g a c o m p r e h e n s iv e c o v e r a g e of t h e r o l e s of t h e v a r i o u s i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d by, or i n v o lv e d i n t h e e v e n t s o f O c t o b e r 1, 1 9 6 5. I b i d., p. 131. A gain, a f u l l t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s c r i t i c a l p e r i o d m u st w a it f o r t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e and t h e p e r s p e c t i v e and a d d i t i o n a l in fo rm a tio n g ained from n o t h a v in g t o d e a l w i t h an e s s e n t i a l l y open-ended i s s u e. === [PDF page 120] === 116 W ith t h i s m essa g e, c risis t h e s t a g e was s e t f o r a p o l i t i c a l t h a t h as y e t to ru n i t s course in th e a r c h ip e la g o. As t h e news o f t h i s event filte re d through th e c a p i t o l b y word o f m o u t h a nd l a t e r, b y n e w s p a p e r s, t h e q u e s t i o n s w e r e c o m m o n ly a s k e d: What g e n e r a l s w e r e a r r e s t e d? Movem ent? released A year la te r, b u t on t h e th at gripped Where was t h e P r e s i d e n t? What was t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r c o m p le te answers w ere y e t t o be 3 0 th o f Septem ber, a n s w e r s would s e r v e fo llo w in g least, to h ig h lig h t the i n t e n s i t y the p a r t i a l of th e c r i s i s th e a rc h ip e la g o. The i n i t i a l c o n c e r n c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e w h e r e a b o u t s of th e P re s id e n t. th e As t h e h e a d - o f - s t a t e and m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y, l e a d e r of I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s, t h e r e was u n d e r s t a n d a b l e c o n s t e r n a t i o n a s t h e c o m m u n iq u e o f t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r movement d i d n o t r e f e r t o h i m. The a b s e n c e o f t h e m a n, long i n th e s p o t l i g h t o f In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s, produced th e onerous s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e v e ry n a tu re of In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s would u n d e r g o a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e. cern in g the f a te f e a r con o f t h e P r e s i d e n t, was n o t a b a t e d when t h e m o v e m e n t, t h a t was y e t th e R ep u b lic, The i n i t i a l issu ed to be regarded as b 6in g d i s l o y a l to t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m u n iq u e. ... P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o was s a f e u n d e r t h e c u s t o d y o f t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement.2 The a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t was "under th e T r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e S t a t e m e n t s of 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement and R e l a t e d M a t e r i a l, p. 1. === [PDF page 121] === 117 c u sto d y " of a s t i l l unknown g r o u p c o u l d h a r d l y h e e x p e c t e d t o p ro v id e an a tm o sp h e re I n which c o n fid e n c e co u ld h e e n g e n dered. F u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n, h o w e v e r, d e v e l o p e d when t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement ( G e r a k a n T i g a P u l u h S e p t e m b e r ) cated th a t o ne L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l U n t u n g,^ in h i s c a p a c i t y a s a commander i n t h e T j a k r a b i r w a B a t t a l i o n ^ a c t e d t e c t Sukarno. Thus, view t h a t t h e b a s i c In d i t h e r e w ere t h o s e who s u b s c r i b e d pro the i s s u e co u ld be c o n s i d e r e d a s m e r e l y a n a t t e m p t of c e r t a i n d i s s i d e n t o f f i c e r s t o u s e t h e P r e s i d e n t a s a means o f a c h i e v i n g t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s. The O c t o b e r 17t h A f f a i r was n o t f o r g o t t e n. Y et, a s th e day c o n tin u e d, i t b ecame i n c r e a s i n g l y e v i d e n t t h a t t h e p e r p e t u a t o r s o f t h e p l o t w e re n o t lim ited i n t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s and i n d e e d w o u ld p r e s e n t a p r o g r a m t h a t would h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t, n o t o n l y on t h e I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y b u t th e e n t i r e course of In d o n esian p o l i t i c s w ell. The v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of p u b lic a u t h o r i t y w o u ld u n d e r g o a f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n. In i t s " D e c i s i o n Number 1, " t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement n o t e d t h a t a R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c i l (Dewan R e v o l u s i ) would b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n D j a k a r t a and t h a t a d d i t i o n a l c o u n c i l s ^ I n i t i a l l y t h e r e was a s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n r a i s e d a s t o w hether t h i s o f f i c e r r e a l l y e x i s t e d. H i s name m e a n s " l u c k " o r "Fortune" in In d o n e s ia n. T h e r e w e r e t h o s e who t h e r e f o r e f e l t i t was a c o d e n a m e. === [PDF page 122] === 118 would be formed t h r o u g h o u t I n d o n e s i a P r o v in c ia l R ev o lu tio n ary C o uncils on t h e f o l l o w i n g lev els: (Dewan R e v o l u s l K a b u p a t e n ), S u b - d i s t r i c t R ev o lu tio n ary C o u ncils (Dewan R e v o l u s l K e t j a m a t a n ), and V i l l a g e R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c i l s (Dewan R e v o l u s l D e s a ). Thus, th e r e b e l s to th e offered t h e i r own i n s t i t u t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s le g a lly c o n stitu ted g o vernm ent. I n th e fo r m a tio n of t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e governm ent, was n o t e d t h a t L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l U n tu n g would a c t a s C h a irm a n o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c i l w h i c h was t o c o n s i s t o f ^5 d e l e g ates. The c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h i s body i s in stru ctiv e for i t s e r v e s t o i n d i c a t e how t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o u p a t t e m p t e d c l o t h e t h e m s e l v e s i n l e g a l i t y b y i n c l u d i n g on t h e i r l i s t d e l e g a t e s a w ide v a r i e t y v ir tu a lly a l l secto rs The r e b e l l e a d e r s, as fav o rin g of peo p le t h a t supposedly re p re s e n te d of th e In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l spectrum. th erefo re, sought to p re s e n t th em selv es " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e governm ent" i n th e R e p u b lic. I n exam ining th e list of d e le g a te s, to no te th a t the r e b e l le a d e rs s t i l l attem p ted t h e a rm e d f o r c e s b y n a m i n g f o u r r e l a t i v e l y i s w orthw hile to speak fo r ju n io r o ffic e rs e a c h r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e b r a n c h e s o f t h e arm ed s e r v i c e s, v ice-ch airm an. Thus, in itia lly th e outw ard l e a d e r of th e coup f o r c e s — L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l U n tu n g -claim ed to be a ctin g T r a n s la tio n s of th e S ta te m e n ts of th e 3 0 th of S e p t e m b e r Movement anci R e l a t e d M a t e r i a l, p. 4. f o r an ex am in atio n of the o r g a n iz a tio n of p u b lic a u t h o r i ty w ith in th e R ep u b lic se e: J. D. L e g g e, C e n t r a l A u t h o r i t y a nd R e g i o n a l A u to n o m y i n I n d o n e s i a. A S tu d y of L o cal A d m i n is tr a t io n 195bl£ b 6 ( r b h a c a: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y ]h?ess, 1 9 5 1 ). === [PDF page 123] === 119 support of th e In te g rity of t h e m i l i t a r y against: P o w e r h u n g r y g e n e r a l s and o f f i c e r s who n e g l e c t e d t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s a n d who o n t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s l i v e d l u x u r i o u s l y, had a happy tim e h u m i l i a t i n g women a n d s p e n t t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s money l a v i s h l y.5 Thus, the re b e ls ap p ealed y o u n g r e f o r m e r s who w a n t e d m ilita ry the to clean se a rm e d f o r c e s a s and n o t d e s t r o y t h e e stab lish m en t. H ow ever, O ctober 1, in read in g 1 96 5 * one c o u ld Movement w a n te d to d estro y " D e c i s i o n N u m b e r 2, " d a t e d suggest th a t the t h e 3 0 th of S eptem ber effectiv en ess e sta b lish m e n t r a t h e r th an reform of th e m i l i t a r y ... t h e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n c il of Indonesia d e c id e d t h a t s i n c e t h a t day on, th e h ig h e s t rank in t h e I n d o n e s i a n Armed S e r v i c e s i s L t. C o l o n e l. w as f u r t h e r e x p r e s s e d t h a t t h o s e w i t h t h e r a n k of L ie u te n a n t C olonel a re re q u e ste d to express th e ir l o y a l t y t o t h e C o u n c i l i n w r i t i n g and n o t u n t i l t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s s u b m i t t e d c a n t h e y u s e t h e ra n k of L ieu ten an t C o lo n e l.° In a d d itio n: ... The R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c i l o f I n d o n e s ia a l s o d e c id e d to g iv e p rom otion one l e v e l higher to a l l n o n - c o m m i s s i o n e d o f f i c e r s a n d e n l i s t e d men of t h e I n d o n e s i a n Armed S e r v i c e s who c a r r i e d o u t t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p te m b e r M ovem ent. N on-com m issioned o f f i c e r s ^ T r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e S t a t e m e n t s o f 3 0 th of Septem ber Movement and R e l a t e d M a t e r i a l, p p. £ - 3. I n th e l i s t of c h a rg e s, th e r e b e l s c o n ten d ed t h a t: The C o u n c il of G e n e ra ls was a s u b v e r s i v e movement s p o n s o r e d b y t h e C. I.A. " I b i d., T h u s, f r o m t h e s t a r t, t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement e m p l o y e d a s y m b o l r o u n d l y h a t e d w i t h i n I n d o n e s i a a s a m eans of o b tain in g su p p o rt. I s a y a sym bol, b e ca u se l a t e r the a n t i - c o m m u n i s t f o r c e s w o u l d c o n t e n d t h a t t h e r e b e l s worked fo r th e C.I.A.! ^Ibid., === [PDF page 124] === 120 and e n l i s t e d men who t o o k p a r t i n t h e p u r g e a g a i n s t t h e C o u n c i l o f G e n e r a l s w e re p ro m o ted two l e v e l s h i g h e r t h a n t h e r a n k s u s e d on t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Thus, the re b e ls i n one p ro n o u n c e m e n t w e re o b l i t e r a t i n g r a t h e r th a n s t i m u l a t i n g th e developm ent T h e i r a im w a s n o t h i n g req u isites th at of th e m i l i t a r y. le s s th an to a b o lis h th e b a sic a n y a rm e d f o r c e m u s t h a v e t o pre su rv iv e— o r g a n i z a t i o n an d d i s c i p l i n e. N ev erth eless, in t h e i r appointm en t of d e le g a t e s, coup l e a d e r s a t t e m p t e d t o p r e s e n t a n im age t h a t S e p t e m b e r M ovement r e p r e s e n t e d transcended a broad b a s i s the th e 30th of of support th a t the In d o n esian m i l i t a r y. I n a s s e s s i n g t h e c i v i l i a n m em bership o f t h e C o u n c il, t h e r e was a n a p p a r e n t e n d e a v o r t o c l a i m was w i d e l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e. who w e r e d e s i g n a t e d forces, F ro n t, C o n seq u en tly, p arties, t h e r e w ere d e l e g a t e s t h e I n d o n e s i a n s t u d e n t move jo u rn a lis t a sso c iatio n, an d l a s t l y new b o d y a s b e in g draw n from t h e n a t i o n a l i s t the r e lig io u s m ent, t h e th at th is and members o f t h e N a t i o n a l ad d itio n al m ilita ry c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t how ever, Mr. T u j t i g o — w a s l a b e l e d th at o fficers. p a rti o n ly one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e — a com m unist. We s h a l l r e t u r n t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s w hen we e x a m i n e t h e e x t e n t of in v o lv e ment o f t h e P. K. I. is a lso s trik in g were i n c l u d e d 7I b i d., t h a t so m e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l on t h e C o u n c i l a s o r d i n a r y d e l e g a t e s. fig u res These === [PDF page 125] === 121 In clu d ed F o re ig n M i n i s t e r Subandrio— a d v o c a te of c lo s e I n d o n e s i a n - C h i n e s e r e l a t i o n s — and D r. L e i m e n a who, we n o t e d, was a spokesm an f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n Community. As t h e r e a c t i o n tow ard t h e c o u p f o r c e s s t a r t e d, men l i k e L e i m e n a w o u l d c l a i m t h a t t h e y had n o t b e e n c o n s u l t e d on t h e i r a p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e C o u n c i l an d w e r e o n l y b e i n g u t i l i z e d own p u r p o s e s. by th e P.K.I. for its H o w e v e r, D r. S u b a n d r i o c o u l d n o t make t h i s a s s e r t i o n, b e c a u s e f u t u r e e v e n t s w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t h e was part of t h e c o n s p i r a c y t h a t t h r e a t e n e d Thus, a t still th e a rc h ip e la g o. t h e i n c e p t i o n of t h e c o u p, t h e p l o t t e r s, u n i d e n t i f i e d, d e clare d th em selv es a s re fo rm e rs r e p r e s e n t i n g a w ide s e c t o r of the R e p u b lic, and n o t a s a f o r c e, a tte m p tin g t o tra n s fo rm the e n tir e In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c a l In tim e how ever, d isp lay i t w o u l d become m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t of u n i t y co u p led with th e b id a c t u a l l y was g e a r e d system. t h a t the to c r ip p le the m ilita r y t o s p r e a d i n g c o n f u s i o n and t h e r e f o r e o p e n i n g up t h e p a t h f o r a n e f f e c t i v e By t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e f i r s t, e v e n t s o f t h e d a y were n o t a b a t e d. seizu re of pow er. th e u n c e rta in ty of the The f a t e of the P re s id e n t and t h e t r u e m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c i l u n d e r the apparent d eterm in ed. l e a d e r s h i p o f an unknown f i g u r e, H o w e v e r, when H a r i a n R a k y a t, 8I b i d., ha d y e t t o b e the lea d in g ^ H a r i a n R a k y a t came o u t i n f a v o r o f t h e c o u p i n i t s S a t u r d a y e d i t i o n, w h i c h was on t h e s t r e e t s F r i d a y n i g h t. T hroughout th e coup a tte m p t, th e a u th o r t r i e d t o o b t a i n an is s u e of t h is p ap er. I was u n a b l e t o d o s o, an d l a t e r, l e a r n e d === [PDF page 126] === 122 communist n e w sp a p e r, a p p e a r e d on t h e s t r e e t s, a c learer u n d erstan d in g of the r e a l i t i e s of th e coup a t t e m p t b e g a n t o b eco m e p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e. H a r l a n R a k y a t and t h e o t h e r c o m m u n i s t d a i l i e s came o u t i n s u p p o r t o f t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement a n d c a r r i e d a s t a t e m e n t b y V i c e - A i r M a r s h a l l Omar D h a n i t h a t f o r c e would s u p p o r t t h e r e b e l m o v em en t. the fe a rs the a ir T h i s news c o n f i r m e d o f t h o s e who, e a r l i e r i n t h e d a y, c o n t e n d e d th at t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement was n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a f a c a d e b eh in d w hich t h e P. K. I. would la u n c h i t s d riv e to pow er. Thus, w h ile th e f u l l sc o p e o f th e in v e lv e m e n t o f t h e was y e t t o b e known, i t com m unists was now e v i d e n t t h a t t h e B a r t y w a s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e coup a t t e m p t. The d e f e c t i o n o f D h a n i was a l s o v i e w e d w i t h g r a v e concern. Rumors d e v e l o p e d n e c e s s a r y, bomb t h e c i t y t h a t th e a i r f o r c e w ould, i n support of th e r e b e l s. on t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e f i r s t, D j a k a r t a b r a c e d a long n i g h t. A ccording Itse lf for The p r o s p e c t t h a t t h e c i t y w o u l d b e c o m e a b a t t l e g r o u n d was v e r y r e a l. O v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e n i g h t and i n t o t h e e a r l y m orning of t h e se co n d, the f a t e t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n g c o n j e c t u r e of D efense M i n i s t e r N asution, the over o th er lead in g t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y had a t t e m p t e d t o c o n f i s c a t e a s m a n y i s s u e s as p o s s i b l e. How ev er, a s o ne f o r e i g n d i s p a t c h n o t e d, t h e p a p e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r M ovement w a s " p a t r i o t i c and r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n. " S e th S. K ing, "S u k a rn o on R a d i o, S a y s He S t i l l R u l e s N a t i o n, L o y a l i s t Hunt R e b e l s, " New Y o r k Times ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d i t i o n ), O c t o b e r 4, 1 9 6 5, p. 1. === [PDF page 127] === 123 generals, and m o s t o f a l l, s i l e n t Sukarno. th e w hereabouts of th e s t r a n g e l y - T h e s e d o u b t s, w h ic h had c o n t i n u e d th e p re v io u s n i g h t, were a g g ra v a te d h o u rs by th e s i g h t throughout i n t h e e a r l y m orning o f arm e d u n i t s c o m i n g f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n o f B a n d u n g and h e a d i n g f o r t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y. tim e l a t e r, t h e s e f o r c e s w ere i d e n t i f i e d the S iliw an g i D iv isio n, a g a in s t the P.K.I. second, as b e in g p a rt as shock tro o p s By e a r l y dawn o f O c t o b e r the f u l l ra m ific a tio n s of th e u p h e a v a l w ere s t i l l becam e more e v i d e n t t h a t t h e m ain b a t t l e - f o r p o t e n t i a l l y a long c i v i l c o n f l i c t w ere b e in g D uring th e m o rning, of G eneral N a su tio n, Jan i, and t h e o t h e r Rum ors s p r e a d su g g estin g th a t h ad f a l l e n v i c t i m t o, w h a t w a s i n c r e a s i n g l y c a l l e d, In a d d itio n, resp ectiv e a com m unist l o y a l t y of th e v a rio u s tr o o p s se en th ro u g h o u t I t was o b s e r v e d nesian flag s on t h e i r u n i f o r m s w h i l e t r o o p s, th at reb el f o r c e s wore I n d o purported l o y a l t o t h e H i g h Command, h ad w h i t e r i b b o n s t i e d jum pers. As o n e c o u l d n o t e, criteria to d eterm in e th e t o be on t h e i r t h i s was h a r d l y a n e f f e c t i v e lo y alty of a d iv id e d arm y. As t h e d a y moved o n, new e x p o s e s c o n t i n u e d of u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h i n t h e c i t y. accepted they t h e r e were s e r i o u s d o u b ts a b o u t t h e th e c a p ito l. fires form ed. th e m y stery su rro u n d in g the f a t e C h ief-o f-S taff G e n e r a l s was i n t e n s i f i e d. p lo t. a t M andiun. in d e fin ite, but i t lin es w h i c h had a c t e d A short to fan the I t was g e n e r a l l y t h a t D e f e n s e M i n i s t e r N a s u t i o n had b e e n k i d n a p p e d a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r g e n e r a l s b u t Bomehow, h a d m a n a g e d t o === [PDF page 128] === 124 escape. T he a t m o s p h e r e c a p i t o l was p la c e d of c r i s i s u n d e r m a r t i a l l a w, and a c u r f e w was Im posed from s i x th e D uring th e c o u rs e fear of a p o te n tia l a i r u n certain ty w a s n o t r e l i e v e d whe n t h e ( d ja m malam) e v e n in g to s i x in th e m orning. o f t h e e v e n i n g of t h e s e c o n d, raid con tin u ed and th is of th e c i t y, to in te n sify the the u n c e r t a i n t y would h e r e i n forced by th e sound of g u n fire from the d i r e c t i o n o f D ja la n K ram at, the s t r e e t on w h i c h t h e n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e P. K. I. was l o c a t e d. And s o, D j a k a r t a, b l a c k o u t, went th ro u g h a n o th e r n i g h t, now d a r k e n e d by a a n tic ip a tin g an a tta c k from t h e a i r t h a t w o u l d n e v e r com e and a c r i s i s t h a t was o n l y sta rtin g to run i t s to rtu o u s on t h e m o r n in g p ath. of th e th ird, o f t h e c o n f u s i o n o f t h e d a y w ould fin a lly spoke t o sh o rt speech, th e l e a s t some l e s s e n as P r e s i d e n t Sukarno I n d o n e s i a n p e o p le over R.R.T. h e made t h e In h is f o l l o w i n g rem arks: t o a v o i d a l l k i n d s o f d o u b t s among t h e p eo p le,... I w i s h t o e x p r e s s t h a t I am s a f e a nd r e m a i n n o i d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f th e S t a t e, A dm inis t r a t i o n an d t h e R e v o l u t i o n o f I n d o n e s i a. 10 In a d d itio n, Sukarno d e c la r e d: To s e t t l e t h i s p r o b l e m I h a v e o r d e r e d t h a t t r a n q u i l i t y a n d o r d e r b e m a i n t a i n e d, and f o r t h a t p u r p o s e any arm ed c l a s h e s s h o u l d be a v o id e d. At th e p r e s e n t s t a g e of th e s t r u g g l e of th e Indonesian • ^ T r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e S t a t e m e n t of th e 3 0 th of Septem ber M o v e m e n t a n d R e l a t e d M a t e r i a l, p. 1 0. