Dynamics of Tokyo-Djakarta Interactions, 1951-1966

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S ilv er prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by w ritin g the Order Department, giving th e catalog number, title, author a n d specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages m ay have indistinct print. Film ed as received. Xerox University M icrofilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106 === [PDF page 2] === 73-24,645 NISHIHARA, M asashi, 1937DYNAMICS OF TOKYO-DJAKARTA INTERACTIONS, 1951-1966. The Lhiiversity o f Michigan, P h. D., 1973 P o l i t i c a l S c ien c e, g e n e r a l University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, A nn Arbor, M ichigan T H I S D I S S E R T A T I O N HAS BEEN M I C R O F I L M E D E X A C T L Y AS R E C E I V E D. === [PDF page 3] === DYNAMICS OF TOKYO-DJAKARTA INTERACTIONS, 1951-1966 M asashi N is h ih a ra A di c atio n su b m itted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t i.he r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y ( P o l i t i c a l S cience) i n The U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n 1973 D o c t o r a l C om m ittee: Professor P rofessor Professor Professor R o b e r t E. W ard, C hairm an R u s s e l l H. F i f i e l d G ayl b. Ness R i c h a r d L. P a r k === [PDF page 4] === ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his d i s s e r t a t i o n th e p r o d u c t o f r e s e a r c h and observations in th re e c o u n trie s, n esia, and J a p a n from l a t e o f re s e a rc h in the th e U nited S ta te s, 1969 to m id-1972. lib ra rie s tratin g, site M arch 1 9 7 2. A f t e r m onths o f The U n i v e r s i t y D ja k a r ta p ro v ed to be a r i c h and e x c i t i n g, Indo o f M ichigan, o ften fru s f o r r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d f r o m May 1 9 7 0 t h r o u g h T h is was f o llo w e d by a s h o r t b u t v e r y u s e f u l perio d of research i n Tokyo fro m A p r i l t o A u g u s t D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d many p e o p l e in a l l 1972. th ree co u n tries h e l p e d w i t h my w o r k. F irst, I w ish to e x p r e s s my d e e p e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e m e m b e r s o f my d i s s e r t a t i o n o f M ichig an: c o m m i t t e e a t The U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s R o b e r t E. W a r d, R u s s e l l H. F i f i e l d, R i c h a r d L. P a r k, a n d G a y l D. N e s s f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f my r e s e a r c h a n d r e a d i n g o f my m a n u s c r i p t. I w ould l i k e e s p e c i a l l y t o t h a n k P r o f e s s o r s Ward a n d F i f i e l d for th e ir a d v i c e o n my g e n e r a l g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g a n d o n t h i s th esis. My a p p r e c i a t i o n a l s o g o e s t o t h e C e n t e r f o r S o u t h e a s t A s i a n S t u d i e s o f K yoto U n i v e r s i t y, g r a n t t o do r e s e a r c h i n In stitu te of S ciences In d o n esia, and to th e In d o n e s ia n (L IP I) w hich g r a n t e d i t s f o r my r e s e a r c h t o p i c. my t h a n k s g o a l s o t o J a p a n, w h i c h a w a r d e d me a approval For access to w ritte n m a te ria ls t h e C e n t r a l Museum L i b r a r y, th e === [PDF page 5] === N atio n al S c ie n tif ic D o c u m e n ta tio n C e n t e r (PD IN), N atio n al I n s t i t u t e o f E conom ic an d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h t h e S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l H is to r y L ib r a r y, M in istry L ib rary in In d o n esia, D ie t L ib ra ry, O ffice, I a lso In stitu te A lm ost e v e ry o n e i n I n d o n e s ia, d riv ers, jo u rn alists, c o n su lte d the o f S o u th e a s t A sian th ere i n 1971. in c l u d i n g th e governm ent stu d en ts, w i t h whom I h a d c o n t a c t, o f Indo n esia. the N atio n al and th e L ib ra ry o f th e o f S ingapore d u rin g s h o r t v i s i t s o fficials, and t h e F o re ig n and in Ja p an to o f D e v e lo p in g E conom ies. In d o n esian m a te ria ls a t th e S tu d ies (LEKNAS), th e L ib ra ry o f th e B ureau o f S t a t i s t i c s t h e Prim e M i n i s t e r ' s In stitu te the shopkeepers, h elp ed to and b e tja k f o r m my v i e w s My p a r t i c u l a r t h a n k s g o t o t h o s e who r e s p o n d e d t o my l e n g t h y a n d o f t e n s e n s i t i v e q u e s t i o n s. s p e c i a l a p p r e c i a t i o n g o e s t o Mr. N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a o f t h e N o r t h S u m a t r a O i l D e v e l o p m e n t C o o p e r a t i o n Com pany f o r g i v i n g me a c c e s s t o h i s m a t e r i a l s of h isto ric a l a n d i n t r o d u c i n g me t o o t h e r k e y f i g u r e s sig n ific an c e in Japanese- Indonesian r e la tio n s. No a c c e p t a b l e d i s s e r t i o n c o n scien tio u s th esis e d ito ria l accep tab le, can be produced w ith o u t and t y p in g a s s i s t a n c e. If th is c r e d i t s h o u ld go t o M rs. M a r g a r e t Y a m a s h i t a who s t r u g g l e d w i t h my E n g l i s h a n d g r e a t l y proved i t s c la rity and o r g a n i z a t i o n; t o M iss R oesanna P u r z y c k i who t y p e d my d r a f t m a n u s c r i p t s w i t h a d m i r a b l e e ffic ie n cy; a n d t o M rs. S c h a i b l e who m a n a g e d t o Ju d y H o p k in s and M rs. M a r g u e r i t e com plete th e f i n a l iii ty p in g under === [PDF page 6] === severe p ressu re o f tim e. V /hile s a l u t i n g t h e s e I c a n n o t r e s i s t bow ing i n a l l h u m b le n e s s t o t h e v irtu e in d iv id u a ls, O rien tal o f s u s t a i n e d e n d u r a n c e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y my w i f e S u z u k o a n d o u r d a u g h t e r Aya, crossroads of th e seas, so f i t t i n g l y born i n "th a t S i n g a p o r e, " who b o t h c h e e r f u l l y j o i n e d me i n t h i s r e w a r d i n g a d v e n t u r e i n t r a n s - c o n t i n e n t a l m o b il i ty and i n t e r - c u l t u r a l a d ju s tm e n ts. A l l v ie w s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h e r e p r e s e n t e d a r e s o l e l y my own a n d s h o u l d n o t b e a t t r i b u t e d i n a n y way t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s w ith w hich I have b e en a s s o c i a t e d. === [PDF page 7] === CONTENTS CHAPTER JAPANESE-INDONESIAN INTERDEPENDENCY AND THE INTENSITY OF THEIR CONTACTS..................................... 12 J a p a n e s e I n t e r e s t s in S o u th e a s t A sia Ja p a n e se P o lic y tow ard S o u th e a s t A sia In d o n esian E x te rn a l B ehavior: O verview J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n E conom ic Interdependency The F lo w o f N a t i o n a l s b e t v æ e n J a p a n and In d o n e s ia The E x c h a n g e o f V i s i t s b y J a p a n e s e an d In d o n e sia n L eaders F o o tn o tes FORMAL REPARATIONS NEGOTIATIONS AND THE KISHI-SUKARNO SETTLEMENT, 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 8.... 63 The E a r l y N e g o t i a t i o n T a l k s, 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 6 K is h i and t h e R e p a r a ti o n s A greem ent o f 1958 An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s N e g o tiatio n s F oo tn o tes III. THE JAPANESE-INDONESIAN PEACE LOBBY, 1 9 5 1 1 9 5 7............................................................................................... T he P e a c e L o b b y i s t s a n d th e Legacy o f t h e P a c i f i c War E conom ic E f f e c t s o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s Program s A P re lim in a ry A ssessm ent o f R ep aratio n s P ro jects F o o tn o tes 107 === [PDF page 8] === THE REPARATIONS PAYMENT AND I T S EFFECTS. 140 An O v e r a l l P i c t u r e o f t h e P a y m e n t and Program s E conom ic E f f e c t s o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s Program s A P re lim in a ry A ssessm ent of R e p ara tio n s P ro jects F ootnotes THE REPARATIONS LOBBIES, 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 5 165 P o l i t i c s o f R ep aratio n s The K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company a n d C e s s a t i o n o f t h e D utch S h ip p in g O p eratio n s The S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n a n d Kubo M asa o Dewi a n d Wisma Y a s o o Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n P r o j e c t s An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s L ob b ies Footnotes JAPA N'S ROLE IN THE INDONESIAN-MALAYSIAN CONFLICTS, 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 6 216 The P r e - M a l a y s i a P e r i o d: J a n u a r y 20, 1963-S e p te m b e r 16, 1963 The P o s t - M a l a y s i a P e r i o d: Septem ber 16, 1963-S e p te m b e r 3 0, 1965 The P o s t - G e s t a p u P e r i o d: O ctober 1965A u g u st 1966 An A s s e s s m e n t o f J a p a n ' s R o l e i n t h e C o n fro n tatio n F