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e com m u n i q u e " P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o D e l i v e r e d H is S p e e c h t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n P e o p l e a t 0 1: 3 0 a. m. O c t o b e r 3* 1 9 6 5 * " I b i d. === [PDF page 129] === 125 p e o p l e I o r d e r a l l p e o p l e t o a l w a y s b e on t h e a l e r t and i n r e a d i n e s s i n t h e fram e w o rk o f i n t e n s i f y i n g a n d m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n o f D w i k o r a ^.11 Thus, the P r e s id e n t, ance in In d o n esian from t h e p o litics a f t e r the coup, w ell-w o rn te c h n iq u e of c a l l i n g h is d ire c tio n. How ever, o u tset h is m eaning. not b rin g and h i s course, ha d l i t t l e peace through a d m in is tra tiv e own p o s i t i o n — " G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n " — would b e i m p a i r e d cerned to h is a ttem p t to achieve a se ttle m e n t t h a t had n o t y e t r u n i t s fiat, reso rted f o r n a tio n a l u n ity under d u rin g a c o n f lic t He c o u l d of h is r e a p p e a r over h is op p o n en ts o f th e P. K. I., safety, w ondered no lo n g e r c o n he was i m p l i c a t e d in the c oup. In h is sta te m e n t, o f a n arm y w h i c h, com m anders. th e P re sid e n t designated up t o t h a t C o n seq u en tly, new l e a d e r s t i m e, was s t i l l w i t h o u t i t s old he s t a t e d: T h e command o f t h e Army a t t h e p r e s e n t moment i s d i r e c t l y i n my h a n d s a n d t o d o t h e d a y - t o - d a y d u t i e s i n t h e Army, I t e m p o r a r i l y a p p o i n t M a jo r G e n e r a l P ra n o to Reksosam udra, A s s i s t a n t I I I of th e M in is te r C o m m a n d er o f t h e A r m y. To r e s t o r e s e c u r i t y and o r d e r r e l a t e d t o th e 3 0 th S e p tem b er A f f a i r, I have a p p o in te d M a j o r G e n e r a l S u h a r t o, Com mander o f t h e Army S t r a t e g i c Command i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p o l i c y I h a v e o u t l i n e d. 12 One o f t h e s e — M a j o r G e n e r a l S u h a r t o — w o u l d n o l o n g e r 11I b l d., p. 1 0. D w lkora was a te rm t h a t r e f e r r e d t o t h e t w o co m m and s o f t h e p e o p l e — n a m e l y t o c r u s h M a l a y s i a a n d im p erialism in g e n e ra l. Hence, a lm o st im m ed iately, th e P re si d en t a g ain sought to a t t a i n u n ity under h is le a d e rs h ip by a t t e m p t i n g t o t u r n t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e p e o p l e t o r e a l and im ag in ary e x te r n a l t h r e a t s. 12I b id === [PDF page 130] === 126 rem ain an o b scure p r o f e s s io n a l s o l d i e r, reactio n t o t h e co up was o v e r, g r e a t e r th a n sim ply to would When t h e in itia l he would b e a r b u r d e n s f a r "resto re s e c u r i t y an d o r d e r. " In a separate se c tio n of h is sp eech, t r y to r e f u t e the f a c t th at the a i r th e force, P resident under V ice- A i r M a r s h a l l D h a n i, had come o u t i n s u p p o r t o f t h e r e b e l s. I n c o n t i n u i n g, Sukarno d e c l a r e d: On a c c o u n t of some m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w h i c h may c r e a t e c o n f l i c t w i t h i n t h e Armed S e r v i c e s, a n d t o e l i m i n a t e d o u b t s among t h e p e o p l e a n d t o b u i l d u p a s t r o n g e r N a tio n a l U n i t y i n t h e D w lkora S t r u g g l e I h e r e w i t h a s P r e s i d e n t S u p r e m e Com mander o f t h e Armed S e r v i c e s G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n announce t h a t: The a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e A i r F o r c e t h a t i t i s in v o lv e d in the 3 0 th S ep tem b er A f f a i r i s n o t tru e.!3 Thus, a g a in the P r e s i d e n t a tt e m p t e d, o f f i c e and p r e s t i g e, t o i g n o r e t h e r e a l i t i e s through h is of the coup by c o n t e n d i n g t h a t D h a n i who w a s a p a r t y i n t h e c h a o s, w a s i n rea lity, i n n o c e n t of a n y p l o t. S u k a r n o ' s e n d e a v o r would n o t g a i n s y m p a t h y f r o m a p u b l i c who w o u l d r e a c t s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t t h o s e who h a d t h r e a t e n e d the R e p u b lic. On S u n d a y a f t e r n o o n, cern in g O ctober 3, a n o th e r q u e s tio n con t h e c o u p was o f f i c i a l l y answ ered, and t h e w o r s t a p p r e h e n s io n s of those o p p o sin g th e r e b e l s w ere co n firm ed a s th e f o l l o w i n g communique w a s i s s u e d; The s i x g e n e r a l s k i d n a p p e d b y t h e s o - c a l l e d ' 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r M o v e m e n t ' and F i r s t L i e u t e n a n t 13I b id., pp. 10-11. === [PDF page 131] === 127 Tendean, G e n era l a t Lubang B u a j a, m u tilated bo d ies w e l l and i t t o o k N a s u tio n 's bodyguard, w ere fo u n d dead T j i l i t a n, n e a r Halim A i r b a s e. T h eir were h id d e n i n a t w e l v e - m e t r e d e e p two d a y s t o r e c o v e r t h e m. 111 P a rticu larly sig n ifican t passage th a t d i r e c tl y attem p t. in t h is im p licated release the P.K.I. was th e th e coup No l o n g e r would a v a g u e m o v e m e n t b e b r a n d e d enemy o f t h e s t a t e. d isclo su res th a t As a r e s u l t follow ed, of t h i s, to g e th e r w ith t h e Communist P a r t y would b e a r f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y the of In d o n esia for in s tig a tin g th e u p risin g. E v id e n c e shows t h a t t h e C o m m u n is t- b a c k e d ‘Pemunda R a k j a t * and ' G e r w a n i 1 t o o k a n a c t i v e p a r t i n t h e m urder. S e v e ra l v e h ic le s, im p o rta n t d o c u m e n ts and o t h e r p r o o f s w o u ld b e c o n f i s c a t e d. ^ 5 The f u l l s t o r y o f t h e m u r d e r o f t h e g e n e r a l s w ould b e released i n d e t a i l when t h e I n d o n e s i a n p r e s s c a t i o n under t h e c e n s o r s h ip of th e m i l i t a r y. resum ed p u b li From t h a t point o n, t h e a r m y had i t s m a r t y r s, and t h e s e men w o u ld b e raised t o th e l e v e l o f Pahlawan R e v o l u s l ( H e r o e s the R ev o lu tio n ). The f o l l o w i n g o f f i c e r s w e r e a s s a s s i n a t e d: G e n e r a l Ahmad Y a n i, M a j o r G e n e r a l R. S o e p r a p t o, L ie u ten an t M ajor G e n e ra l M. T. H a r j o n o, M a j o r G e n e r a l P a r m a n, B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l D. P an djaitan, Thus, and B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l S o e t o j o S i s w o m i h a r d j o. i n one f e l l swoop,, a c r u c i a l n u c l e u s command was d e c i m a t e d. 15 l b i d. p. 11. I f the P.K.I. of th e h ig h had b e e n s u c c e s s f u l === [PDF page 132] === 128 m urdering N a su tio n alo n g w ith Y ani, one m ig h t s u r m i s e w h e th e r t h e m i l i t a r y could have e f f e c t i v e l y b lo ck e d the a d v a n c e o f t h e (Communist p a r t y. W ith t h e d i s c l o s u r e c ia te the i n t e n s i t y follow ed. of th e m ass-m urders, of th e a rm y 's r e a c t i o n Faced w ith a b a s ic one c a n a p p r e i n t h e weeks t h a t th re a t to i t s s u r v i v a l a nd in c e n s e d by th e m a s s-m u rd e r o f c o l l e a g u e s and f r i e n d s, the r e m a i n d e r o f t h e h i g h command w o u l d s e e k r e v e n g e, n o t s o l e l y on p o l i t i c a l g r o u n d s, b u t on a much d e e p e r b a s i s of avenging t h e i r f a l l e n com rades f o r t h e h o n o r of t h e arm y. In the G en erals, lig h t p u b lic of th e r e v e l a t i o n s in the f a te a t t e n t i o n was a g a i n f o c u s e d of th e on t h e m o vem ents o f S u k a r n o d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g an d e a r l y m o r n i n g o f t h e slau g h t of th e coup. lead ersh ip Now t h a t t h e w o r s t f e a r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e of th e I n d o n e s ia n m i l i t a r y w ere c o n firm e d, lo g ic a l th a t th e p o l it i c a l i t was p u b l i c would r e t u r n t o a n e v e r p r e s e n t and a lw a y s n a g g in g f e a r t h a t t h e P. K. I. d i d n o t a c t a l o n e a nd t h a t i n d e e d, su p p o rt of ju n ctu re, t h e Co m m u nist B a r. t y e n j o y e d t h e "The G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n. " then, let us r e t u r n t o t h e a c t i o n s d e n t on t h e n i g h t o f t h e c o u p. d isse rta tio n of th e P resi i s n o t t h e aim o f t h i s t o prove o r d is p r o v e h i s c o m p lic ity i n th e 30th o f S e p te m b e r Movement. resolv ed At t h i s That q u e stio n is s t i l l f u l l y and r a i s e s contem porary I n d o n e s ia. to be c r u c i a l p o l i t i c a l r a m if ic a tio n s in R ath er, the f o llo w in g a c c o u n t of t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s w h e r e a b o u t s on t h e f a t e f u l n i g h t o f t h e 3 0 t h === [PDF page 133] === 129 and th e m orning o f t h e In th e first i s m eant t o s e r v e two p u r p o s e s. first p lace, su c h a b r i e f n a r r a t iv e w i l l h elp i n d i c a t e why t h e forces of re a c tio n for In d o n esian clo u d. did a lla y th e Sukarno as h av in g h i s th e n a rra tiv e refused P re sid e n t d u rin g th at record th e own r o l e i n t h e c o u p a t t e m p t. th e coup. of th e I n o u r c o n c l u s i o n, we s h a l l the h i s t o r ic a l one and t h a t t h e f o u n d e r of t h e R e p u b lic from g u i l t in th e c r i s i s th a t th reaten ed p o l i t i c a l system i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o. As we h a v e n o t e d, th e S eco nd ly, t o m ark why t h e m i l i t a r y i n 1 9 6 7 h a s th e a rm y 's re lu c ta n c e to f i l l a v alid transform o f t h o s e who r e g a r d e d a f u l l account of th e a c t i v i t i e s cannot be absolved by h i s m ovem ents, t h e P r e s i d e n t su sp icio n s w ill h elp to re le a s e suggest t h a t t h e spokesman i n d e p e n d e n c e was now u n d e r a t r a i t o r o u s As we s h a l l n o t e, little perceived P re s id e n t spoke a t 1?30 on t h e m o r n i n g o f th e n atio n. In t h a t speech the t h i r d, he s t a t e d th at: My g o i n g t o H a l i m A i r b a s e i n t h e m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 1, 1 9 6 5 i s o n my own w i s h b e c a u s e I am of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e b e s t p l a c e f o r me i s n e a r an a e r o p l a n e w h i c h c a n c a r r y me a n y t i m e t o a n o t h e r p la c e i f a n y th in g ta k e s place u n ex p ected ly I n a s u b s e q u e n t m ore com plete r e p o r t of h i s a c t i v i t i e s on th e m o rn in g of th e account m ovem ents. of h is first, the P re sid e n t gave a f u l l e r T his v e r s i o n i s g iv e n below: I n a n i n t e r v i e w h e l d a t t h e g a l l e r y o f Merd eka P alace... h e w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h i s f a i t h a nd t r u s t 1 6 I b id. === [PDF page 134] === 130 i n t h e T j a k r a b i r a w a R e g i m e n t ( p a l a c e g u a r d ) ha d b e e n s h a k e n b e c a u s e o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f some e l e m e n t s in th e a b o rtiv e coup. I n t h i s r e g a r d t h e P r e s i d e n t e x p l a i n e d so m e d e t a i l s on t h e v a r i o u s t a s k s o f t h e r e g i m e n t; p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t e n s e moments t o s a f e g u a r d and p r o t e c t t h e P r e s i d e n t an d g r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n. He d i s c l o s e d... t h a t on h i s f r e e w i l l a n d n o t b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e o r f o r c e o f arms w h o m so e v er he l e f t M e r d e k a P a l a c e on O c t o b e r t h e f i r s t i n t h e m o rn in g h e a d i n g f o r H alim... a i r b a s e. He s a i d h i s p e r s o n a l s e c u r i t y was i n t h e h a n d s o f a u n i t o f t h e T j a k r a b i r a w a R e g i m e n t and c a r r i e d o u t w e l l. * T h i s h a s a l s o b e e n t h e c a s e when I l e f t H a l i m f o r B o g o r and t h o s e who e s c o r t e d me... w a s t h e T jak rab iraw a. I a l s o w a n t t o s t r e s s h e r e t h a t my d e p a r t u r e f o r B o g o r a l s o w a s made on my own f r e e w i l l and n o t b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e of ' f o r c e o f a r m s. 1. P r e s i d e n t S ukarno c o n tin u e d th a t h is t r i p t o Bogor w a s m ad e b y h e l i c o p t e r. On how t h e P r e s i d e n t... w a s s a v e d f r o m d i s a s t e r d u r i n g t h e c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n on O c t o b e r 1, t h e T j a k r a b i r a w a R e g i m e n t d i s c l o s e d a few n o t e s. On O c t o b e r 1 i n t h e m o r n i n g t r o o p s i n a r m y guard w ere s t a t i o n e d around th e P alace as i f th e P a l a c e was s u r r o u n d e d. The T ja k r a b i r a w a com m anders d i d n o t know t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f t h e t r o o p s t h e r e a n d b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e some s u s p i c i o u s s i g n s, t h e T j a k r a b i r a w a R egim ent a t 0 6:0 0 i n t h e m orn in g d e c id e d t o t a k e P r e s i d e n t Sukarno o ut o f t h e P alace to a n o th e r s a fe p a la c e. From t h a t p l a c e on P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o ' s own r e q u e s t h e was t a k e n t o H a l i m... a i r b a s e e s c o r t e d b y a T ja k rab iraw a u n i t w ith th e purpose of b eing a b le to f l y o u t P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o t o a m o re s a f e r p l a c e i f some u n d e s i r a b l e i n c i d e n t m i g h t h a p p e n. The T j a k r a b i r a w a C o m m a n ders s t r e s s e d t h a t a t t h a t t i m e n o t h i n g d e f i n i t e w a s known a b o u t t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n. O nly a f t e r w a r d s... when t h e P r e s i d e n t was i n a s a f e p l a c e, i t was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e r e w e re e l e m e n t s of th e T ja k ra b ira w a t h a t w ere in v o lv ed in th e c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' S e p t e m b e r 3 0 Movement 1' P r e s i d e n t G r e a t L e a d e r of t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r r i v e d a t H alim... a t 0 9: 3 0 i n t h e m o rn in g. T j a k r a b i r a w a u n i t s t o o k s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s and a t 2 2:3 0 t h e P r e s i d e n t... e s c o r t e d by T ja k r a b ir a w a l e f t th e a i r b a s e by c a r. P r e s id e n t Sukarno a r r i v e d s a f e ly a t Bogor P alace about m idnight. The w h o l e r o u t e fro m H a lim... a i r b a s e t o B o g o r was c o v e r e d by c a r and n o t b y h e l i c o p t e r. === [PDF page 135] === 131 The T j a k r a b i r a w a c o m m a n d e r s c o n c l u d e t h a t P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o was n e v e r f o r a s i n g l e moment u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s o - c a l l e d ^ S e p t e m b e r 30 M o v e m e n t. ' -1-7 T h u s, stemm ing from t h i s and o t h e r a c c o u n t s, f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s may b e l o g i c a l l y r a i s e d * P resid en t "of h i s own f r e e w i l l " w i s h " go t o t h e v e r y a i r b a s e the Why d i d o r as he n o ted the " o n my own t h a t was a c e n t e r o f r e b e l a c t i v i t y d u rin g t h e f a t e f u l m orning h o u r of t h e f i r s t? was t h e P r e s i d e n t a t force, t h e command p o s t o f t h e d i s s i d e n t a i r near th e p la c e w here th e m urdered g e n e r a l s were h a s t i l y b u ried. In a d d i t i o n, arriv ed a t H a l im b e c a u s e h e w a s n o t a w a r e t h a t i t e v e n i f we w e r e t o a s s u m e t h a t S u k a r n o c e n t e r of re b e l a c t i v i t y, Why leave it? was a o n e m u s t t h e n a s k how was h e a b l e is d if f ic u lt to b eliev e S e p t e m b e r Movement w o u l d s i m p l y l e t t h a t th e 3 0 th of "the G reat L eader of the R evolution" out of t h e i r g ra s p. The P r e s i d e n t ' s m o v e m e n t s a r e s u b j e c t t o f u r t h e r s u s p i c i o n when o n e r e a d s a s u b s e q u e n t a c c o u n t o f t h e n i g h t o f t h e cou p t h a t p u rp o rts C h a i r m a n, Aid i t. The a c c o u n t w a s g i v e n b y o n e A. B. M. who was s u p p o s e d l y a d r i v e r, of the to tra c e assigned t h e m ovem ents o f P. K. I. t o Lukm an, a n o t h e r l e a d e r p a r t y and C h a i r m a n o f t h e D. P. R. G. R. (the Indonesian ^ P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, "Leave P o l i t i c a l S e t t l e m e n t t o M e," D j a k a r t a D a l l y M a l l, O c t o b e r 1 5, 1965* P P. 1 - 2. T his a c c o u n t was g i v e n t o Mohammad Nahai* C h a i r m a n o f t h e E x e c u t i v e B o a r d o f A n t a r a N a t i o n a l News A g e n c y. " I t was t h e f i r s t i n t e r v i e w g i v e n by the H e a d - o f - S t a t e t o a j o u r n a l i s t f o l l o w i n g t h e a b o r t i v e co up d ' e t a t b y t h e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y S e p t e m b e r 30 Movement, I b i d., p. 1. === [PDF page 136] === 132 P arliam en t). According t o t h e d r i v e r, w h i l e he was w i t h Lukman and o t h e r co m m u n ist l e a d e r s th e c ity of Sem arang on t h e m o rn $n g o f O c t o b e r s e c o n d, th e fo llo w in g to o k p lace: At e i g h t o ' c l o c k... a b l a c k F i a t... came t o t h e h o u s e. A man g o t; o u t. He w o r e a s h o r t s le e v e s h i r t, a sa ro n g p e l e k a t and on h i s head a b lack cap. The man was n o b o d y e l s e t h a n D. N. A i d l t who was d r e s s e d a s a s a n t r i ( a r e l i g i o u s man). A.B.M. was q u i t e a s t o n i s h e d u p o n s e e i n g A i d i t (and) a f t e r a sk in g t o th e P. K. I. ' s b o s s a i d e a c e r t a i n K. g o t a r e p l y t h a t A i d i t a n d h e d e p a r t e d f r o m H a l im... “a i f f o r c e b a s e a t O c t o b e r 1, 0. 0 0 h r s b y AURI ( a i r f o r c e ) p l a n e t o A d i s t j i p o ( J o r g J a k a r t a ) a i r f i e l d.1 8 I f t h i s subsequent a c co u n t i s indeed would t h e P r e s i d e n t n o t o n l y g o t o t h e c e n te r of r e b e l a c t i v i t i e s b u t a l s o of th e coup? a irfie ld to th e w h e r e t h e l e a d e r of t h e P. K. I. s t a y e d tru e, why a g a i n w hich was a very lo c a tio n d u rin g And a g a i n, why w a s S u k a r n o a b l e th e in a u g u ra tio n leav e We may n e v e r o b t a i n a f u l l a n s w e r, b u t t h e fact rem ain s t h a t such a c c o u n ts o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s m ovem ents d u r i n g t h e m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 1, w o u l d b e u t i l i z e d b y t h o s e who wished t o d i s c r e d i t S u k arn o by i m p l i c a t i n g him i n t h e c o u p attem p t. I 8 »irphe A c t i v i t i e s o f M, H. L u k m a n, S a r k i r m a n a n d D. N. A idit a t t h e t i m e o f t h e ' G e s t a p u ' T e r r o r, 11 D j a k a r t a D a l l y M a l l,November 17* 1965* p. 2. I t i s im portant to n o te t h a t t h i s p u r p o r te d "eye w i t n e s s " a c c o u n t was d a t e - l i n e d D j a k a r t a ( A B R l ), i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t was i s s u e d b y t h e I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e o f A n k a t a n B e r n s e h j a t a R e p u b l i c I n d o n e s i a — T h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e R epublic of In d o n e s ia. ¥he m i l i t a r y, a t t h i s t im e, e x e r c i s e d e x te n s iv e c o n tr o l over th e p r e s s. S e c o n d ly, th e D j a k a r t a D a l l y M a il was f u l l o f t y p o graphical e rro rs. I h a v e o n l y m ade c o r r e c t i o n s w h e n a w o r d was m i s s p e l l e d o r d e l e t e d. === [PDF page 137] === 133 th e P.K.I.'s in stru ctiv e to review the first t h r e e days of p u r s u i t t o o b t a i n power b e c a u s e t h e y under s c o r e how t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement s o u g h t t o p r e s e n t itse lf as a u n ify in g fo rce on one h a n d, w h i l e p l a y i n g o f f d iv is io n w ith in In d o n esian p o l i t i c s on t h e o th er. is also i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e how t h e C o m m u n i s t p a r t y a t t e m p t e d t o c l o t h e Itse lf In l e g itim a c y by p r e s e n t i n g a c tin g to p ro tect Sukarno. The arm y would k e e p t h i s Its the liv in g t h e im age t h a t t h e y were symbol o f t h e n a t i o n — P r e s id e n t own p o l i c y i n t h e a f t e r m a t h i n m in d a s i t of th e coup. be r e l u c t a n t t o d e s t r o y t h e sym bolic v alu e S u k a r n o and w e r e a w a r e o f h i s c a p a b i l i t i e s developed T h e y t o o w o uld of P resid en t as a h ig h ly -a stu te p o litic ia n. C o n sid erin g th e lead er, p o sitio n is not su rp risin g s e n t th em selv es as h is t h a t th ey acted of Sukarno as a n a tio n a l th at p ro tecto r. on h i s b e h a l f, as th e By t h e r e f o r e c la im i n g t h e r e b e l s hpped t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l mass s u p p o r t t h a t th e coupled w ith h i s r o l e t h e c o m m u n i s t s would p r e P r e s i d e n t could m o b iliz e, p erso n ificatio n of th e s t a t e, would p r o v i d e them w i t h t h e im a g e o f p r e s e r v e r s o f t h e n a t i o n an d n o t d e s t r o y e r s of i t. of i n t e g r i t y A gain th e s e t a c t i c s w ere n o t u n n o tic e d by t h e m i l i t a r y. m urders a lso s trik in g th at once t h e d i s c l o s u r e o f t h e of th e g e n e r a ls to o k p la c e, attem p t to u t i l i z e h is t h e P r e s i d e n t would a g a i n p o s itio n as a n a tio n a lis t again c a l l fo r u n ity under h is d ir e c tio n, l e a d e r an d even w hile th e === [PDF page 138] === 134 m ilita ry was f i g h t i n g f o r i t s very l i f e. S u k arn o — "the G r e a t L e a d e r o f th e R e v o lu tio n " - - c h o s e to re im p o s e an e x te rn al p i c t u r e of u n i t y, flic t co n tin u ed ig n o re the even a s t h e t h r e a t throughout th e a r c h ip e la g o. of c i v i l con He c h o s e t o p h y s i c a l c o n f l i c t t h a t was o c c u r r i n g and e n c o u r a g e "p o litic a l se ttlem en t." B ut, t h i s tim e, S u k a rn o — "the s o l i d a r i t y m a k e r " — would n o t b e s u c c e s s f u l i n h i s e f f o r t s t o m aintain h is p o sitio n. G e n e r a l s w ould In th e long run th e s u rv iv in g "o u t-m an ip u late" the g r e a t e s t m a n ip u la to r in Indonesian p o litic s. F in a lly, t h e r e b e l s e f f e c t i v e l y employed t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e of e s t a b l i s h i n g th e m s e lv e s a s spokesmen f o r th e I n d o n e s i a n p eople th ro u g h t h e a p p o in tm en t t o th e R evolu tio n a ry th e C o u n cil, ex ten siv e composed o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f men d r a w n from In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l spectrum. T his p o lic y, of course, r e a l l y had a f a r d i f f e r e n t i n t e n d e d i n c l u s i o n o f s u c h men a s S u b a n d r l o and L e i m e n a, t h e by th e reb els attem pted to in it i a t e m ilita ry and and co u ld That c o n f u s i o n by p r e v e n t i n g t h e t h e p u b l i c from b e i n g a b l e t o i s o l a t e th erefo re re su lt. t h e enemy c r e a t e an a tm o s p h e re of d i s o r d e r i n w h ich t h e rise t o power. Speaking f o r t h e n a t i o n, C om m unists w e re, in r e a l i t y, try in g to d iv id e the for th eir own e n d s. When o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e s e cle ar th at th e sta rt of th e fate of t h e i r facts, i t becomes a l l to o P. K. I. came v e r y c l o s e t o g a i n i n g p o w e r a t t h e a b o rtiv e coup. Had N a s u t i o n and S u h a r t o m et t h e fellow o f f i c e r s, t h e armed f o r c e s, c r i p p l e d by === [PDF page 139] === 135 th e d e fe c tio n of th e a i r fo rc e, and t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o u n c il's e d ic t concerning th e re d u c tio n of r a n k, h av e b e e n a b l e t o m eet th e m onum ental c h a l l e n g e s them. B ut, th at t h e a rm y d i d r e a c t i o n did set for a ll p l a n n i n g and o r g a n i z a t i o n, its the force, p ast, program s b u t i t th e could n o t be c h a n n e le d period e r r e d by We s h a l l t u r n t o t h e s e T his in to p o sitiv e in te n sity e s s e n t i a l l y n e g a tiv e d r i v e — the d e s t r u c t i o n the faced an i n t e n s e force of Indonesian n a t i o n a l i s t. co uld a c t w ith t e r r i b l e Communist P a r t y. th at w ill serve to h ig h lig h t th e f a c t th a t u n d ere stim a tin g as in the s u r v i v e an d t h a t m ight n o t i n an of th e In d onesian i s s u e s a s we s t u d y of re a c tio n. The I n i t i a l R e a c t i o n D e v e l o p s I n u n d e r s ta n d in g th e i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n t o th e coup force, th is ch ap ter w ill lim it itse lf to th o se ev en ts t o o k p l a c e from O c to b e r t o December o f 1 9 6 5. th is esse n tia lly tw o -fo ld. p e r i o d was a d e c i s i v e one. In th e first th at The r e a s o n f o r place, th is I t was c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c o n t i n u i n g p h y s i c a l c o n f l i c t w i t h i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o when t h e i s s u e very r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y of a seizu re still B orrow ing from t h e was t o be r e s o l v e d. “t h e period of p h y sic a l of a o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r was s u r v i v a l. P re s id e n t's term, T h e c o n f l i c t ha d • ^ P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, The R e s o u n d i n g V o i c e o f t h e I n d o n e sia n R ev o lu tio n (D jak a rta! D e p a rtm e n t o f I n f o r m a t i o n, Re p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a, S e r i e s B and B N o. 1 0 0 1, n. d. ), p. 2 3. === [PDF page 140] === 136 yet to be tra n s p o rte d arena. S econdly, th is z a tio n of p o l i t i c a l p ro p o rtio n. forces forces in th e first th e p o l i t i c a l sa w t h e r e o r g a n i i n t h e wake of t h e c r i s i s a n d how t h e determ in e th e c o u rse t h r e e m onth p e r i o d How t h e m i l i t a r y functioned c risis from t h e m i l i t a r y and t h e various p o litic a l P r e s i d e n t r e a c t e d w ould of e v en ts in 1967. In the a i r t o w h ic h t h e y would a d h e r e a s t h e R e p u b li c the ta s k of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c re a te d by th e a b o rtiv e to th is co n tin u es to d ay. aw ait f u tu r e of the th at coup. the power were d e v e lo p in g the p o lic ies itse lf larg ely m onths a f t e r t h e coup a t t e m p t t h e n, lead in g c o n te n d ers f o r p o l i t i c a l lim it i n epic fo llo w ed faced th e d is lo c a tio n The c h a p t e r m u s t t h e r e f o r e t i m e b e c a u s e t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e co up Thus, stu d ies. an open-ended case t h a t m u st C o n se q u e n tly, w h ile i n th e concluding ch ap ter, we s h a l l b r i e f l y p o litics th e o f P y e ' s h y p o t h e s e s, we c a n h a r d l y a t t e m p t t o c o v e r lig h t u p-date th e course exam ine t h e f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n of Indonesian of th e R ep u b lic in th e co n tem p o rary e v e n ts in a n a tio n s t i l l plagued by th e a fte rm a th of r e a c tio n. I n exam ining th e a c t i o n s forces fo llo w in g th e coup, p o litic a l c o n fig u ra tio n order. In th e a rm y a s i t from c h a o s. forces, first endeavored of th e we s h a l l r e t u r n and s c r u t i n i z e p o litica l to th e Indonesian In the follow ing p l a c e we s h a l l a n a l y z e t h e r o l e to In su re its N e x t, we s h a l l d i s c u s s esp ecially lead in g th e Islam ic of the s u r v i v a l and d e l i v e r o r d e r th e groups, lead in g p o litic a l t h a t would p l a y such ■ === [PDF page 141] === 137 a cru cial ro le In d e te rm in in g F i n a l l y, we s h a l l a s s e s s continued h i s th e r e a c tio n the ro le of th e to th e P r e s i d e n t a s he s tr u g g le t o re m a in spokesm an f o r th e In d o n esian n atio n. The M i l i t a r y: The L e s s o n s o f M a n d i u n Were N ot I g n o r e d In order to a p p r e c ia te so e f f e c t i v e l y, one c o u l d why t h e I n d o n e s i a n Army a c t e d suggest th at th e answ ers co uld found i n tw o a r e a s. In the f i r s t r e s p o n s e on t h e of th e s u r v i v i n g G e n e ra ls t o avenge t h e i r part f a l l e n c o m r a d e s and v i n d i c a t e p lace, we c a n t u r n t o the th e honor of th e s e r v i c e. u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s r e a c t i o n c a n h e l p u s a p p r e c i a t e why th e murder of s i x s e n i o r o fficers accom plished what N a su tio n o f te n w ished b u t n e v e r a c h i e v e d. w ith in th e ra n k s th o u g h, in th e That a u n ific atio n fin a l a n aly sis, m ight prove t e m p o r a r y. S e co n d ly, the re v e rb e ra tio n s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d on a l e s s p e r s o n a l and more p o l i t i c a l groupd. The a r m y had l e a r n e d w e l l t h e lessons of th e m i l i t a r y of in v o lv em en t in In d o n esian p o l i t i c s. The i m p a c t u p o n t h e army o f t h e m u r d e r o f s i x leading o f f i c e r s e f f e c t i v e l y h e lp e d support fo r t h e i r s ta n c e ag ain st th e encourage p u b lic T hroughout th e f o llo w in g m o n th s, t h e armed forces would the b r u t a l i t y of th e Pahlaw an R e v o lu s l of th e d e a t h s Heroes of t h e R e v o l u t i o n ) t o prove th at of I t s c o n stan tly p la y upon (th e t h e Com m unist p a r t y === [PDF page 142] === 138 was n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a b a r b a r i c co n tin u in g re v o lu tio n. to p lay t h is w ith in th e c a p ito l, th at the The a rm y had i t s m a r t y r s and w a s e f f e c t i v e l y assum ing th e r o l e a b ility group t h a t b e t r a y e d of the b ereav ed. The m i l i t a r y ' s ro le, In o rd e r to g ain p u b lic support is best s e e n a t the b u r i a l o f t h e G e n e r a ls t o o k p l a c e on O c t o b e r 5 t h — a d a y i r o n i c a l l y s u p p o s e d t o b e Armed F o r c e s D a y. serve to A b r i e f a c c o u n t of t h i s event w ill I n d i c a t e how t h e h i g h command had r e a l i z e d th e v a l u e o f p u b l i c d i s p l a y s a s a m ea n s o f m o b i l i z i n g s u p p o r t. On t h e d a y o f t h e f u n e r a l cro w ds l i n e d w h i c h was i n t h e lin e of p ara d e of the f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n. As t h e c o r t e g e came s l o w l y i n t o v i e w, c a r s m o v i n g up t h e s t r e e t. a flag -d rap ed m urdered o fficers. of th e one c o u l d s e e a r m o r e d As t h e y p a s s e d, each c a r c arried c o f f i n w i t h a p la q u e c o n t a i n i n g t h e names of t h e follow ed by t h a t those T jik in S tre e t F irst came G e n e r a l Y a n i ' s v e h i c l e, of h is a id e, o th er o f f ic e r s. m ourning f a m i l i e s passed as L i e u t e n a n t T en d e an, and t h e n F in a lly, cars c a rry in g th e the p r o c e s s i o n moved t o w a r d the cem etery. The f e e l i n g s g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e arm y r a n k s w e r e p e rh a p s b e s t e x p r e s s e d by D e fe n s e M i n i s t e r N a s u t i o n 's e u lo g y a t the g rav esid e. In t h a t sp e ec h N asution, su p p o rted by a cane, prom ised shared l o n g p r o f e s s i o n a l an d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s. a d d itio n, t o a v e n g e t h e m u r d e r of men w i t h whom h e h ad h e s p o k e a s a man who had a v e r y p e r s o n a l r e a s o n fo r revenge. When t h e P. K. I. tried t o a s s a s s i n a t e him, h i s === [PDF page 143] === 139 own c h i l d ha d d i e d.2 0 I t was, t h e r e f o r e, obvious t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e army would n o t b e s i m p l y a n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l m aneuver. The i s s u e o f p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t t o o k on a f a r d e e p e r m eaning. T h e army would now b e u n i t e d t o v in d ic a te i t s honor, in a blood feud and N a s u t i o n would h a v e an e v e n d e a re r reason to cru sh the P.K.I. On t h e l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y r e a c t i o n s t o the P.K.I., t h e a rm y a l s o i n d i c a t e d le s so n s of Indonesian p o l i t i c s w e ll. adopt the fo llo w in g a t t i t u d e th e i n i t i a l th at i t had l e a r n e d I t would, th erefo re, t h a t would b e e m p l o y e d l o n g a f t e r o u t b u r s t a g a i n s t t h e C o m m u n is ts had e n d e d. P o litic ally, d e s p i t e t h e g r a v e wounds i t had s u f f e r e d, t h e army would n o t d i r e c t l y a t t a c k t h e P r e s i d e n t. ta r y realized the the The m i l i t h a t S u k a rn o, a s a n a t i o n a l sym bol, a lw a y s had l a t e n t p o t e n t i a l f o r m o b i l i z i n g t h e m ass i n h i s s u p p o r t. C o n s e q u e n tly, i n o r d e r t o avoid a d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h h i m and b e b r a n d e d b y t h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e r e b e l s i n C e n t r a l a n d West J a v a a s a r i g h t i s t g r o u p t h a t was d e s t r o y i n g t h e f a t h e r of th e n a t i o n, P re s id e n t's t o him. th e m i l i t a r y outw ardly su p p o rte d th e plea t h a t a " p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t ” s h o u ld be The army t h e n would g i v e n o m i n a l a d h e r e n c e t o P r e s i d e n t and l e t him r e m a i n i n o f f i c e s o h e, r a t h e r left th e th an 2 0 G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n ' s d a u g h t e r Ade I rm a was s h o t b y t h e r e b e l s w he n t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o k i l l t h e D e f e n s e M i n i s t e r. F o r a f u l l a c c o u n t o f N a s u t i o n 's narrow e sc a p e, s e e: "G estapu T a c t i c s t o K i d n a p G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n and H i s E s c a p e, " D j a k a r t a D a i l y M a il, O ctober 22, 1965, p. 1. === [PDF page 144] === 140 th ey, would l e g a l l y he h e l d n atio n. ity O n l y much l a t e r, and t h e b a s i s of h is acco u n tab le f o r th e s t a t e of the o n c e t h e y had u n d e r c u t h i s au th o r s u p p o r t and f a c e d the in creasin g dem ands o f h i s o p p o n e n ts, would t h e y o u s t e r t h e P r e s i d e n t. The a rm y, then, as in th e p a s t, b u t now w i t h o n e b i g d i f f e r e n c e — t h e y c o u l d be th e still power behind w anted t o be a power b e h in d the th ro n e. A sta rtlin g of t h i s t e c h n iq u e could be s e e n i n an i s s u e D a l l y M ali w hich c a r r i e d the th ro n e, illu stra tio n of th e D j a k a r t a a r e p o r t t h a t th e m u rd ere rs of the G e n e r a l s w e r e m em bers o f t h e c o m m u n i s t y o u t h g r o u p — Pemuda R aky at. On t h e b o t t o m o f t h e v e r y same p a g e, s l o g a n was s e t in la rg e the fo llo w in g type: As f o r t h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a. I t ' s NASAKOM D j i w a k u (NASAKOM i s i n o u r s o u l s ). 21 Thus, d e n t's t h e m i l i t a r y would o u tw ard ly follow c a l l f o r a c o n tin u a tio n of th e united th ey sy ste m a tic a lly In i t s set the P re sif r o n t even as out to d e s tro y th e P.K.I. o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e C o m m u n i s t s, t h e a rm y made g o o d u s e o f t h e s k i l l s acquired in fig h tin g a g a in st t h e D utch alo n g w ith In s u rg e n c y te c h n iq u e s an d i n B o r n e o a g a i n s t the B r i t i s h. learn ed a t Mandiun Such w e l l - t r a i n e d u n its a s t h e S i l i w a n g i and M o b i l e B r i g a d e t h a t h a d a c t e d so e f fec tiv e ly g u e rrilla w arfare as th e b a t t l e 1948 w e r e r e u t i l i z i n g ^ D ja k a rta D a lly M ail, t h e i r tech n iq u es sh ifted O ctober 8, from D j a k a r t a t o 1965, === [PDF page 145] === th e c o u n try sid e. th e The m i l i t a r y h a d learned h ad m a n a g e d a r e s u r g e n c e once b e f o r e. they s y s te m a tic a lly sought t o d e s tro y th e tio n at a l l its lev e ls. C o n seq u en tly, nom in al a d h e re n c e t o t h e in itia lly ban th e P.K.I. p a rty organiza t h e arm y, P r e s id e n t's T h u s, in lin e w ith p o l i c y, did not R a th e r th a n sim p ly d estro y in g the n a tio n al o rg an izatio n a t e n tirely to o w ell th a t the to p, t h e Communist P a r t y a t Thus, w i t h i n th e g o v ern m en t, th e s o u g h t t o dem olish g ra s s -ro o ts lev e l. the m ilita r y started to f e r r e t o u t a n y o n e who w a s e v e n r e m o t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P a r t y. T his p o l i c y was r e f l e c t e d C h ie f-o f-S ta ff S u h arto, d e n t and K. O. T. I. i n a n o r d e r g i v e n b y t h e new who s p o k e on b e h a l f of the P r e s i ( Komando O p e r a s i s i T e r i n g g i ) O p e r a t i o n s, Command. As r e p o r t e d The Supreme in th e D a lly M all: T h is i n s t r u c t i o n form s a g u id e t o d i r e c t a c t i v i t i e s i n th e o r d e r i n g o f a l l c i v i l i a n p e rs o n n e l in a l l g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c i e s, t o c l e a n o u t a l l elem ents o f t h e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y 3 0 M o ve m en t i n c l u d i n g p r e p a r a t o r y and s u b s e q u e n t s t e p s t o a c h i e v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d b a l a n c e o f e f f o r t and o b j e c t i v e s w i t h o p t i m u m r e s u l t. 22 As o ne c o u l d see, m unique c o u ld be i s s u e d c a u s e i t was g e a re d was q u i t e l o g i c a l t h a t t h e com u n d e r t h e name o f t h e P r e s i d e n t b e to d estro y in g th e 3 0 t h o f Septem ber Movement, and no w o rd s w e r e g i v e n o v e r t o t h e f a t e of t h e In d e stro y in g th e th e g ra s s-ro o ts lev e l, 2 2 " C le a n a l l D e p a r t m e n t s E c t. From G -3 0 -S E l e m e n t s, " D j a k a r t a D a l l y M a l l, November 1 7, 1 9 6 5, p. 1. === [PDF page 146] === 142 Instead of s i m p l y e n f o r c i n g a n a t i o n a l b a n t h a t would c o n trad ict the P r e s i d e n t 's fec tiv e ly. Thus, p o licy, t h e arm y a l s o a c t e d lo cal m ilita ry a r c h i p e l a g o w ere o rd e re d comm anders t h r o u g h o u t th e te m p o r a r ily suspend p arty o rg an izatio n a l l t h e way down t o t h e d e s a jec t, was t o d e s t r o y t h e p a r t y s o c o m p l e t e l y, of c o u rse, th at i t fu lly w o u ld b e i m m a t e r i a l a s t o w h e t h e r o u tlaw ed. By d e m o l i s h i n g t h e lev e l. The o b or not i t sources was of th e P a r t y 's su p p o rt, I t was a ssu m e d t h a t t h e w h o le a p p a r a t u s would w ith er. The m i l i t a r y, a n n ih ilatio n u n d e r S u h a r t o, would s e e k a c o m p le te of th e P a r ty a t tem pt t o i n s u r e th e m ost b a s i c l e v e l In an a t t h a t a f u t u r e M andiun c o u ld n o t r e p e a t se lf. The C i v i l i a n F