o o tn o tes V II. THE "SUKARNO GROUPS" IN JAPANESE-INDONESIAN RELATIONS, 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 6 The M e a n i n g o f t h e " S u k a r n o G r o u p s " The I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n i t y i n T o k y o S u k a m o i s t s i n Tokyo a n d t h e W est I r i a n Cam paign The S u k a m o i s t s i n T o k y o, NEKOLIM, a n d CONEFO 255 === [PDF page 9] === The I m p a c t o f t h e G e s t a p u u p o n t h e S u k a m o i s t s i n T okyo Dewi a n d t h e G e s t a p u An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e S u k a m o i s t s i n Jap an ese-In d o n esian R elatio n s F oo tn o tes V III. THE INDONESIAN MILITARY FORCES AND JAPAN, 320 Sources o f Japanese S upport fo r th e A n t i - S u k a r n o Lobby The S a t o G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e G e s t a p u An A s s e s s m e n t F ootnotes 358 F ootnotes 375 === [PDF page 10] === LIST OF TABLES TABLE R e g io n a l C om oosition o f J a p a n e s e Trade C om position o f In d o n e s ia n Trade w ith S e l e c t e d C o u n t r i e s, 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 7 0................................ 30 D egree o f T rade In te rd e p e n d e n c y betw een Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia, 1947-1970 34 C o m p o sitio n o f C om m odities i n J a p a n e s e T r a d e w i t h I n d o n e s i a, 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 7 0 *........... 36 Im portance o f In d o n e s ia n O il to Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia, 1956-1970 38 Im portance o f S e le c te d In d o n e s ia n E x p o rts to Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia, 1956-1970 40 Japanese in Ind on esia, 1958-1970 43 In d o nesians in Japan, 1958-1970 46 V i s i t s o f J a p a n e s e Prim e M i n i s t e r s and F o re ig n M in is te r s and In d o n e s ia n P r e s id e n ts and F o re ig n M i n i s t e r s; T h e ir L ength o f S ta y and S iz e o f P a r ty, 1957-1970 51 R e p a r a tio n s to In d o n e s ia i n Y e a rly and C u m u la tiv e Paym ents A c c o rd in g t o S c h e d u le, A pproval and D isb u rsem en t B ases, 19581970 142 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e p a r a ti o n s Fund and R e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d Loans by C a t e g o r i e s 146 C o m p a r i s o n s among J a p a n ' s R e p a r a t i o n s, I t s E x p o rts to In d o n e s ia, and I t s E x p o rts o f Heavy M a n u f a c tu re d G oods, 1 9 5 8 -1 9 7 0.... 151 C o m p a r i s o n s among J a p a n ' s R e p a r a t i o n s, I n d o n e s ia 's T o ta l Im p o rts, and I n d o n e s ia 's F o re ig n Exchange R e s e rv e s, 1958-1970 153 R e g i o n a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f 26 M a jo r R e p a r a t i o n s P r o j e c t s and 10 M a jo r R e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d viii === [PDF page 11] === Loans P r o j e c t s i n N u m e ric a l and M onetary S i z e, 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 7 0......................................................................... V III-1. 171 M ajor R e p a r a ti o n s C o n t r a c ts and C o n tr a c te d C o m p a n i e s............................................................................................... 1 7 6 Num be r o f F o r e i g n M i l i t a r y P e r s o n n e l E n t e r i n g J a p a n, 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 0............................................... 321 === [PDF page 12] === INTRODUCTION The J a p a n e s e and t h e I n d o n e s i a n s a r e A s i a t i c, o c e a n ic p e o p le s i n h a b i t i n g r e g io n s n o r th and so u th o f th e e q u a t o r, who h a v e s h a r e d a l o n g t r a d i t i o n com m ercial i n t e r c o u r s e. o f c u l t u r a l and I n c o n te m p o ra ry h i s t o r y t h e y were b r o u g h t e v e n c l o s e r i n March 1 9 4 2, d u r i n g J a p a n ' s m i l i t a r y o ccu p atio n o f In d o n e sia. years and ended w ith J a p a n ' s laste d and a h a l f s u rre n d e r to th e A llie d pow ers, w hich i n c l u d e d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s, m aster. fo r th ree I n d o n e s ia 's form er c o lo n ia l The o c c u p a t i o n, h o w e v e r, h a d s u c h a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t on a l l p h a s e s o f I n d o n e s i a n l i f e Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e la tio n s w ithout