o r c e s: t h e m i l i t a r y was r e l u c t a n t th e P re s id e n t, stra tio n s th is d o e s n o t mean t o a g a in s t the not tak e p la c e. Thus, th e a r t in stead im p ly t h a t m ass demon S u h arto, did and t h e i r f e l l o w of i n d i r e c t i o n i n of d i r e c t l y a s s a u l t i n g m u n i s t s, t h e m i l i t a r y worked the a n t i - P.K.I. t o b re a k openly w ith i n s u p p o r t of t h e arm y, F o r N asu tio n, o f f i c e r s had m a s t e r e d p o litic s. Shock Troops f o r th e M i l i t a r y Indon esian the Com In a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith p o litic a l forces. and n a t i o n a l i s t g r o u p s, w i t h t h e T he v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s t a c i t a p p r o v a l of t a r y, would l a u n c h a f r o n t a l a t t a c k th e m ili on t h e p a r t y a s w e l l a s l e a d i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t who w e r e i m p l i c a t e d === [PDF page 147] === 143 th e coup. The p o w e r b e h i n d th e t h r o n e would l e t others d i s c r e d i t an I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n w hich h a d, f o r s o l o n g, b o r n e t h e m a r k of t h e P r e s i d e n t. The u t i l i z a t i o n so e f f e c tiv e ly of the p o l i t i c s o f mass d e m o n s t r a t i o n em ployed by the P. K. I. was t u r n e d th e m a s e a r l y a s O c t o b e r t h i r d. On t h a t M onday, i n g e v e n t t o o k p l a c e — an ev en t t h a t would s e t t h e o th e r d em o n stratio n s th at t h a t would s w e e p t h e c i t y ag ain st the fo llo w tone fo r i n t h e m onths fo llo w ed. T h o u sa n d s o f p e o p le b e l o n g i n g t o 27 p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s,... m ass o r g a n i z a t i o n s and s t u d e n t move m en ts s t a g e d a d e m o n s t r a t i o n c o n d em n in g and c r u s h i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d '3 0 S eptem ber M o v e m en t.' B esides con dem ning t h e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' 30t h o f S e p tem b er M o v e m e n t, 1 and e x p r e s s i n g d e e p s y m p a t h y and s o r r o w f o r th e d e a d, t h e d e m o n stra to rs urged th e P r e s i d e n t t o d i s s o l v e and b a n t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s a nd m ass o r g a n i z a t i o n s w hich s u p p o r t, g iv e a s s i s t a n c e and s y m p a t h i z e w i t h t h e s o - c a l l e d ' 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r M o v e m e n t 1 n a m e l y t h e P. K. I. ( I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y ), Pemuda R a k y a t, C. G. M. I. ( C o m m u n i s t S t u d e n t M ovem ent), S. O. B. S. I. e t c., t o b a n n e w s p a p e r s, m a g a z i n e s and o t h e r m ass m ed ia s u p p o r t i n g t h e ' 3 0 t h S e p t e m b e r M o v e m e n t ' na m e ly H a r l a n R a k, 1 a t, W a r t a B h a k t i, B i n t a n g T i m u r, Kebuda J a a n B a r u, E k o n o m l Na3 l o n a l, G e l o r a I n d o n e s i a. T h e d e m o n s t r a t o r s a l s o e x p re s s e d t h e i r l o y a l t y to P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o. 2 3 The d e m o n s t r a t i o n s on t h e t o o k on d r a m a t i c a n d s y m b o l i c 8t h when t h e p h y s i c a l s y m b o l o f t h e in flam es. P. K. I. w e n t up T h u s, w h i l e t h e m i l i t a r y was e n g a g e d tio n s in the co u n try sid e, in opera the f o llo w in g to o k p l a c e. Angry d e m o n s t r a t o r s s e t f i r e t o t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n i s t p a r t y on D j a l a n ( s t r e e t ) K r a m a t.... T h e d e m o n s t r a t o r s, e s t i m a t e d b y RRI 2 3p j a k a r t a D a l l y M a l l, O c t o b e r 4, form 1965, === [PDF page 148] === 144 t o b e h a lf a m i l l i o n people s tr o n g, c o n v erg ed b e f o r e h a n d a t Taman S u r a p a t i i n a p u b l i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e i r co n d em n atio n of th e c o m m u n is t's r o l e i n t h e G e s t a p u (S ep tem b er 30) t e r r o r movement. The d e m o n s t r a t i o n was s p o n s o r e d b y 44 p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and mass o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f t h e c a p i t o l.... The d e m o n s t r a t i o n up on a r r i v a l a t t h e P. K. I. h e a d q u a r t e r s... s t a r t e d t o s t o r m an d w r e c k t h e b u i l d i n g, c a u s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e damage. D u rin g th e f i r e, p o lic e m e n were s e e n t a k i n g o u t and c a r r y i n g away r e a d i n g m a t t e r and s e v e r a l c a s e s from t h e b u i l d i n g. The c o n t e n t o f t h e c a s e s w a s n o t k n o w n. 24 In th is, the Islam ic and s u c c e e d i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s, the r o le p o l i t i c a l fo rc e s as a stron g agency f o r r e a c t i o n became i n c r e a s i n g l y I m p o r t a n t. The a c t i v i t i e s of th e ( Hlm punan M a h as isaw I n d o n e s i a ), t h e I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n, was p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n m o b i l i z i n g s u p p o rt a g a in s t the P.K.I. In review, t h i s Is la m ic o rg an iza t i o n had a s p e c i a l r e a s o n f o r r e v e n g e a g a i n s t t h e c o m m u n i s t s. In th e p re-c o u p period p o litics b y t h e C. G. M. I. — t h e c o m m u nist s t u d e n t m o v e m e n t. Y et, to p a r tic u la r ly a p p re c ia te the a c tio n by th e Islam ic p elago, i t was a l m o s t b a n n e d f r o m s t u d e n t ex ten t p o l i t i c a l forces thro u g h o u t th e th e arch i one must n o t e t h a t t h e l e a d e r s o f N a h a d a t u l Ulama and f o r m e r s u p p o r t e r s o f Majumi e f f e c t i v e l y f u s e d n a t i o n a l i s m w ith th e f o r c e of r e l i g i o u s the P.K.I. these Indonesian san ctio n s a g a in st To u n d e r s t a n d how t h e I s l a m i c g r o u p s b r o u g h t two f o c a l p o i n t s of In d o n esian u n i f i c a t i o n t o g e t h e r, 2 4 "Angry D e m o n s t r a t o r s S e t P i r e t o C o m m u n i s t P a r t y H. Q., " The I n d o n e s i a n H e r a l d. O c t o b e r 9, 1 9 6 5, p. 1. m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m ''4 4 " p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i s i n co rrect. Most of t h e s e " p a r t i e s " w ere m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s. === [PDF page 149] === 145 th e follow ing t r a n s l a t i o n o f a m im eographed s h e e t, o u t by I s l a m i c s t u d e n t s a t a mass r a l l y handed on O c t o b e r 8t h, n o t w ith o u t m eaning. In th is sh eet, e n title d INILAH P. K. I. ( T h i s i s the P.K.L ), t h e C om m unists w e re c h a r g e d w i t h b e i n g t r a i t o r s to the Indonesian c au se. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w e r e t h o s e counts of th e in d ic tm e n t t h a t lig io n. Thus, the played upon t h e i s s u e of r e p a r t y was c h a r g e d w i t h b e i n g Antl-Agam a Dan A n t l - T u h a n ( A n t i - R e l i g i o n and A n t i - G o d ), S e t a n D e s a Dan S e t a n K o t a ( D e v i l o f t h e V i l l a g e and D e v i l o f t h e C i t y ), and Anglng G i l a R e v o l u s i Dan S e t a n R e v o l u s l R e v o l u t i o n and D e v i l o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n ). of the issu e (Mad Dog o f t h e The u t i l i z a t i o n of r e l i g i o n as a m o tiv a to r f o r r e a c t i o n, w a s b o t h e v i d e n t and s t r i k i n g wh en t h e s t u d e n t s c a l l e d th e re b e l f o r c e s.2^ tow ard f o r a D.jihad how ever, t h e end o f t h i s d i a t r i b e ( H o l y War) a g a i n s t Upon c o n s i d e r i n g how e f f e c t i v e l y N.U. m obilized support fo r i t s u tilizin g the r e l i g i o u s s e e how t h e y e f f e c t i v e l y program in t h e teachers 1955 e l e c t i o n b y of th e h am let, on e c a n e m p l o y e d th e m a g a i n t h r o u g h o u t 2 ^INILAH P. K. I. (T his i s th e P. K. I. ). A mimeoecraphed s h e e t o f p a p e r h a n d e d o u t a t a m a s s r a l l y on O c t o b e r 8, 1965. I t is I n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t th e anti-eo m m unist f o r c e s e m p l o y e d t h e s y m b o l o f t h e C. I. A., a s t h e r e b e l s had i n i t i a l l y t r ie d to o b ta in p u b lic s u p p o r t. The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e now was t h a t t h e s y m b o l was u s e d a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l movement. T h u s, I n t h e l i s t o f c h a r g e s, t h e P. K. I. was c alled: "Agen R. R. T. Dan CIA ( A g e n t o f t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a a n d t h e C. I. A. ) and "Agen S u b b e r s i p A s i n g " (F oreign S ubversive A gent). I n t i m e, o p p o n e n t s o f t h e commu n i s t s w o u ld s a y t h a t C. I. A. s t o o d f o r C h i n e s e I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency I === [PDF page 150] === 146 In d o n e s ia by u sin g th e stim u la te san ctio n th e c o n tin u in g b a t t l e o f r e l i g i o n t o j u s t i f y and a g a i n s t th e com m unists. The s a m e t e c h n i q u e s w o u l d b e e m p l o y e d b y t h o s e who s u b s c r i b e d th e H in d u -B alin ese faith 26 a n d l a t e r, t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t i e s 2 ^ would use the c lu b of t h e In the of r e l i g i o n a g a in s t th e supporters fin a l an aly sis, ancient a n im o sitie s a n d J a v a n e s e m y s t i c i s m w o u l d b e e m p l o y e d a s a weap on a g a i n s t th e com m unists, and a t r a g i c to ll o f human l i v e s was t h e re su lt.2^ ^ S h o r t l y, b e f o r e my d e p a r t u r e from I n d o n e s i a, I made a t r i p t o B a l i i n N ovem ber. At t h a t t i m e, v i l l a g e b u r n i n g s and w h o l e s a l e s l a u g h t e r t o o k p l a c e. A fe llo w A m erican s t u d e n t, M r. P e t e r J e n n i n g s, who w a s o n e o f my h o s t s i n B a l i, was l a t e r t o r e p o r t h i s i m p r e s s io n s t o th e a u th o r of the fo llo w in g a r t i c l e: H o ra ce S u t t o n, " I n d o n e s i a 's Night of T e r r o r, " T h e S a t u r d a y R e v i e w, F e b r u a r y 4, 1 9 6 7 * P« 2 9. 2 ^The C h r i s t i a n Com m unity, i n I t s p o s i t i o n a s a m in o r it y g r o u p, was e x c e e d i n g l y c a u t i o u s i n a c t i n g a g a i n s t th e P.K.I. b e c a u s e o f t h e s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s n l p i t had w i t h S u k a r n o. The p r o s p e c t o f d i s c r e d i t i n g t h e man who c l a i m e d t o f a v o r a b r o a d v i e w o f r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m w a s n o t l o s t on t h e l e a d e r s of e i t h e r t h e C a t h o l i c o r C h r i s t i a n P a rty, as th e Isla m ic groups to o k to th e s t r e e t s. I n a d d i t i o n, the C h r i s t ia n P arty had f a l l e n u n d e r a c l o u d. T h e i r new spaper—S l n a r H arapan— w a s b a n n e d f r o m p u b l i c a t i o n e v e n w hen t h e o t h e r p a p e r s went t o p r e s s b e c a u s e o n e o f t h e i r s e n i o r e d i t o r s was i m p l i c a t e d in the coup. H ow ever, t h e E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f i n whose h o u se I l i v e d, w o u l d b e c l e a r e d a n d p u b l i c a t i o n would r e s u m e. 28 I n s u b s e q u e n t a c c o u n t s, i t would be e s t i m a t e d t h a t f r o m 1 0 0, 0 0 0 t o a h a l f a m i l l i o n p e o p l e w ere k i l l e d. S u t t o n n o t e s, e v e n S u k a r n o w o u ld ' p u b l i c l y a d m it t h a t 87,000 had d i e d. " I b id., p. 2 6. The New Y o r k Times p u b l i s h e d a n a r t i c l e by A nthony L e w is, s e t t i n g th e f i g u r e a t 100,000. " 1 0 0, 0 0 0 D e ad L i s t e d i n I n d o n e s i a n P u r g e, " The New York T i m e s, J a n u a r y 13* 1 9 6 6, p. 1. W h ile t h e. f u l l number w i l l n e v e r be known, t h e m a s s i v e s c a l e of bloodshed has l e f t s c a r s t h a t w i l l n o t be e a s y t o e r a s e, as the R epublic s t i l l fa c e s th e ta s k of e s t a b l i s h i n g i n te r n a l un ity. === [PDF page 151] === 147 P re sid e n t Sukarno: The A t t e m p t t o Deny R e a l i t y I n t h e wake o f t h e g ro w in g r e a c t i o n, trie d outw ardly ig n o re a rc h ip e la g o faced Sukarno s t i l l th e m agnitude of th e c r i s i s an d s t i l l m a i n t a i n e d the th at a: ... p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t w o u l d b e f o u n d on t h e ' r e a l f a c t s ' a n d n o t on t h e b a s i s o f f a n n i n g e m o t i o n s on w h a t e v e r s i d e. 2 9 Thus, a ttem p t i n t h e weeks t h a t is s u e a plea even as th e a n t i - P. K. I. fo llo w ed, he would a g a i n f o r n a tio n a l u n ity under h is d ir e c tio n fo rc e s co n tin u ed to press e ff e c tiv e ly t h e i r cam paign. The P r e s i d e n t ' s b i d to re s to re seen in h is c o n tin u ed d e fe n s e h is of F o r e ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio, m o r e and m ore v i e w e d a s b e i n g i m p l i c a t e d Sukarno choose t o an i n d ir e c t he s u b s c r i b e d w h ile r e l a ti o n s the on t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r w as, a tta c k a g a in st h im self. fo llo w in g w ith th e P e o p le 's R ep ublic th e I n d o n e s ia 's its bid f o r pow er. clo se aided the P.K.I. S u bandrio: ... e m p h a s i z e d... how c l o s e was a t p r e s e n t b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a and ^"Leave o f China s t e a d i l y to g a th e r ev id en ce pre-coup frie n d Thus, A ccordingly, o p in io n of S u b an d rio even d e t e r i o r a t e d "'as t h e m i l i t a r y c o n t i n u e d th at i n th e coup a t t e m p t. s u p p o r t h i s c l o s e c o l l e a g u e b e c a u s e he ' knew t o o w e l l t h a t a n a t t a c k in r e a l i t y, p o s i t i o n could be the frie n d sh ip the P e o p le 's t h e P o l i t i c a l S e t t l e m e n t t o M e," p. === [PDF page 152] === 148 R e p u b l i c o f C h in a and he h o p e d t h a t t h i s c o n d i t i o n w o u l d c o n t i n u e o r b e s t e p p e d u p. 30 In a d d itio n, he s t a t e d th at: I n t h i s p r e s e n t world s i t u a t i o n t h i s f r i e n d s h i p i s very im p o rtan t e s p e c i a l l y in our j o i n t s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t N ecolim. ( N e o - c o l o n i a l i s m ).31 S ubandrio, dictum t h a t co n sequently, adhered to the P r e s id e n t's n a t i o n a l u n ity m ust be m a in ta in e d a g a i n s t " C o n fro n ta tio n C ontinues S u b a n d rio S a y s, ” D ja k a r ta D a i l y M a i l. O c t o b e r 11, 1965* P.! • S u b a n d rio 's a tte m p t to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n from t h e c r i s i s, much i n t h e m a n n e r o f S u k a r n o, d i d n o t w o rk. F o r, w h i l e t h e P r e s i d e n t w a s n o t p u b l ic l y a tta c k e d i n i t i a l l y a f t e r th e coup a tte m p t, h i s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r was. S ig n s w ere d i s p l a y e d d u r i n g O c to b e r a t t h e F r o n t N a t i o n a l c a l l i n g f o r " G a n t u n g B a n d i t ' (H ang S u b a n d r i o a n d Aid i t.) The m i l i t a r y, f o r i t s p a r t, i n l i n e w i t h i t s p o l i c y of n o m inally adhering to th e P r e s i d e n t 's p o lic y, su b s c rib e d to t h e f i c t i o n t h a t t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C o m m u n is t C h i n a w o u l d co n tin u e. Angkatan B e r s e n j a ta r e p o r t e d: P o s s i b l e c r a c k s in I n d o n e s i a n — C. P. R. r e l a t i o n s? T his q u e s t i o n h a s a r i s e n w hen t h e g o v e r n m e n t had c o n f i s c a t e d new w e a p o n s made i n t h e C. P. R. f r o m t h e h a n d s o f P. R. (Pemuda R a k y a t ) and G e r w a n i.... T h i s i s ( d e f i n i t e l y ) not sol The e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e... G e s t a p u P. K. I.... j u s t t o u p h o l d t h e TRUE NASAKOM t a u g h t b y GLR ( G r e a t L e a d e r of th e R e v o l u t i o n ) Bung K a rn o. H olding on t o t h i s k i n d of Nasakom m e a n s t h a t o u r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y re m a in s d e f i n i t e l y th e Nefo p o l i c y, t h e u n i t y o f t h e s t a t e s and p r o g r e s s i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e s in th e so -c a lle d s o c ia lis t c o u n trie s. A t r a n s l a t i o n of an e d i t o r i a l of A nkatan B e r s e n j a t a, i n t h e D j a k a r t a D a ily M a ll u n d e r t h e h e a d in g of " A n k a t a n B e r s e n j a t a an d t h e C h i n e s e, " N o v e m b e r 2, 1 9 6 5 * The O v e r s e a s C h i n e s e c o m m u n i t y, now s u s p e c t b e c a u s e t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a, w o u ld become s c a p e - g o a t s in th e p e r i o d o f r e a c t i o n. C e r t a i n l y, an u n d e t e r m i n e d n u m b e r of them w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e p l o t, b u t t h e com m unity a s a w hole s u f f e r e d b e c a u s e o f t h e a n c i a n t I n d o n e s i a n p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s e t h e m. T he c o u p p r o v i d e d a n o u t l e t f o r t h i s a n im o sity. F o r a su b se q u e n t a c c o u n t o f t h e p l i g h t of t h e I n d o n e s i a n C hinese s e e: D onald K i r k, " I n d o n e s i a ' s C h i n e s e Are a P e o p l e W i t h o u t a H o m e," The New Y o r k T im e s M a g a z i n e, O c t o b e r 2 3, 1 9 6 6. ^ " C o n f r o n t a t i o n C o ntinues S u b a n d rio S a y s," p. === [PDF page 153] === 149 im p erialistic i n t r i g u e s even w h i l e t h e a r c h i p e l a g o was c a u g h t up i n a n i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t I t is iro n ic c risis, the of t h e g r e a t e s t m a g n i t u d e. th a t in t h is atm o sp here o f e x ten d ed P r e s i d e n t would c o n t i n u a l l y m ake u s e o f t h e te c h n iq u e s i n m a in ta in in g h is p o s i t i o n by p la y i n g old up t h e d a n g e r o f o u t s i d e enem ies w h ile I n d o n e s i a was c o n f r o n t e d a m a s s i v e i n s u r r e c t i o n a t home. Even a s t r o o p s w ere s t i l l f e r r e t i n g out P.K.I. su p p o rters i n th e c a p i t o l, th e longs c h e d u l e d KIAPMA C o n f e r e n c e ( The I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e th e L iq u id a tio n of F o re ig n Bases) was h e l d. for T h is m e e tin g, e m p h a s i z e d t h e same o l d them e o f e x t e r n a l d a n g e r s. To t h e a s s e m b l e d d e l e g a t e s he d e c l a r e d: The t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s t h e c e n t u r y o f t h e New E m e r g i n g F o r c e s v i c t o r y. We s h a l l s o o n s m a s h t h e Old E s t a b l i s h e d F o r c e s and we w i l l w i n b e c a u s e we belo ng t o th e m a jo r ity. ... now... we h a v e a w a k e n e d a n d t h e w h o l e o f A f r i c a, A s i a and L a t i n A m e r i c a h a v e e q u a l l y a w a k e n e d. To l i q u i d a t e t h e f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y b a s e s s t r e t c h i n g fr o m G i b r a l t a r down t o S i n g a p o r e a n d u p t o O k i n a w a, I s indeed o u r sa cre d d u ty. The b a s e s h a v e b e e n b u i l t up w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f e i t h e r m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i m p e r i a l i s t d o m in a tio n o v e r th o se c o u n t r i e s and n a t i o n s o r c o n t a i n i n g o u r i n d e p e n d e n c e and i f n e c e s s a r y d e s t r o y i n g i t.3 2 3'2 " P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o Opens KIAPMA C o n f e r e n c e: T w en tieth C e n t u r y A C e n t u r y o f N e f o ' s V i c t o r y, 1' T h e I n d o n e s i a n H e r a l d, O c t o b e r 18, 1 9 6 5, p. 1. The c o n f e r e n c e was a f i n a l m a r k o f i r o n y I n t h e p e r i o d of i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n. D ja k a rta, th e c e n t e r o f a n a t i o n f i g h t i n g f o r i t s s u r v i v a l, was p l a y i n g h o s t t o d e l e g a t e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d who w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h f o r e i g n b a s e s o u t s i d e o f I n d o n e s i a. At one p o i n t t h e r e was e v e n a n a t t e m p t t o m ove t h e c o n f e r e n c e t o B a l i, b u t, a s we h a v e s e e n, s e c u r i t y c o n d i t i o n s h a rd ly w arranted i t. The f o l l o w i n g w ork was p u b l i s h e d i n h o n o r o f t h e c o n ference. P a n g k a l a n Dan P e r a n n j a M l l l t e r A s l n g ( F o r e i g n M i l i t a r y B a s e s and T h e i r R o l e ), D j a k a r t a: P e n j a, " 19b 5. === [PDF page 154] === 150 Thus a g a i n, S u k a r n o r e s o r t e d to u tiliz in g old s h i b b o l e t h s, b u t an enraged m i l i t a r y, w orking i n c o n ju n c ti o n w i t h t h e a n t i - c o m m u n i s t f o r c e s, w o u ld c o n t i n u e t o d e s t r o y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h e 3 0 t h o f S e p t e m b e r Movement w h i c h, b y now, was e q u a t e d w i t h t h e P. K. I. C o n s e q u e n t l y, i n t h e c o u p an d i m m e d i a t e r e a c t i o n t h a t fo llo w ed, th e f o llo w in g p a t t e r n s em erged— p a t t e r n s t h a t have y e t t o ru n t h e i r c o u rs e i n co n tem porary I n d o n e s ia. In the f i r s t p l a c e, a n arm y t h a t was r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g a victim of d is u n ity c h a r a c te r iz in g t h e R e p u b l i c was draw n to g e th e r in th e face of a se rio u s th r e a t However c l o s e t h e P. K. I. v ices, still to i t s su rv iv al. came t o d e s t r o y i n g t h e arm ed s e r underestim ated both i t s an ti-co m m u n ist o r i e n t a t i o n, d a t i n g b a c k t o M a n d i u n, and t h e s k i l l s acquired in su rrec tio n. in co u n terin g th e pro sp ects of la r g e - s c a le M o r e o v e r, S u h a r t o and N a s u t i o n had l e a r n e d of Indonesian p o l i t i c s w e ll. had th e lessons T h ey w o u l d n o t e n g a g e i n a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e symbol of t h e I n d o n e s i a n s t a t e — Sukarno. I n s t e a d, by u t i l i z i n g and m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s, th e anti-com m unist p a r t i e s t h e y would a t t e m p t t o r e m a i n a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e b e h in d t h e s c e n e s w h i l e t h e p o w e r-b a se of Sukarno and t h e c o m m u n i s t s was s u b j e c t t o m a s s i v e d e s t r u c t i o n. The a r m y, t h e n, had l e a r n e d t h e v a l u e o f a l i v i n g s y m b o l. The movement o f t h e a n t i - c o m m u n i s t c i v i l i a n forces i s a l s o i n s t r u c t i v e whe n one s t u d i e s how t h e I s l a m i c p a r t i e s e f f e c t i v e l y fused In d o n e sia n n a tio n a lis m w ith an au ra r e lig io n in th e ir " H o l y War" a g a i n s t t h e P. K. I. T h e y had === [PDF page 155] === 151 found a p o te n t in te g ra tio n H ow ever, fo rm u la f o r a t le a s t p roviding s u f f i c i e n t t o a c h i e v e a n e s s e n t i a l l y n e g a t i v e program. perhaps of g r e a t e r sig n ific a n c e, w orking r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e m il i ta r y. ch ap ter, th is t h e y fo rm ed a In our concluding we s h a l l e m p l o y P y e ' s h y p o t h e s e s t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l l a s t and i f co m p etitiv e p o litic s" As f o r t h e a trag ic fig u re P re sid e n t, he w a s, and c o n t i n u e s t o b e, in In d o n esian p o litic s. b u ild in g, and through th e p o litic s p ressin g faced co u n try. "lo g ic of a p p lic a b le to a post-coup In d o n e s ia. L ike o th e r " s o l i d a r i t y m ak ers" In d eveloping s t a t e s, dence to h is the he b ro u g h t in d e p e n However, h i s a p p ro a c h t o n a t i o n u tiliza tio n of t h e sym bols of n a t i o n a l i s m of m ass d e m o n s tra tio n, failed t o so lv e the e c o n o m ic and s o c i a l problems which th e R ep u b lic as i t attem pted t o h av e th e "form" as w e l l as th e "su b stan ce" of n a tio n h o o d. I n a s e n s e, he o u t l i v e d h i s u sefu ln ess. D e v e l o p m e n t c a l l s f o r m ore t h a n an e x h o r t a t i o n of th e m ass. the 30th n esian o u r c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r we s h a l l q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r o f S e p t e m b e r m arked a change in d i r e c t i o n of I n d o p o litic s--a c h a n g e t h a t could s t i m u l a t e t h e grow th of a n a tio n "su b sta n c e." P e r h a p s t h e r e t u r n t o, w h at Pye c a l l s, "the p rio r ro le of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " under th e arm y, w i l l s t i m u l a t e g iv e m eaning t o t h e developm ent of programs t h a t can t h e n a t i o n a l m otto "Unity i n D i v e r s i t y. " B u t t h e n we m u s t w o n d e r i f a r e tu r n to t h i s trad itio n w ill === [PDF page 156] === hamper t h e gro w th of " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v ernm ent." T h is and o t h e r p r o s p e c t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a s we put P y e 's th e o r y of p o l i t i c a l developm ent t o th e s t e r n of se ein g w hether i t i n to the c a n g i v e us some c o n c l u s i v e i n s i g h t fu tu re course of Indonesian p o l i t i c s. i n such an i n v e s t i g a t i o n, test I n engaging we s h a l l h o p e f u l l y n o t o n l y b e a b l e g iv e a f i n a l a s s e s s m e n t of P y e 's scheme, b u t c o r r e l a t e the r e l a t i v e m e rits of h is v i e w s a s a m eans o f a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e c h allen g es t h o s e who a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h e v o l v i n g fa c e d by a l l new c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s p o litics in the d is c ip lin e in d ev elo p in g a re a s. of c o m p a ra tiv e === [PDF page 157] === CONCLUSION A FINAL EVALUATION OF LUCIAN PYE'S THEORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH AN ASSESSMENT OF THE INDONESIAN CASE AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF HIS THEORY TO FURTHER CONCEPTUALIZATION IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS I n th e wake o f t h e co u p a t t e m p t o f 1 9 6 5 * t h e p o l i t i c a l system f a c e d c o n d itio n s. the Among t h e s e n e sia n n atio n. faced p o l i t i c a l f o r c e an d t h e d i s c r e d i t i n g f o r so lo n g, b e en spokesm an f o r an In d o The r e m a i n i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s the dual ta s k of a r r i v i n g a t a s e t tl e m e n t o f th e carnage c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the r e a c tio n, f o r s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b le m s t h a t had b a f f l e d i n d e p e n d e n c e was p r o c l a i m e d of th is c o u rse of In d o n esian p o l i t i c s S ince even a t the tim e o f t h i s in th e face and s e a r c h i n g th e R epublic sin ce c h a p te r to update th e from t h a t f a t e f u l d ay of th e r e a c tio n w ritin g, to th e coup c o n tin u e s the is s u e open-ended t o o f f e r a f u l l a c c o u n t. review th erefo re i n 19^ 9. is not th e purpose S e p t e m b e r 30* 1 9 6 5. to changing t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s were th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f the P.K.I. as a le a d in g o f t h e man who h a d, problem of r e a d j u s t i n g Indonesian is s t i l l However, t h r o u g h a f i n a l of e v e n ts s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a tte m p te d seizu re of power, we c a n a g a i n a p p l y P y e ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n w i t h b a s i c 153 too go als === [PDF page 158] === 154 in m ind. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e, we c a n u t i l i z e P y e 's view p o l i t i c a l developm ent as a means o f a s c e r t a i n i n g w h e t h e r i t g i v e s u s a f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e t h r o u g h w h i c h we c a n g a i n p e r s p e c tiv e i n t o the c o m p le x ity of I n d o n e s i a n the p a s t. S e c o n d l y, we c a n s e e h is t o f u r n i s h us w i t h a h i g h l y - t e n t a t i v e course of Indonesian a f f a i r s. p o litic s fo rm u la tio n view o f t h e fu tu re F in a lly, ab le our a p p lic a tio n P y e 's t h e o r y of p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t c a n b e em ployed a c a s e s t u d y of t h e problem o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n p o litics. T hat i s, by n o t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e co m p arative stre n g th s and w e a k n e s s e s o f P y e ' s a s s u m p t i o n s, we c a n g a i n s o m e i n s i g h t in to the problem s c o n f r o n t i n g a l l t h o s e who s e e k t o some o r d e r i n t h e c h a o s t h a t h a s m a r k e d th e e sta b lish p o litic s developing a re a s. P y e 's A spects of P o l i t i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t— A Means o f G a i n i n g P e r s p e c t i v e For a co n ce p tu a liz atio n to have any v a l i d i t y in th e study of com parative p o l i t i c s, m u st p r o v i d e a means by which t h e c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a, o f t e n c o m p le x and c o n t r a d i c t o r y, c a n be d r a w n t o g e t h e r i n t o a c o h e s i v e d e s i g n t h a t w i l l e n a b l e the p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t effectiv e to re n d e r c o n c lu sio n s p o litic a l an aly sis. One i s th e form s t r i c k e n by th e fact t h a t P y e 's broad-gauged g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s do j u s t applied th is when to th e Indonesian c a s e -.s tu d y. P y e 's c o n te n tio n, th a t th e issu e of p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m en t c a n b e v iew ed i n t e r m s o f a q u e s t f o r a sense id en tity, === [PDF page 159] === 155 has p a r t i c u l a r re le v a n c e in the In d o n esian experience. C e r ta in l y th e o n sla u g h t of change r e s u l t i n g of w orld c u l t u r e " h as left its from t h e own m a r k o n t h e p e o p l e who compose t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s w i t h i n t h e to n o te t h a t even the archipelago. p r i m a r i l y l i m i t e d w i t h i n th e b o u n d a ry of h i s r i c e f i e l d, could in stru ctiv e "diffu sio n p e a s a n t, whose v i s i o n n o t f u l l y e s c a p e t h e im p a c t o f c h a n g e on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l order. th e t a n i did not have a h ig h ly -d e v elo p e d the In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l u n iv e rs e, a ctio n, he was s t i l l much l e s s n o t immune t o a l o s s He may n o t h a v e known t h e r e a s o n s f o r h i s b asic realm a program f o r of p erso n al s e c u r i t y. h a r d s h i p on t h e l e v e l o f s u b s i s t e n c e, b u t he was a f f e c t e d re a c t to the v a rio u s a l t e r a t i o n s b y and w o u l d c a u s e d b y f o r c e s beyond h i s of know ledge o r c o n t r o l. The m a s s o f r u r a l I n d o n e s i a v a cuu m t u b e s — t h e m a s s, e n erg ize d by th o se h aving th e c o u ld b e compared to p o t e n t i a l of b eing l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e R e p u b l i c who c o u l d su ccessfu lly r e v ita liz e i n th e m a s e n s e o f p u r p o s e and id e n tity a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r was s h i f t i n g zatio n. Sukarno, played view o f a p p re c ia tin g th e p o ten tial tow ard m o d e rn i o f t h e m ass, upon t h e i r c o n c e r n a s a means of u t i l i z i n g tow ard th e g o a l o f b u i l d i n g up h i s the p e asa n t own p o w e r - b a s e. D espite h i s many e r r o r s, " t h e G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n, 11 b y fu sin g th e fo rce s w h a t Pye c a l l e d, tra d itio n a l order) w ith th o se of n a tio n ), did of th e the "parochial" "u n iv ersal" (the (the concept in d e e d c h a n n e l t h e mass i n a c o n c e r te d program === [PDF page 160] === 156 lead in g tow ard cannot d isco u n t h is use g a i n i n g in d e p e n d e n c e from th e D u t c h. t h i s accom plishm ent. of n a ti o n a l i s t i c "Bung K a r n o, " t h r o u g h sym bols, p ro v id e d a s e n s e of d irec tio n f o r a d i v e r s e p e o p l e who had y e t t o f i n d p lace th e 2 0 t h century. Y et, One th eir h e r e w h e r e we s e e t h e t r a g e d y o f t h e man who c a n r i g h t f u l l y be c a l l e d th e f a t h e r of h is n a ti o n. H a v i n g e f f e c t i v e l y m o b i l i z e d t h e m a s s, he s to p p e d too sh o rt of b rin g in g a s e n s e of d i r e c t i o n t o th e a r c h i p e l a g o. attem p ted s u s t a i n h is p o s i t i o n by e s s e n t i a l l y is s u in g his c all for u n ity on a b r o a d - b a s e d, an In d o n esian n atio n. u n d ifferen ciated appeal to S u c h a c a l l was a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l a c h i e v i n g of independence, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y, not pro v id e th e the problem s e n c o u n t e d w i t h an i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e. p easan t, b rid g e did n e c e s s a ry atm osphere f o r th e s o l u t i o n of h a v in g been a ctiv a ted by th e b e l i e f t h a t t h e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e "1 would h e l p th em f i n d an in c r e a s in g ly th e co n d itio n s The "golden t h e i r place e x p a n d i n g u n i v e r s e, b e g a n t o demand t h a t of a b e tte r l if e, a s prom ised by t h e proponents ^■The f u l l q u o t e r e a d s a s f o l l o w s: What i s i t t h a t i s c a l l e d freedom. I n t h e y e a r 1933* I w r o t e a b o o k let. A b o o k l e t c a l l e d 'K earah I n d o n e s ia M e rd ek a.* t h a t b o o k l e t of 1933* I s t a te d t h a t freedom, p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e, w a s n o t h i n g more t h a n a b r i d g e, a g o l d e n b r i d g e. I s a i d i n t h a t b o o k l e t t h a t on t h e f a r s i d e o f t h a t b r i d g e we c o u l d r e b u i l d o u r s o c i e t y. " The t r a g e d y o f t h e P r e s i d e n t, when view ed i n t h i s c o n te x t, i s sim p ly t h a t h a v in g led h i s p e o p l e a c r o s s t h e b r i d g e, he d i d n o t g o b e y o n d t h a t and re b u ild our so c ie ty." S u k a r n o, L a h l r n j a P a n j a s i l a ( The B i r t h o f P a n j a s i l a ), p. 12. === [PDF page 161] === 157 of n a t i o n a l i s m, would become a r e a l i t y. Sukarno n o r h i s fello w B ut, n eith er " s o l i d a r i t y m akers" w ere g eared to a p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o r i e n t a t i o n and w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o r e s o r t t o t h e o l d a d m o n i t i o n s o f b o t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s. T hese w e re used to obscure th e continued d i s l o c a t i o n c re a te d by " t h e p o l i t i c s of m y s t i f i c a t i o n," of s o l u tio n. The p e a s a n t, The p o l i t i c a l a t l e a s t n o m in a lly appealed t o them. a p p e a l t o o k t h e form of i l l - d e f i n e d w hich w ere n e i t h e r f u l l y hardships lead ersh ip in aw are o f t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e mass a s a p o s s i b l e pow er-base, of t h i s of the p o l i t i c s h a v i n g o n c e b e e n m o b i l i z e d, now posed a c h a l l e n g e t o th e e l i t e. D jak arta, in stead facin g i d e o l o g i c a l program s co m prehensible n o r a b le t o s o lv e the in h a b ita n ts engaged i n th e s t r u g g l e o f t h e d e s a, who w e r e s t i l l for su rv iv al. Viewed i n t h i s m a n n e r, the P.K.I. on t h e d i s l o c a t i o n and m o b i l i z e t h e sought to c a p i t a l i z e p o te n tia l m ass-support b y b u i l d i n g up a p o w e r - b a s e b y p r e s e n t i n g i t s t o an a p p e a l to n a tio n a lis m t h a t had f a i l e d r e c u r r e n t an d i n c r e a s i n g l y a g g r a v a t e d the in h a b ita n ts The n a t u r e of the R ep u b lic. own a l t e r n a t i v e to solve the problem s t h a t c o n fro n te d The e f f e c t i v e n e s s The e x p r e s s i o n i s t a k e n from t h e h e a d i n g o f C h a p t e r I I I i n H a n n a ' s w o r k, Bung K a r n o ' s I n d o n e s i a, p. 1. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n, g iv e n by a n I n d o n e s i a n n e w s p a p e r e d i t o r w hen t h i s a r t i c l e w a s w r i t t e n i n 1 9 5 9, s t i l l h a s r e l e v a n c e t o d a y and s e r v e s a s a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t b e in g to o o p t im i s t ic in p r e d i c ti n g th e f u tu r e of the R ep u b lic. I f y o u t h i n k t h e s i t u a t i o n c a n ' t g e t s t i l l more c o n f u s e d, rem em ber t h a t ' s what p e o p le s a i d two y e a r s a g o,... We I n d o n e s i a n s may n o t b e s y s t e m a t i c,... b u t y ou must a d m i t, w e 'r e r a r e l y d u l l. I b i d., p. 2. === [PDF page 162] === 158 o f f e r i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e b r o u g h t them a l m o s t the th resh o ld of p o w e r. The n e c e s s a r y whos e v i s i o n field, of th e nam ely l e a d e r s h i p was n o t p r o v i d e d b y t h o s e u n i v e r s e w ent f a r beyond "th e new spaper re a d in g a r e a s who w e r e e x p o s e d t o t h e not s u r p r i s i n g tasks th at th at faced tio n s U nlike th e th e p e o p le could not r e c o n c ile created by th e peasan t— s t i l l attem p t to fin d H owever, such fo rm u la t h e more p r a g m a t i c not fin d secu rity were s t i l l seeking t h e i r They c o u ld o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n a nd t h e r e i n a s o c i e t y i n w hich th e y own p l a c e. b u r e a u c r a c y and t h e s t u d e n t s problem of t r a d i t i o n a l l o y a l t i e s w ith of th e fo rce s f o r e could generalized t o the g r o u p was e v e n in a tr a n s itio n a l s o c ie ty. t h e m agnetism t h e ir aw areness t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c ia tio n w ith t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e Suku n o r so lv ed of m aking a l i v i n g B elo nging n e i t h e r to in id e o lo g ic a l fo rm u latio n s. n e ith e r obscured urban o r d e r — t h e y w e re more a w a re of own a m b i v a l e n c e. the ham let n o r th e c i t y, secu rity because t h is by th e i n s e c u r i t y in th e t r a d i t i o n a l of t h e i r the very essen ce of chang e. th e R ep u b lic, " d i f f u s i o n of w orld c u l t u r e. " the c a u se s p u b l i c o f th e y could n o t o f f e r f u l f i l l m e n t more i n t e n s e l y a f f e c t e d grounded the r ic e - co uld id eo lo g ical p o sitio n s, Segm ents o f th e fin d some c o m f o r t i n b u t as i n d i v i d u a l s — most d i r e c t l y c a u g h t up i n t h e dilem m a o f t r a n s i t i o n — t h e y c o u ld ^ F eith, The W llo p o C a b i n e t, p. 23. === [PDF page 163] === 159 n o t provide g u id a n c e, b e c a u s e t h e y lacked At t h e t o p o f t h e p y r a m i d, was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e fact problems t h a t f a c e d n atio n. the the th at of th e e l i t e not so lv e C a u g h t up i n t h e from th e le a d e rs could em ploy t h e form s in the s t r u c t u r i n g of a p a r t y sy stem N o netheless, in n e r core th e y co uld o f t h e c a p i t o l and d i v o r c e d in stitu tio n s. d irec tio n. the tra d itio n s p o litic s of th e m as?, of p o l i t i c a l m o d ern iza tio n and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e th e y w ere d e a l i n g w ith form s t h a t w e r e made m e a n i n g l e s s d u e t o a l a c k o f e x p e r i e n c e u til iz i n g such te c h n iq u e s. At t h e same t i m e, w ith the continued of th e P resid en t attem pt o f b u i l d i n g u p, w h a t Py e c a l l s, c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e c o m p etitiv e f o r m of " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to m ain tain h is tu rn to the c o re of P y e 's c a s e D evelopm ent," w i t h a l l i t s As we h a v e n o t e d, l o g i c of c o m p e t i t i v e for p o litic s" in th e h e r e w h e r e we P o litic al and w e a k n e s s e s. Py e c o n t e n d s t h a t in stead p r o c e s s, " 2* "D em ocracy and stre n g th s p o litic s," governm ent" can t h e peoi "p o litica l g o v ern m en t." th e y w ere faced p o s i t i o n by s o u n d i n g t h e w e l l - w o r n c r y t o n a t i o n a l i s m, "lo g ic the the only th ro u g h form o f of em ergent n a tio n s "the "rep resen tativ e fuse th e f o r c e s of t h e u n i v e r s a l and p a r o c h i a l t o m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of m o d e r n iz a tio n. He h a s s u g g e s t e d th at "the lo g ic co m petitive p o l i t i c s: " ... f o r c e s p e o p l e t o m e a s u r e t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t t h o s e o f o t h e r s, and t h u s d i s c o v e r **P y e, A s p e c t s o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t, p. 16. === [PDF page 164] === 16 o th e ir r e a l in d iv id u a l in te re s ts i n t e r e s t s.5 We c a n s u g g e s t t h a t s t r a i n e d when a p p l i e d th e coup. "the to the F o r, w h ile i t and t h e i r s h a r e d lo g ic" of t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n i s In d o n e sia n experience b e fo re c a n be s u g g e s te d th a t S u k a rn o 's i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n and t h e c a l l f o r a u n i t e d did indeed and t h e obscure b o th th e front " re a l in d iv id u al in te r e s ts " "shared i n t e r e s t, " th e i r o n y of the m a t t e r i s th at o ne c o u l d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r m a j o r s e g m e n t s of t h e I n d o n e s i a n p o litic a l pu b lic knew w h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e c a u g h t up i n t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f c h a n g e. to expect a p eo p le, a new i d e n t i t y in a so c ie ty its u n d e rg o in g basic change, to be own i n t e r e s t s, those s h a r e d w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w man. In p a rt, p o p u l a r i ty of S u k a rn o 's program. w h i c h one c o u l d a t find lea st most u n c e r t a i n w o r l d. not c le a rly d efin e th is, of c o u r s e, t h e m inor r e l i g i o u s t h e m i l i t a r y and t h e P. K. I. P o litic s, the the a ratio n ale p o l i t i c a l p u b lic in te re sts, im ply t h a t th e y la c k e d two s t r a i n s p arties, had b r o a d of th e Isla m ic the n a t i o n a l i s t s, programs w h ic h t h e y fo r p o l i t i c a l actio n. the In donesian ex p erien ce re s te d ^Pye, ex p lain s t h e i r I n d i v i d u a l or s h a r e d C e rta in ly the as a r a t i o n a l e th is a m o d ic u m o f s e c u r i t y i n a d o e s n o t mean t o d i r e c t i o n a nd g o a l s. much l e s s He o f f e r e d N ev erth eless, co uld follow ed is d iffic u lt c o n fro n te d by the n e c e ssity of f in d in g ab le to d e fin e c le a r ly com m unity, The t r a g e d y I n in the fact t h a t, oth er P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g, p. 301. === [PDF page 165] === 161 t h a n a broad a p p e a l to n a tio n a lis m, t h e r e was l i t t l e common ground t h a t would e n a b l e them t o w o r k t o g e t h e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e d e v ian t p a th s i n t o a s i n g l e d i r e c t i o n f o r th e R epublic fo llo w. T h is, in a larg e p a rt, a cc o u n ts f o r the f a i l u r e o f a p a r l i a m e n t a r y g o v ern m en t a f t e r t h e h i g h - w a t e r mark of th e 1 9 5 5 e l e c t i o n and t h e r e s u l t a n t em ergence of S u k a r n o 's c o n c e p t o f G u id ed D e m o c r a c y. W ith th e e v o l u t i o n of t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l program, co u ld suggest th a t his a ttem p t to fo rm u la te a broad-based i d e o l o g y t h a t could a p p e a l to a l l seg m en ts was p a r t i a l l y tak e but p lace. of t h e s o c i e t y i n l i n e w i t h P y e ' s v iew t h a t a f u s i o n m u s t H is f a i l u r e th erefo re, rested h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s an d i n a b i l i t y m en talities on e not in h is id ea l, to develop the i n s t r u th ro u g h w h ic h com peting i n t e r e s t s could be e ffe c tiv e ly articu lated and r e c o n c i l e d thus lead in g to n a tio n a l in teg ratio n. The P r e s i d e n t m u s t b e a r h i s p a r t o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r n o t p r o m o t i n g, w h a t Pye c a l l s, n o n -b u reau cratic That is "the com ponents of th e p o l i t i c a l sy s te m. t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r o l e o f t h e p o l i t i c i a n who co u ld e f f e c t i v e l y a g g r e g a t e and r e c o n c i l e t h e v a r i o u s f a c t i o n s w ith in th e p o l i t i c a l system. We m u s t a d m i t t h a t s u c h a t a s k was m onum ental, b u t th e f a c t rem ain s t h a t th e P r e s i d e n t, h elp ed t o prom ote a b r o a d s e n s e of n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e w h ic h co u ld h a v e p r o v i d e d a b a s i c a r e a o f a g r e e m e n t, d i d n o t go bI b i d p. 23 h av in g === [PDF page 166] === 162 t h e s t e p b e y o n d and r e c o g n i z e t h e n e e d fo r th e f u n c t i o n of th e p o l i t i c i a n w hich i n tim e, "brokerage"^ m ight h a v e — u n d e r h i s d i r e c t i o n — developed a broad n a t i o n a l c o n s e n s u s. m iscarried, not in h is tria l Sukarno in c re a tin g a n a tio n a l I d e n tity, b u t i n h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o move t h e s t e p b e y o n d — t h e d e v e l o p ment o f a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s. a d ig n ity He h ad b r o u g h t t o t h e R e p u b l i c i n t h e f o r m o f a n a t i o n, b u t he was u n w i l l i n g t o b e com m itted to the n e c e s s ity of s tim u la tin g of p o p u la r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n w hich th e a r t com prom ise i n s t e a d come a b o u t. p o sitio n. As t h e of m e a n in g fu l o f t h e sham o f a n i m p o s e d c o n s e n s u s c o u l d i s a l l t o o u n d e r s t a n d a b l e why h e c h o s e h i s " G r e a t L e a d e r o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n, " he was r e l u c t a n t to have h is p o s i t i o n c h a lle n g e d not s tr ic tly th e developm ent b y o t h e r s who d i d a d h e r e t o h i s own c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n. T h i s d o e s n o t mean t o i m p l y t h a t t h e b e a r th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by h i m s e l f. t h e D utch i n w hich th e employed gave l i t t l e "p rio r ro le P r e s i d e n t m ust The c o l o n i a l p o lic ie s of of a d m in is tr a tio n " was o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e developm ent of an ^Almond an d P o w e l l s t r e s s t h e " b r o k e r a g e f u n c t i o n " when t h e y r e f e r t o t h a t form o f i n t e r e s t a g g r e g a t i o n c l a s s i f i e d as th e p r a g m a t i c - b a r g a i n i n g s t y l e, found i n th e U. S., G r e a t B r i t a i n and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s. A c co rd in g t o them, in t h o s e c o u n t r i e s, "... a w ide v a r i e t y of i n t e r e s t s a r e o f t e n combined i n t o a l i m i t e d num ber o f a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c i e s. T h i s a g g r e g a t i o n i s s o m e tim es g u id e d b y more g e n e r a l i d e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s, b u t th e accom m odation of d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s i s i t s m ost n o t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c. C o m p r o m i s e a nd t h e ' a t m o s p here of th e m arket p la c e ' d om inates th e a g r e g a t i o n p r o c e s s." Almond and P o w e l l, The D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t i n I n d o n e s i a, p. lOTH Pye, A spects of P o l i t i c a l D ev elo p m en t, p. 1^. === [PDF page 167] === I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c i a n who c o u l d l e a r n th e need f o r r e c o n cilia tio n of co m peting i n t e r e s t s. The l a c k o f t h i s o rien tatio n, coupled w ith th e d i v i s i o n w i t h i n th e arch ip elag o, could c h a l le n g e t h e m ost a b le seeking u n ity in th e in c re d ib le d i v e r s it y Yet th e P resid en t, h av in g g iv en a broad p o l i t i c i a n in of th e R epublic. sense of d ire c tio n i n t h e form o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of a n I n d o n e s i a n n a t i o n, should h a v e g o n e a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d t a k e n o n t h e r o l e of t u t o r t o t h e m a s s f o r whom h e c l a i m e d retu rn to th e p lo re the o t h e r s who c o u l d p o ssib le co n stru ctio n to sp eak. assum e t h i s ro le We s h a l l a s we e x of an In d o n esian p o litic a l system a f t e r th e coup. M oving bey ond t h e n eed f o r Pye t h e n n o t e s th at "co m p etitiv e p o litics", in the f in a l a n a ly s is: th e b a sic fu n c tio n of r e p r e s e n ta tiv e govern m en t becomes c r i t i c a l t o th e n a t i o n b u ild in g p ro cess. I f t h e new s o c i e t i e s a r e t o a c h i e v e a new l e v e l o f i n t e g r a t i o n, t h e y m u s t f i n d m ethods f o r g iv in g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o b o t h c o s m o p o l i t a n and p a r o c h i a l f o r c e s. Out o f t h i s I n t e r play of r e p r e s e n ta tiv e p o l i t i c s; i t i s p o ss ib le for a s o c i e t y to r e a l i z e a fu n d am en tal f u s io n of the e l e m e n t s o f t h e w o r l d c u l t u r e and t h e i n d i g e n o u s tra d itio n.9 In d ev elo p in g t h is "rep re se n ta tiv e p o in t, governm ent" i s one c a n s u g g e s t t h a t indeed " c r i t i c a l t o nation Pye, A s p e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent, ^Pennock, S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t i n M o d e rn izin g N ations, p. 24. === [PDF page 168] === 164 b u i l d i n g " a s a means o f p r o v i d i n g a r t i c u l a t i o n aggregation to th e co m p etin g I n t e r e s t s undergoing t r a n s f o r m a t i o n. p resen tativ e i n s t i t u t i o n s B ut, and w ith in a societyone m ust n o t e by th e m se lv e s, th at r e o f f e r no s o l u t i o n. S u k a r n o 's r u b b e r sta m p p a r l i a m e n t and t h e f a i l u r e i n i t i a l attem pt a t a p a rlia m e n ta ry governm ent", b e f o r e th e r i s e form o f "the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e "rep re se n ta tiv e of G uided D em o cracy, underscore th e f a c t t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e have m eaning i f a p o l i t i c a l process, tra d itio n ", p o litic a l process c h a r a c te r iz e d not c h aracterized is develo p ed. They a r e the a g g re g a tio n o f I n t e r e s t s n o t be c h a n n e l e d We c a n a p p r e c i a t e t h i s R epublic f a c e s, passed. little u n less th e in itia l or th e sense m eaning i f th at can and c o n v e r s e l y, th e th ere w h e n we d i s c u s s now t h a t ev o lv e a in stitu tio n s through I n s t i t u t i o n s; in s titu tio n s are m ean in g less T his does co m p lim en tary in th e has b y c o n s e n s u s and c o m p r o m is e can d e v e lo p r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o t h e r way a r o u n d. serves form s w i l l o n ly n o t mean t o s u g g e s t t h a t a n a t i o n m u s t f i r s t before i t of an Is ag g reg atio n. th e c h a lle n g e s perio d the of r e a c t i o n has === [PDF page 169] === P y e ' s T h e o r y o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t — A Means o f U nderstanding; th e D ir e c tio n of In d onesian P o litio s Now t h a t the m i l i t a r y c o n flic t w ith the P.K.I. has been com pleted, has c h a r a c te r iz e d in itia l period p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t and c o m p r o m i s e t h a t the a f f a i r s of the a rc h ip e la g o sin c e th e o f r e a c t i o n h a s become a p a g e i n m o d e r n Indonesian h is to r y. I n t h e wake o f t h e m o n u m e n ta l c r i s i s th e R ep u b lic, task t h a t gripped th e rem aining p o l i t i c a l fo rc e s c o n tin u e th e of fin d in g new d i r e c t i o n f o r I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s. a p p ly in g P y e 's t h e o r y o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, we c a n a s c e r ta in basic problem s th e R epublic f a c e s a s i t to re c o n s tru c t a f t e r the bid attem pts u p h e a v a l t h a t m arke d t h e P. K. I. ' s f o r pow er. When t h e a r m y, u n d e r S u h a r to, r e l u c t a n t l y assumed th e p u b lic resp o n sib ility sta te,^ replaced of co n ducting th e a f f a i r s S u k a r n o a s t h e hub o f I n d o n e s i a n 10 As we h a v e n o t e d, t h e m i l i t a r y was r e l u c t a n t t o l e g a l l y a s s u m e p o w e r b e c a u s e t h e y f e a r e d t h a t t h i s w o u ld n o t o n l y make a b r e a k w i t h a c o n t i n u i t y i n I n d o n e s i a n a f f a i r s b y o u s t i n g a man who h ad s o l o n g s p o k e n f o r t h e n a t i o n, b u t a l s o b e c a u s e th e y f e a r e d t h a t a p o p u l a r r e a c t i o n by s u p p o r t e r s of S u k a r n o w o u l d b r i n g w i t h i t t h e d a n g e r o f a new c i v i l c o n flic t. T h e y p r e f e r r e d t o r e m a i n b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s and l e t t h e c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s a c t as shock t r o o p s. However, b o t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t and a n t i - S u k a r n o f o r c e s. w o u l d, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s, make t h e m i l i t a r y === [PDF page 170] === 1(56 p o litics, and i n s o d o i n g, was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e fin d in g so lu tio n s t o problem s t h a t have plagued t h e arch ip elag o sin ce independence. In t h is its co n tex t, own a n s w e r s t o t h e t h e a r m e d f o r c e s m u st now o f f e r problem o f e f f e c t i v e l y means by w h ic h c o m p e tin g i n t e r e s t s a rtic u la te d, job but aggregated p ro v id in g can n ot only be i n t o t h e form of n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s t h a t a re c a p a b le of e n d in g th e d i s l o c a t i o n t h a t a s s u m e m ore d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a n d, t h e r e b y, b e a r t h e l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r th e a f f a i r s of s t a t e. A f t e r t h e p e rio d of i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n, t h e P r e s i d e n t c o n tin u e d h i s e n d eav o r to a s s e r t h i s p o s i t i o n by c a l l i n g f o r a s e ttle m e n t under h is d i r e c t i o n. W hile t h e arm y c o n tin u e d to u n d e rc u t h is p o s i t io n w ith th e help of c i v i l i a n s u p p o r te r s, th e P r e s id e n t r i g i d l y adhered to h is s t a n c e. As a r e s u l t, on F e b r u a r y 2 1, 1 9 6 6, S u k a r n o d i s m i s s e d G e n e ra l N a su tio n from h i s p o s t of M i n i s t e r of D e f e n s e. The o u s t i n g of t h i s l e a d i n g s p o k e s m a n o f t h e m i l i t a r y w a s e v e n t o o much o f a n a f f r o n t t o S u h a r t o who p r e f e r r e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t by a n i n d i r e c t a t t a c k. In p a rt, as a r e s u l t o f t h i s, on M arch 1 1, 1966 S u k a r n o was f o r c e d t o s i g n " a n o r d e r e m p o w e r i n g G e n e r a l S u h a r t o, t h e M i n i s t e r Army Commander, ' t o t a k e a l l s t e p s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e governm ent and t h e c o u r s e of t h e r e v o l u tio n.'" Guy J. P a u k e r, " I n d o n e s i a: The Y e a r o f T r a n s i t i o n, " A s i a n S u r v e y, V o l. V I I, No. 2 F e b r u a r y, 1957# P. 138* Y e t, e v e n t h i s was n o t s u f f i c i e n t a s t h e a n t i S u k a r n o f o r c e s demanded t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t b e d i s m i s s e d. As we s h a l l n o t e, i t i s b y n o m e a n s c l e a r i f t h e a r m y h a d f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e s i t u a t i o n o r had t o bow t o t h e p r e s s u r e s o f t h o s e who w a n t e d S u k a r n o s t r i p p e d o f h i s r a n k a n d t h e re m n a n ts of h i s fo r m a l power. I n a n y e v e n t, on M a r c h 1 2, 1967# S u k a r n o l o s t h i s t i t l e, an d S u h a r t o becam e A c t i n g P resid en t. The a rm y t h u s had t o t a k e on t h e f o r m a l p o w e r s an d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of s t a t e and c o u l d n o l o n g e r a c t b e hind th e s c e n e s. A lfre d F r i e n d l y, J r., " S u h a rto Becomes A c t i n g P r e s i d e n t, " The New Y o r k T i m e s, M arch 13, 1967# === [PDF page 171] === 167 has, f o r so lo n e, m arred a n a tio n In th e In d o n esian attem p t to c re a te "su b stan ce" as w e ll as In pursuing t h i s th e o b jectiv e, t h e army h a s e n jo y e d i n i t i a l a d v a n t a g e o f h a v i n g a common c a u s e w i t h t h e rem aining p o l i t i c a l fo rc e s "form ". i n a. p r o g r a m t h a t h a s b e e n g e a r e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Communist P a r t y. learned the lead ersh ip But having l e s s o n o f M andiun a s a n e x a m p le, i s aware of t h e f a c t t h a t the m ilita ry such n e g a tiv e pro gram s c a n n o t, by t h e m s e l v e s, b r i n g on t h e n e c e s s a r y e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l reform n e e d e d t o prevent e it h e r the c o n tin u in g c risis in the a rc h ip e la g o or a re s u rg e n c e of th e tu rn ed the th erefore, a rm y 's c r e d i t o rie n ta tio n in Ind o n esian p o l i t i c s " s o l i d a r i t y m aking" t o tio n to the " p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g. " 11 of such an agenda i s w e l l - s u i t e d of the th at i t has from The u t i l i z a b o th to the o u tlo o k l e a d e r s of th e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t a s w e l l a s p r o v id in g an atm osphere in w hich th e R ep u b lic can f i n a l l y come t o g r i p s w i t h t h e t r a v a i l s have, f o r too long, of n a t i o n b u i l d i n g w hich 12 been o bscured. 1 1 As t a k e n f r o m F e i t h ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f " a d m i n i s t r a t o r s " and " s o l i d a r i t y m a k e r s ". The D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Dem ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a, p. 113. 12 I n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p o s t - c o u p c a b i n e t s, we s e e w h e r e t h e m i l i t a r y h a s t u r n e d t o t h o s e who h a v e b e e n kn own f o r t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s i n s t e a d o f t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e on u n d i f f e r e n c i a t e d c a l l s t o n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of th e " s o l i d a r i t y m a k e rs ". T h u s, t h e new V i c e - === [PDF page 172] === 168 The p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a p p r o a c h i s th e "m odus o p e r a n d u s " o f t h e a r m y, b e c a u s e t h e army s h a r e s a b asic c h arac teristic estab lish m en ts be an e f f e c t i v e lea d ersh ip g a n i z a t i o n and problem s. phrased common t o m a n y o f t h e m i l i t a r y o f t h e new s t a t e s. t h e demands p la c e d the i n ha rm on y w i t h on a n y m i l i t a r y fig h tin g w ell-aw are e x p ertise force That i s, system th a t aspires th e m odern w orld, of th e needs b y v i r t u e of its f o r com plex o r f u r n i s h answ ers t o unresolved W h i l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h a v i e w may be in term s of t h e need h ig h ly -so p h isticated fo r effectiv e lo g istics tech n o lo g y of c o n f l i c t, the f a c t P r e m i e r f o r E conom ic and F i n a n c i a l A f f a i r s i s t h e h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d S u l t a n o f J o r g J a k a r t a, Hamengku Buwono. I n r e v i e w, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t, i n h i s c a p a c i t y as D efense M i n i s t e r i n 1 9 5 2, he s u p p o r t e d N a s u t i o n ' s c a l l f o r a m o d e r n iz a tio n of t h e arm y. H is r o l e i n t h e O ctober 17th A f f a i r was rem em bered b y t h e a rm y. The new F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r — Adam M a l i k — a l s o r e p re s e n ts th e re su rg e n c e of th o s e w ith a d m in is tra tiv e a b ility. F o r m e r A m b a s s a d o r t o Moscow a n d a l e a d e r o f P a r t a i M urba, M a lik h a s a g a i n r e t u r n e d t o a p o s i t i o n of i n flu en ce. H i s s k i l l s h a v e e v i d e n t l y b e e n f a r m o re i m p o r t a n t to th e m il i t a r y th an h is p a st p o l i t i c a l p o s itio n. H o w ev e r, i n M a l i k ' s a p p o i n t m e n t, o n e c a n w o n d e r i f t h e army i s a t t e m p t i n g t o f i n d a c h a n n e l a w a y f r o m t h e r e m n a n t s of t h e P. K. I., t h o s e who f a v o r a s o l u t i o n o f " t h e l e f t " f o r I n d o n esia. The p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o r i e n t a t i o n c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n th e n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s fo llo w e d s i n c e t h e coup a tte m p t. A p r i l 4, 1 9 6 7, M a l i k a n n o u n c e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a would r e j o i n th e U nited N a tio n s. On May 2 7 t h, s e n i o r o f f i c e r s o f t h e " C r u s h M a l a y s i a C a m p a i g n ", v i s i t e d K u a l a L a m p u r and marked t h e end o f t h e C o n f r o n t a t i o n P o l i c y. I n t h e r e a l m of e c o n o m i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n, t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o r i e n t a t i o n was a l s o em ployed. On J u n e 1 9 t h, f o r e x a m p l e, n o n - c o m m u n l s h c r e d i t o r s met i n Tokyo t o r e s c h e d u l e t h e I n d o n e s i a n d e b t. O c t o b e r, Moscow a l s o a g r e e d t o l e s s e n t h e w e i g h t of t h e d e b t s I n d o n e s i a had a c c r u e d. F o r a s u r v e y o f t h e s e measures s e e: Pauker, pp. 149-150. === [PDF page 173] === 169 r e m a i n s t h a t on a b r o a d e r l e v e l: ... m ost of th e newly e m e rg e n t a rm ie s have t e n d e d t o e m p h a s i z e a r a t i o n a l o u t l o o k and c h a m p i o n r e s p o n s i b l e c h a n g e and n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t.13 I m p r e s s e d b y t h e n e e d f o r m o d e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n and sk ills, arm ies o f t h e new s t a t e s, a c tin g under th e guise of p r e s e r v i n g t h e n a t i o n a l h o n o r, have b e e n r e c e p t i v e t h e i m p a c t and n e e d o f m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s. A ccordingly, s u c h r e c e p t i v e n e s s h a s o f t e n made t h e m o ne o f t h e m o s t modern s e g m e n ts o f t h e c o u n t r y t h e y a r e su p p o s e d T his w i l l i n g n e s s to u tiliz e th e tech n iq u es of m o d e r n iz a tio n t o t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e, c a n s p i l l - o v e r i n t o most n o t a b l y t h e p o litic a l arena. to serv e. o ther a re a s - - As Pye n o t e s: The f a c t t h a t t h e s e new a r m i e s i n p r e i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s a r e modeled a f t e r i n d u s t r i a l b a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s many i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r th eir p o litic a l ro le. One o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is p a rtic u la rly s ig n ific a n t: the s p e c ia liz a tio n t h a t m o d e r n a r m i e s demand i n s k i l l s a nd f u n c t i o n s i s o n l y d i s t a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e command o f v i o l e n c e. 1^ The a b o v e s t a t e m e n t h a s p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t o the In d o n esian m i l i t a r y. m odernists l i k e We h a v e s e e n w h e r e m i l i t a r y N a s u tio n w ere draw n i n t o t h e v o r t e x of Indonesian p o l i t i c s in endeavors to b u ild a modern m i l i t a r y P y e, "The P r o c e s s o f P o l i t i c a l M o d e r n i z a t i o n, " i n J o h n s on ( e d. ), The R o l e o f t h e M i l i t a r y i n U n d e r d e v e l o p e d C o u n t r i e s, p. 76. 14 Ibid. === [PDF page 174] === 170 estab lish m en t. He and h i s c o l l e a g u e s a r e now e v e n m o r e d e e p ly in volved in th e a f f a i r s of th e R ep u b lic attem p ted use th e s k i l l s problem s of th e n a tio n. d u strialized o f a m odern army t o s o l v e Having used so c ietie s, an d h a v e th e s k i l l s of i n t h e y h ave b e e n r e c e p t i v e te c h n ic a l change. T herefore, co n d itio n s of th e a rc h ip e la g o th ro u g h P y e 's o u tside " d i f f u s i o n of w orld c u l t u r e. " lead ersh ip, the th e v a l u e s w e re imposed from The s u r v i v i n g m i l i t a r y may t h u s b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in th e fo llo w in g m anner: The good s o l d i e r i s a l s o t o some d e g r e e t h e m o d e r n i z e d m a n.1 ^ v i t a l to the arm y, q u e s t i o n of " d e g r e e " w h i c h may p r o v e s o f u t u r e c o u r s e of In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s. h aving a p ro b le m -so lv in g o r i e n t a t i o n, a series o f program s geared a t s e t t l i n g have plagued th is the a rc h ip e la g o. p re s e n tly fo llo w in g who t r y use t h e i r In th is e x p e rtis e to solve sense, t h e m i l i t a r y w i l l go b e y o n d sim p ly r e t u r n th at "ad m in istrato rs" th is B ut, one p o in t or "the a d m in is tr a tiv e developm ent" w ith i t s on " t h e e f f e c t i v e 15 issu es upon the m il i ta r y problem s. must w onder i f stress h a s embarked lo n g -term t h e mold o f F e i t h ' s The Ib id., p. 80. o p e ra tio n of th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n === [PDF page 175] === 171 i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e modern s t a t e. " W ill th e m i l i t a r y, th e n, be e i t h e r w i l l i n g o r c a p a b le of s t i m u l a t i n g t h e b u i ld i n g of a p o l i t i c a l p ro c e ss c h a r a c te r iz e d by t h e p o r t a n c e o f t h e r o l e o f t h e p o l i t i c i a n and t h e n e e d f o r "com petitive p o l i t i c s "? th at the p o l i t i c a l Can t h e m i l i t a r y a d o p t t h e s t a n c e p r o c e s s m u st b e r e v i t a l i z e d; o r o n c e, having f i n a l l y been placed power, w i l l i t in the p o s itio n of assu m in g continue to d i s t r u s t the p o l i t i c i a n and open open t h e way f o r f u r t h e r i n t e r v e n t i o n? 1^ ■^Pye, A s p e c ts o f P o l i t i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t, 15. ^ T h e r o l e o f t h e Bu rm ese army may b e i n s t r u c t i v e in gaining in s ig h t in to th e fu tu re d i r e c ti o n of th e I n d o n e s i a n army i n t h e p o l i t i c s of t h e a r c h i p e l a g o. In 1958, u n d e r G e n e r a l Ne Win, t h e arm y d i r e c t l y i n t e r v e n e d i n o u s t i n g P r i m e M i n i s t e r U Nu on t h e p r e t e n s e o f r e s t o r i n g order to a ch ao tic p o l i t i c a l s itu a tio n. At t h a t t i m e, t h e Burm es e army c o n t e n d e d t h a t i t was a c t i n g i n a c a r e - t a k e r c a p a c i t y and would r e s t o r e c i v i l i a n r u l e w hen i t w a s a p p r o p r i a t e t o do s o. A c c o r d i n g t o one a u t h o r i t y, "The s t a g e was s e t f o r a n i m p r e s s i v e d e m o n s t r a t i o n b y a v i g o r o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n, f r e e from t h e l i a b i l i t i e s o f p a r t y p o l i t i c s. " J o h n C a d y, A H i s t o r y o f Modern Burma ( I t h a c a: C o rn ell U n i v e r s i t y Pre ss ", I 9 6 0 ), f r o m p. 23 of t h e e n c l o s e d Supplem ent t o t h e o r i g i n a l b o ok. The m i l i t a r y was t r u e t o i t s w o r d s, a n d r e t u r n e d power t o a c i v i l i a n h i e r a r c h y i n 1 9 5 9. H o w e v e r, i n 1 9 6 2, i t once more r e t u r n e d t o po w e r on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c i a n s a g a i n had n o t m et t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s o l v i n g ' th e problem s of th e n a t i o n. When we a p p l y t h i s t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a s e, t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n beco m es e v i d e n t. E ven i f t h e I n d o n e s i a n army i s w i l l i n g t o r e s t o r e c i v i l i a n r u l e, w i l l i t t h e n r e t u r n to th e background? Now t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y h a s d i r e c t l y in terv en ed in th e a f f a i r s of the R epublic, a p re c e d e n t has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d. T h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t do i t a g a i n. The same q u e s t i o n, o f c o u r s e, c a n b e r a i s e d i n r e f e r e n c e to t h e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s of A f r i c a n s t a t e s w h ic h have r e c e n t l y d i r e c t l y i n t e r v e n e d i n t h e p o litic a l process. === [PDF page 176] === 172 At t h i s w r i t i n g, th e c l a s h b etw een th e a rm y 's p r o b l e m — s o l v i n g o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e c i v i l i a n p o litician are i s coming t o t h e f o r e. In th is c o llis io n, th ere g r o u n d s f o r b o t h o p t i m i s m and p e s s i m i s m i n t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r p o l i t i c a l developm ent in th e a r c h i p e l a g o. On t h e p ro b lem -so lv in g, p o sitiv e sid e, along w ith the concern fo r th e m i l i t a r y has c o -o p e ra te d w ith th e c iv ilia n p o litic a l forces i n a program o f d i s c r e d i t i n g S u k a r n o and a l s o t h o s e who f o l l o w e d end, the P.K.I. To t h i s the upper le v e ls of th e o f f i c e r c o r p s, w hich c o n s i s t o f some "150 g e n e r a l s a nd 4 0 0 c o l o n e l s, ' i s aware o f th e f a c t t h a t by i t s e l f T herefore, based c a n n o t r e c o n s t r u c t t h e governm ent. in a jo in t program w i t h t h e c i v i l i a n h i e r a r c h y on a n a n t i - P. K. I. v italized th e M.P.R.S. program, th e m i l i t a r y has r e (The P r o v i s i o n a l C o n s u l t a t i v e F o r a c o n te m p o r a r y s u r v e y o f t h e Burmese c a s e s e e: J o s e f S i l v e r s t e i n, "Problem s of Burma: E conom ic, P o l i t i c a l an d D i p l o m a t i c, " A s i a n S u r v e y, V o l. V I I, No. 2 ( F e b r u a r y, 1967), pp. 117-125. F o r two i n c i s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e r o l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e new s t a t e s s e e: F r e d v o n d e r M ehden, P o l i t i c s o f D e v e l o p i n g N a t i o n s, (New J e r s e y: P ren ticeH a ll, 1964). I n p a r t i c u l a r see C h a p te r VI, " P o l i t i c a l A c t i o n by t h e M i l i t a r y i n t h e D e v e l o p i n g N a t i o n s, p p. 9 7 - 1 1 6. A lso s e e: M o r r i s J a n o w i t z, The M i l i t a r y i n t h e P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t o f New N a t i o n s, A h ' E s s a y i n C o m p a r a t i v e A n a l y s i s ^C hicago: C h ica g o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, I9t>4). 18 Guy J. P a u k e r, "Toward a New O r d e r i n I n d o n e s i a, " F o r e i g n A f f a i r s, V o l. ^ 5, No. 3 ( A p r i l, 1 9 6 7 ), p. 5 1 3. i t m ust be s t r e s s e d t h a t w h i l e t h e m i l i t a r y i s aw are t h a t i t c a n n o t r e c o n s t r u c t th e governm ent by i t s e l f, t h i s === [PDF page 177] === 173 P e o p le 's C o n g r e s s ), w h ic h had becom e a r u b b e r stam p u n d e r Sukarno. T h is r e v i v a l serv ed in the tran sfer rep re se n ta tiv e subm erged of pow er. Y et, in te re sts th a t b esid es t h e r e w a s a common a l l i a n c e c iv ilia n forces. once i t had p r o v i d e d a a broad anti-com m unist d r i v e, b e t w e e n t h e m i l i t a r y and in stru ctiv e th a t d esp ite t h e i r th at flic t, t h e H i g h Command f i n a l l y bo w ed t o t h e p r e s s u r e t h a t only th e o u stin g co u ld be a r t i c u l a t e d, fears not th e le g itim ize th e ir p o sitio n c h am b er and a n a tm o s p h e r e in which l o n g - p o litic a l became e v i d e n t o f S u k a r n o w o u l d b r i n g a new c o n coup s u p p o r t e r s, b u t a l s o th e P r e s id e n t should be deposed b ecause of th e i n d i c a t i o n of h i s c o m p l i c i t y in the coup a tte m p t. B u t how f a r b e y o n d t h i s w i l l t h e a rm y go liste n in g on t h e r o l e p e titiv e t o and b u i l d i n g of the up a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s, b a s e d p o litic ia n s and t h e demand f o r "com p o litic s? " d o e s n o t mean t o i m p l y t h a t a l l t h e o f f i c e r s a r e com m itted to n a tio n b u ild in g. As P a u k e r n o t e s: "Not a l l o f t h e 150 g e n e r a l s and 400 c o l o n e l s i n t h e arm y a r e d e d ic a t e d t o th e p u b l i c g o od a s S u h a r t o a n d h i s c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s. Vested i n t e r e s t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e and t h e r e i s n o l a c k o f a r r o g a n c e among some o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e i r r e la tio n s w ith c i v i l s o c ie ty. T h e s e e l e m e n t s w i l l be a c o n s t a n t t h r e a t t o t h e d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e betw een t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e, w h i c h makes p a r t i e s and p o l i t i c i a n s a ' n e c e s s a r y e v i l ' i n a n y p o l i t y, and t h e c o r p o r a t e p r i n c i p l e t h a t g i v e s t h e a r m y t h e means t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e governm ent w ith o u t c re a tin g m il i ta r y d ic ta to rsh ip." Ib id. === [PDF page 178] === 174 The f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e in p a r t, w i l l he d eterm ined a r m y w i l l go f u r t h e r t h a n of P y e. on t h e b a s i s solve of a d m in is tr a tio n, The q u e s t i o n w i l l h a v e t o b e r a i s e d organ izatio n s the a nd t h e n e w l y e m e r g i n g can e f f e c t i v e l y w ork t o g e t h e r t o th e y a g a in tu i\: to th e p a th of c o n f l i c t, of p a rty a now -tainted N a tio n a lis t o f s l o g a n s and come t h e i r f e a r s w hich r e f l e c t s p o litic s, one m u st a s k w h e t h e r P arty w ill su rp ass the p o litic s the m in o rity C h ris tia n p a rtie s w ill over and w o r k w i t h t h e I s l a m i c m ean in g fu l l e v e l th an an a n t i - P. K. I. d r i v e. of th e co n ciled? Islam ic W ill, p arties, on a m ore Even i n th e f o r e x a m p l e, N a h a d a t u l Ulama c o n t e n e n c e i n A u g u s t i 9 6 0? " 20 would b e w i l l i n g forces c a n old d i v i s i o n s be r e "th e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e M asjum i P a r t y, was i t s or w ill t o com prom ise. In the case ranks as to w hether problem s t h a t c o n f r o n t t h e a r c h i p e l a g o, an i n a b i l i t y then of w hether th e "the p r i o r r u l e the rem ain in g p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s stu d en t arch ip elag o, In a d d itio n, t o allow banned by S u k a rn o o n e c a n w o n d e r i f N. U. the r e b i r t h of th e p a rty th a t m a j o r c o m p e t i t o r a s s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e M u s li m com m unity. 19 Pye, A sp e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent, p. 14. Pauker, "Tow ard a New O r d e r I n I n d o n e s i a, " === [PDF page 179] === 175 I n a d d i t i o n, w i l l t h e r e be a w i l l i n g n e s s part of th e p o l i t i c a l forces to allo w on t h e f o r th e developm ent of y e t a n o t h e r p a r t y t o c h a n n e l th e demands of t h o s e w i t h a le ftist view f o r s e r v i c e t o t h e R e p u b l i c? A ccording to one a u t h o r i t y, U n t i l now n o s u c h p a r t y o f n a t i o n a l s c o p e h a s been a v a i l a b l e, although d is c u s s io n s a re b e in g h e ld c o n c e r n in g a m erger of t h e fo rm e r S o c i a l i s t P a r t y ( P. S. I. ) b a n n e d b y S u k a r n o i n i 9 6 0, and t h e N a t i o n a l C om m u n is t Murba P a r t y, b a n n e d i n 1 9 6 5 and r e h a b i l i t a t e d... a s a b a s i s f o r a new S o c i a l i s t F r o n t.2! F in a lly, one m u st q u e s t i o n i f the In d o n esian p o l i t i c a l system is equal to th e ta s k of i n te g r a t i n g I n d o n e s i a n s t u d e n t s, who, and t h e of student in t h e i r the program s a g a i n s t Sukarno c o u l d no l o n g e r b e v i e w e d in the trad itio n p o litic s ^ b e fo re th e coup. U n t i l r e c e n t l y, one m i g h t d e s c r i b e s t u d e n t i n f l u e n c e i n I n d o n e s i a a s o ne o f p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th an a c tu a l s ig n ific a n c e. S tudent o rg a n iz a tio n s have been s p l i n t e r e d, t h e i r t r a d i t i o n c o n fu s e d. T h e ir p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y, m oreover, has long r e f l e c t e d the stro n g o u tsid e in f lu e n c e of th e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f t h e c o u n t r y. 22 S ince t h e c o u p, P a u k e r h a s g i v e n us a s t u d y i n c o n t r a s t a s he o b s e r v e s s t u d e n t a c t i v i t y 21I b l d.. 22 in p o litic s after p. 514. P r i n c e t o n M. I y m a n, S t u d e n t s and P o l i t i c s i n I n d o n e s i a a n d K o r e a, " P a c i f i c A f f a i r s, V o l. XXXVII, N o. 3 a n d 4 ( F a l l - W i n t e r, 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 ), p. £tJ2. === [PDF page 180] === As h e s u g g e s t s? th e coup. £76 The m o s t d y n a m i c f a c t o r i n I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s today are th e a c t i o n f r o n ts of th e u n i v e r s i t y and h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s, KAMI and K A P P I. Many o f t h e i r mem bers w e r e b o r n a f t e r t h e A u g u s t 17* 1 9 ^ 5 P ro clam atio n of Independence. U nlike t h e i r e l d e r s, who a r e s t i l l i n c l i n e d t o b l a m e ' i m p e r i a l i s m ' f o r t h e mess t h e i r c o u n t r y f i n d s I t s e l f i n, t h e new g e n e r a t i o n h o l d s P r e s i d e n t Sukarno p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e. F o r t h e m t h e m an t h a t l e d t h e n a t i o n a l i s t movement f o r t y y e a r s a g o is n e ith e r a fa th e r figure nor a c h a ris m a tic l e a d e r, b u t th e c r e a t i o n of a b a n k r u p t and d i s h o n o r a b l e Old O r d e r. 23 Having b e e n m o b i l i z e d by S u k a rn o i n s u p p o r t regim e, the s tu d e n ts own dem an d s and h a v e coup R e p u b lic. now a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o of h is present th e ir a p o s itio n of i n f lu e n c e in th e W hether th e y w i l l b e a c c e p t e d by th e tr a d itio n a l lead ers of th e p a r tie s p o st o r t h e arm ed s e r v i c e s having a voice i n t h e f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n of th e w hether they can p ro v id e a m ea n in g fu l v o i c e, n a tio n and rem ain s to be seen. In the f i n a l a n a ly s is, donesian p o l it i c s the f u t u r e i s y e t t o be d e t e r m i n e d. arm y, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e c i v i l i a n course Perhaps p o litic a l th e forces, may p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k o f o r d e r w i t h o u t a u t h o r i t a r i a n s i m where th e f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n could e m e rg e. 23 Pauker, "Toward a New O r d e r i n I n d o n e s i a, " 503 === [PDF page 181] === 177 Whenever* I t d e e m s m a r k e d c r i s i s, c o n f u s i o n o r c o r r u p t i o n t o be p a r a l y z i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s, t h e m i l i t a r y may s e i z e p o w e r t o c a r r y o u t what i t b e l i e v e s to be needed p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m, and t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y may e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e.24 P e r h a p s t h i s may h a p p e n, b u t t h e q u e s t i o n i s far from a n s w e r e d, w h e t h e r t h e m i l i t a r y c a n and w i l l p e r f o r m th is fu n ctio n, accept th is and t h e c i v i l i a n p o litic a l forces w ill fram e of r e f e r e n c e re m a in s t o be s e e n. I n sum m ation t h e n, P y e 's th e o r y of d em o cratic p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t g i v e s us a means o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g what problem s c o n f r o n t t h e R e p u b lic passage of tim e w i l l e n a b le of In d o n e s ia, u s t o know i f but only the h is con c e p t u a l i z a t i o n w i l l becom e a r e a l i t y when a p p l i e d c o u n try s t i l l in th e throw s L u c i a n W. P y e: of t r a n s i t i o n. A R ep resen tativ e P o litic a l D iscip lin e of th e T r a n s itio n a l of P o l i t i c a l S cience n o t w ith o u t ir o n y to n o te t h a t Pye, p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t concerned w ith th e d eveloping c o u n tr ie s, should com ing t o g r i p s w i t h t h e own d i s c i p l i n e to a the im pact of change in h im self face th e ch allen g e tra n sitio n s th a t c h arac terize his of com parative p o l i t i c s. 24 von Der Mehden, pp. 9 9 - 1 0 0. === [PDF page 182] === 178 reco g n ize order to a p p re cia te task s of se m a n tic s, im posed th at b u t, address o u t w a r d l y may a p p e a r t o b e a b a t t l e in r e a lity, o n t h o s e wh o a r e c e p tu aliza tio n s s e e k i n g t o e v o l v e new c o n th e a f t e r d i s c u s s i n g t h e need f o r f u s i o n, and a g g r e g a t i o n, c ep tu aliza tio n v alu e-lo ad ed g o v e rn m e n t." " d e m o c r a t i c " and but On t h e Pye v e r b a l i z e s hind th e w illin g t e r m s by p o s i t i n g a t h e o r y o f on o ne h a n d, t o b e s u b je c t to c r itic is m. p o sitiv e h is H i s e m p lo y m e n t o f s u c h w o rd s a s "re p re se n ta tiv e " is, on a n o t h e r, in terest in tro d u ces in to h is con p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e form o f p resen ta tiv e adm ired, We m u s t, t h e r e f o r e, q u e s t i o n of v a l u e s. a rticu la tio n, d em ocratic underscores th e c h alle n g e in co m parative p o litic s. o u rselv es Pye, t h e i s s u e h e f a c e s, we m u s t sid e, own v a l u e s is r e fre s h in g to see th a t instead o f o b s c u r i n g them b e ev er-in creasin g J a r g o n of p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e. based take a stan ce, A m erican p o l i t i c a l sc ie n tist through, w h at he c a l l s, That i s, as he n o t e s: He i s on h i s own v a l u e s a s an in stead of b e g g in g th e q u e s t i o n "a b e l i e f i n c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m ". A l t h o u g h W o r l d W a r I I h a d r a i s e d some q u e s t i o n s about th e v a l i d i t y of disp en sin g to le ra n c e to a l l c u l t u r e s, c e r t a i n l y th e m ainstream of s o c i a l s c i e n c e f a v o r e d t h e s p i r i t of a c c e p t i n g t h e p r o p r i e t y o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s and of r e s p e c t i n g t h e r e a l i t i e s of contem porary l i f e i n e v ery so ciety. In c o u n te r in g the e v ils of e th n o c en trism === [PDF page 183] === 179 r a t h e r s t r o n g ta b o o s were e r e c t e d a g a i n s t even i m p l y i n g t h a t some s o c i e t i e s m i g h t b e more ' a d v a n c e d ' and m o r e ' d e v e l o p e d ' t h a n o t h e r s. T h i s m e a n t t h a t g e n e r a l s t a n d a r d s o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e sh o u ld n o t be judged a g a i n s t p e rfo rm a n c e i n o t h e r s.25 Thus, w illin g t o be adm ired to i n t e r j e c t h is tio n instead " a ll is Py e i s own v a l u e s i n t o h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a of h i d in g b ehind re la tiv e ". i n th e se n se t h a t he i s th e s a f e t y of th e d ictu m t h a t T h i s o u t l o o k h a s m e r i t on a t two g r o u n d s. In the f i r s t P y e 's has i t s own v a l i d i t y. p lace, least th e fo llo w in g p assag e of ... w he n c r u d e l y p u t, t h e c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m c o u l d b e r e a d t o m ean t h a t i t was i n t h e n a t u r e o f some s o c i e t i e s t o b e p o w e r f u l a nd f o r o t h e r s t o be p o o r and i n e f f e c t u a l. The d o c t r i n e c o u ld e a s i l y b e m i s u n d e r s t o o d a s a balm t o t h e p o o r a n d make i t p o s s i b l e f o r them t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r l o t.26 Pye, t h e n, d o e s n o t t a k e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a p o lo g i s t In p o l i t i c a l developm ent by ta k in g a r e l a t i v e a p p ro a ch t h a t could judgm ents, and e n a b l e h im t o a v o i d m a k i n g v a l u e in so d oin g, p atro n ize, in stead of g iv in g d i r e c t i o n t o peo p le u n d ergo ing th e fu n dam ental t r a n s i t i o n. In th e second dem ocratic place, P y e 's p r e s e n ta tio n of a th e o r y of developm ent can be a p p re c ia te d b e ca u se he a d m its to b e in g i n f lu e n c e d by h i s 25 26 v alu es w h ile o th e r s Pye, A s p e c ts of P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ent, I b i d., p. 5 2. === [PDF page 184] === 180 a t t e m p t t o hide th e i n f l u e n c e under a fro n t v a l u e - f r e e approach t o th e d i s c i p l i n e. who i s w i l l i n g t o s a y t h a t "there of a s c i e n t i f i c, In c o n tra s t to Pye, is a clo se a s s o c ia tio n b e t w e e n d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a nd m o d e r n i z a t i o n, " 2 ^ t h e r e a r e t h o s e who a r e e q u a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d n o t adm it to i t. Thus, by t h e i r v a l u e s, but w ill th ey w ill p re se n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s t h a t a r e co m m o nly a s s o c i a t e d w ith dem ocratic governm ent. However, t h e y w i l l n o t own up t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n an d o n l y c o n t e n d t h a t s e n t i n g a m odern p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m. Y e t, on t h e o t h e r h a n d, they are p re- 28 P y e 's w i l li n g n e s s to i n t e r j e c t h i s values i n t o a broad co n ce p tu a lizatio n in tro d u c e s th e problem of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n. That i s, the c h a lle n g e Pye f a c e s o f b l e n d i n g h i s own I d e o l o g i c a l p r e f e r e n c e w i t h h i s d e s i r e t o be p a r t of th a t sc h o o l of p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e geared d ev elo p in g a v a lu e -fre e, fore, sc ie n tific c a u g h t in t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n 27 Pennock, approach. of u t i l i z i n g He i s, t h e r e q u asip. 2h. 28 One c a n s e e t h i s i n Almond a nd C o l e m a n ' s p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y, P o l i t i c s of D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s. I n t h e c o n c l u s i o n, "The p r o p e r t i e s o f a m odern p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m, " t h a t Coleman l i s t s a p p e a r t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e t o be found i n demo c r a t i c governm ents. In h i s l a s t rem ark s he s t a t e s: "It is c l e a r from t h i s l i s t o f a t t r i b u t e s, t h a t A ng lo -A m erican P o l i t i c s m ost c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e t h e m odel of a modern p o l i t i c a l sy stem." o p. c l t.» p. 5 3 3. We m u s t s i m p l y a s k t h e fo llo w in g q u estio n: I s C o lem an 's c o n c l u s i o n e q u a tin g m oderni n i t y w i t h dem ocracy t h e l o g i c a l r e s u l t draw n from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of h is c o n c e p t, o r i s i t a r e s u l t of an l d e a l o g i c a l preference. That i s, d id he d e v e l o p a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n t o a ffirm h is e x is tin g v alu es? === [PDF page 185] === sc ien tific term inology, (so c ializ atio n, ag g reg atio n, e tc.) on one h a n d, and v a l u e - l o a d e d term s, (rep re se n ta tiv e ment d e m o c r a t i c, e t c. ) o th er. As a man c o n c e r n e d on t h e w i t h " t h e r o l e o f v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s in th e m o d ern izatio n p r o c e s s, " 2 ^ t h i s i s r e a s o n a b l e and r e f l e c t s f a c e d by t h o s e who s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d govern th e a f i n a l ch alle n g e p o litics developing a r e a s. I n P y e ' s dilemma o f t r y i n g t o r e c o n c i l e h i s w i t h t h e demands f o r a s c i e n t i f i c approach, he c l e a r l y r e f l e c t s th e am bivalence of a n academ ic d i s c i p l i n e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n. 3° The p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t, 2 ^Pye, P o l i t i c s, op. c l t., p. 6. v alu es undergoing d esp ite a l l h is P e r s o n a l i t y and N a t i o n B u i l d i n g J The d i f f i c u l t y I n h e r e n t i n a t t e m p t i n g t o r e c o n c i l e t h e i n t e r j e c t i o n of th e i n d i v i d u a l p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t ’s p o l i t i c a l v a lu e s, w ith h is a tte m p t t o be s c i e n t i f i c, i s s e e n i n th e f o l l o w i n g exchange b e tw e e n Hans J. M o r g e n t h a u and Norman D. P a l m e r i n: James C. C h a r l e s w o r t h ( e d. ), A D e s i g n F o r P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e: Scope, O b j e c t i v e s and M ethods ( P h i l a d e I p h i a": The" A m e r i c a n Ac ademy o f P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l Science, 1966). M orgenthau: "No l e n g t h y e x p l a n a t i o n i s n e e d e d t o show t h a t t h o s e d i f f e r e n t p r e s s u r e s a g a i n s t w h i c h p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s must m a i n t a i n h i s m o r a l com m itm ent a re m u l t i p l i e d in th e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n I n w h ic h he m u st make h i s d e c i s i o n. F o r a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t t o b e a member of a p l u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y, s u c h a s A m e r i c a, means a c t u a l l y t o b e a m em ber o f a r e l i g i o u s, p o l i t i c a l, s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c c h a r a c t e r, a l l e x e r t i n g p a r a l l e l or c o n tra d ic to ry p r e s s u r e s upon him. A ll t h e s e g ro u p s a r e com m itted t o a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l ’t r u t h ', and t h e p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t c a n n o t h e l p from d e v i a t i n g from one o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e s e === [PDF page 186] === 182 a t t e m p t s t o be more s c i e n t i f i c, c a n n o t avoid both h is own j u d g m e n t s a n d t h e f a c t an aly sis, he i s o r g a n i s m s — man. th at, the in th e i m p a c t of fin al d e a l i n g w i t h t h a t m ost com plex of a l l T r y a s he may, the s tu d e n t of com parative p o litic s of h is m u st g r a p p l e w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e raw m a t e r i a l s tu d y i s not "the a b s t r a c t i o n " c a lle d th e n atio n or a rig id Pye i s o rg a n iz a tio n of p u b lic a u th o r ity. am b iv alen t, he m e re ly b e t r a y s t h e a m b iv a le n c e of a l l m en, a n d n o t s i m p l y t h a t cannot be div o rced T herefore, of th e p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t who fro m t h e s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s of h is own b e i n g. t r u t h s, i f he d o e s n o t w an t t o f o r e g o h i s m o r a l com m itm ent t o d i s c o v e r t h e ( i t a l i c s h i s ) t r u t h a b o u t s o c i e t y a l t o g e t h e r, "The P u r p o s e o f P o l i t i c a l com m itm ent t o d i s c o v e r t h e ( i t a l i c s h i s ) t r u t h a b o u t s o c i e t y a l t o g e t h e r, "The P u r p o s e o f P o l i t ic a l S cien ce, op. c l t., p. 70. Palm er: "The p u r p o s e o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e i s t o g iv e purpose to p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e. T h is in v o lv e s d u e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r y and t o p r a c t i c e, t o old a p p r o a c h e s and t o n e w, t o t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s o f t o d a y and tom orrow a s w e l l a s t o ' t h e g r e a t i s s u e s o f p o l i t i c s ' t h a t se em t i m e l e s s. Thus s t a t e d, th e purpose of p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e i s g ran d er in con c e p t th a n 'th e t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e rsta n d in g of p o litic s.' I t p r o v i d e s am ple sc o p e f o r b o t h p a i n s t a k i n g r e s e a r c h and c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g w i t h o u t a s p i r i n g t o be a 'm a s te r s c i e n c e ' o r t o 'd is c o v e r th e t r u t h about so c iety a lto g e th e r.'" "Comments o n P r o f e s s o r M o r g e n t h a u ' s P a p e r, " o p. c i t., p. 91* As t a k e n f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n: "... a n a t i o n i s a n a b s t r a c t i o n f r o m a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n common, an d i t i s t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t make t h e m m e m b e r s o f t h e sa m e n a t i o n. " H a n s J. M o r g e n t h a u, P o l i t i c s Among N a t i o n s. T h e S t r u g g l e f o r P o w e r a n d P e a c e ( F o u r t h E d i t i o n: Kew York": A l f r e d A. === [PDF page 187] === BIBLIOGRAPHY P u b l i c D o c u m en ts A chm adi, M a jo r G e n e r a l. A-A J o u r n a l i s t H e l p B u i l d t h e W o r l d A n e w. D j a k a r t a: E x e c u t i v e Command, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, F i r s t A sian A f r i c a n C o n fe re n c e, 1 9 6 5. C om m em orating t h e F o u r t h A n n iv e rs a r y o f t h e F i r s t A s la n A f r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e. A p r i l 2 4, 1959* D j a k a r t a: M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i on, 1 9 5 9 The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e R epublic of I n d o n e s i a. M in is try of in fo rm atio n, D jakarta: I n d o n e s i a L e a v e s t h e U nited N a tio n s. D j a k a r t a; E x e c u tiv e Command^ T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, i P i r s t A s i a n - A f r i c a n C onference, n.d. N a t i o n a l I n s tu i t u tveo f o r Cyuu la.tvvuii.r ao lx S^ ut uu ud i e s.g C ouuu nw ci i. xl vo f S c i e n c e f o r I n d o n e s i a ( M. I. f r. f. ), D epartm ent of N a t i o n a l ^R esearch. D ja k a rta: D epartm ent of N atio n a 1 R e se a rc h, n.d. T h e M a l a y s i a I s s u e, B a c k g r o u n d and D o c u m e n t s. Seco nd E d i t i o n. t > J a k a r t a: d e p a r t m e n t of f o r e i g n A f f a i r s, R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s i a, J u n e, 1965N e o - C o l o n i a l i s m, A T h r e a t t o World P e a c e. D j a k a r t a: The G ov ern m en t o f t h e R epublic of I n d o n e s i a, S ep tem b er, 1964. New F o r c e s B u i l d A New W o r l d. D j a k a r t a; D epartm ent of f o r e i g n A f f a i r s, R epublic of I n d o n e s i a. Issued by th e E x e c u t i v e Command, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, F i r s t A s i a n A fric a n C onference, n.d. P an tja Si la. T h e B a s i s 0 1> t h e S t a t e o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a "! D j a k a r t a: Committee f o r t h e Com m eration of th e B i r t h o f P an tja S i l a, 1964. Press G uide. D jak arta; The E x e c u t i v e Command o f t h e T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y o f th e F i r s t A sian A f r ic a n C o n feren ce, 1965. S e l e c t e d D o c u m e n t s, B o o k One. Some A s p e c t s C o n c e r n i n g P r o g r e s s and P r i n c i p l e s o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o l u t i o n. D j a k a r t a: D e p a r t m e n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n, S e r i e s d and B, No. 1 0 0 2, n. d 183 === [PDF page 188] === 184 S ubandrio, D r. I n d o n e s ia ^ Foreign P o lic y, D ja k a rta: Government of t h e R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s i a, n. d. The I n d o n e s i a on t h e M a r c h. A C o l l e c t i o n o f A d d r e s s e s b y D r. S u b a n d rlo. F o re ig n M in is te r of th e R epublic of Indonesia*! V o l. I I. D jakarta": D e p artm en t of Foreign A f f a ir s, n.d. K eep t h e B a n d u n g S p i r i t B r i g h t. A R e v ie w o f t h e A c h i e v e m e n t s o f D a s a' S ilsT! D j a k a r t a: S e c o n d A n n iv e rsary of th e A fro-A sian J o u r n a l i s t A s s o c ia tio n, A p r il 20, 1965. Sukarno, P r e s id e n t. A f t e r T en Y e a r s S t i l l Onward N e v e r R e tre a t. A d d re s s by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o a t th e ' Solemn Ceremony on t h e T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e F i r s t A s i a n A frican C onference. D jak arta: The E x e c u t i v e Command. T enth A n n iv e rsa ry, F i r s t A sia n -A frica n C on feren ce, 1965. A s i a n P r o b l e m s S o l v e d by A s i a n s. A d d r e s s b y H. E. P r e s i d e n t Sukarno t o the C onference of P eo p les of I n d 0 - C h l n a Phnom P e n h. 4 M a r c h. 1 9 6 5. D j a k a r t a; The E x e c u t i v e Command, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, F i r s t A s ia n -A fric a n C onference, 1965. P o l i t i c a l M a n ife s to. R ep u b lic o f In d o n e s ia o f 17th August 1959. D j a k a r t a: D epartm ent of I n f o r m a tio n, R e p u b lic of I n d o n e s i a, 1959. I s l a m M u st F i g h t C o l o n i a l i s m. I n a u g u r a l A d d r e s s b y P re s id e n t Sukarno. A frlcan -A slan Islam ic C o n fe re n ce, B a n d u n g. 6 't h M a r c h. 1 9 6 5. D j a k a r t a: E x e c u t i v e Command, T e n t h A n n i v e r s a r y, F l, r s t A s i a n - A f r i c a n C onference, 1965. L ah irn ia P a n t.la slla. (T he B i r t h o f P a n i a s l l a ). O u t l i n e o f F i v e ' P r i n c i p l e s ' o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n S-fcate. D jak arta: M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n, R e p u b l i c of Indonesia, n.d. Reach t o th e S t a r s. A Year of S e l f - R e l i a n c e. A ddress b y t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a on t h e T w e n tie th A n n iv e rs a ry of In d e p e n d e n c e. D e p artm en t of In fo rm a tio n, R epublic of In d o n e s ia, 1965. === [PDF page 189] === 185 T he R e d i s c o v e r y o f O u r R e v o l u t i o n. A d d r e s s b y t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c on t h e S e v e n t e e n t h of A ugust. 1959. D j a k a r t a: M in istry of In fo rm atio n, R epu blic of I n d o n e s ia, 1959. R e f l e c t i o n s Upon t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n. D j a k a r t a The d o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a, n. d. The R e s o u n d in g V o ic e o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n. August 17, 1963. S u pplem ents: M a n lp o l-U s d e k and""the B i r t h o f P a n t.1a s i l a. D J a k a r t a: D e p a r t m e n t o f I n f o r m a t i o n, R e p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a, S e r i e s B and B S elf-R elia n c e, (B e rd ik a ri). D jak arta: o f in f o r m a tio n, R ep ublic of I n d o n e s ia, T o w a r d F r e e d o m a n d t h e D i g n i t y r o f Man, A C o l l e c t i o n of F i v e S p e e c h e s by P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o of t h e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s i a.!Pj a k a r t a: D e p a r t m e n t o f f o r e i g n A f ' f a i r s, 1961 • D epartm ent 1965. A Y ear of L iv in g D an g ero u sly. (Tahun "V iv ere P e r i c o l o s o. ") A ddress by th e P r e s i d e n t of th e Re p u b l i c o f I n d o n e s i a on t h e 1 7 t h o f A u g u s t, 196-4. D jak arta: D epartm ent of I n f o r m a tio n, R e p u b lic of In d o n esia. S e r i e s B a n d B N o. 1003> 1 9 6 4. Books A b d u l g a n l, R o e s l a n H. The B a n d u n g S p i r i t, M o v i n g o n t h e T i d e of H i s t o r y. D j a k a r t a: P rap an tja, I9 b 4. On H e r o e s D a y a n d t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n. D jak arta: P rap an tja, n.d. P a n t j a s i l a, The P rim e M over o f t h e R ev o lu tio n. D ja k arta: P rap an tja, Adams, C i n d y. A d a m s. Indonesian S u k a r n o, An A u t o b i o g r a p h y As T o l d t o C i n d y I n d i a n a p o l i s: t h e B o b b s - M e r r i l Company, 1 9 6 5. A i d i t, D. N. S e t A f ir e th e B enteng S p i r i t! Ever F orw ard, No R e t r e a t. 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