r e f e r r in g to i t s t h a t p o s t -1945 can h a r d l y be d i s c u s s e d in flu en ce. S u k a rn o became I n d o n e s i a ' s first P re s id e n t w ith the h elp o f the Jap an ese M ilita ry A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h w h ic h he c o llab o rated, thus e arn in g i t s reco g n itio n c e n tra l fig u re o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e movem ent. o f him a s a Had h e n o t b een g i v e n m o ra l and m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t from t h e J a p a n e s e Navy L i a i s o n O f f i c e i n D j a k a r t a, I n d o n e s ia 's p ro clam atio n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e i n A u g u st 1945 w o u ld h a v e f a c e d e v en g reater d if f ic u ltie s. S u k a rn o 's s u c c e s s o r, t r a i n e d by th e J a p a n e s e m i l i t a r y commander o f t h e S u h a r t o, was and se rv e d as a p la to o n I n d o n e s i a n V o l u n t e e r Army (F E T A ), a l s o c r e a t e d by t h e J a p a n e s e. W ith l i t t l e ex ag g eratio n, one === [PDF page 13] === can say t h a t S u h a r t o owes much t o achievem ents in D espite the y e ars th e o ccu p atio n f o r h is s in c e 1945. the o ccu p atio n th e Japanese c a p itu la tio n a b r u p t l y r e v e r s e d w artim e r e l a t i o n s, and a s e r i e s sequent events g ran ted th e statu s v ic to r 's of sub the I n d o n e s i a n s, who g a i n e d t h e i r n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e D utch i n late 1949. T h e s e new c i r c u m s t a n c e s e s t a b lish e d a b asic p a tte rn f o r th e p o s tw a r i s s u e s betw een J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a: I n d o n e s ia 's peace se ttle m e n t w ith Ja p a n and w i t h i t, N e g o tia tio n s t h e J a p a n e s e payment o f war r e p a r a t i o n s o f th e term s o f the r e p a r a tio n s dom inated th e ir rela tio n sh ip a f t e r 1 9 5 1, when t h e q u e s t i o n was f i r s t t a k e n up o f f i c i a l l y by t h e tw o g o v e r n m e n t s a t t h e S a n F ra n cisc o Peace C onference. In Jan u ary 1958 t h e i s s u e f i n a l l y was s e t t l e d and l e d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f fo rm al d ip lo m atic r e l a ti o n s in A p ril of th a t year. T h e p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t was t h e n f o l l o w e d b y t h e new problem o f u s in g th e rep aratio n s funds, some $ 2 2 3 m i l l i o n to be p a id o v e r a p e r io d o f tw elv e y e a r s, b e g in n in g in 1958. T h i s a l l o w e d f o r k e e n c o m p e t i t i o n among t h e Ja p a n e se and th e o f th e funds, I n d o n e s i a n s who w i s h e d t o h a v e a s h a r e and t h i s s ix o r seven y e a rs S eptem ber 30, c o m p e titio n overshadow ed th e o f p aym ent. 1 9 6 5, kn own a s t h e m arked th e b e g in n in g o f th e a n d made a c o n s i d e r a b l e rela tio n s, The a b o r t i v e fall first coup o f "G estapu A f f a i r, o f S u k a r n o 's suprem acy im p a c t upon J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s ia n in s o f a r as J a p a n 's "Sukarno s u p p o r t e r s " began === [PDF page 14] === t o b e r e p l a c e d by " S u h a r t o s u p p o r t e r s. " N ev erth eless, J a p a n e s e econom ic s u p p o r t o f D j a k a r t a ' s new r e g i m e g r e w s tro n g e r than th a t o ld regim e. p o rtio n of th is o f th e A co n sid erab le new J a p a n e s e a i d w e n t t o fin ish ed rep aratio n s p ro je c ts. com plete h a l f T h u s, tw o a n d a h a l f d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e P a c i f i c W ar, t h e form er Jap an ese p re se n c e in In d o n e s ia as i t s o ccup an ts still m ain tain ed i t s in flu en ce m ilita ry over th e ir b i-n a tio n a l re la tio n s. A trace o f th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n can be seen in th e p resen ce of c e r ta in m ilita ry and c i v i l, form er o c c u p a tio n o f f i c i a l s, who r e t u r n e d t o J a p a n a f t e r t h e War b u t l a t e r re-em erged as th e ir assistan ce in term ed iaries both "In d o n esia e x p e r ts," o fferin g th e r e p a ra tio n s n e g o tia tio n s b etw een th e two s i d e s. and as A long w i t h t h e s e " e x p e r t s " were th e s o - c a l l e d r i g h t - w i n g n a t i o n a l i s t s, in a s im ila r v ein, b etw een th e o ffe re d t h e i r h elp in two c o u n t r i e s. who, s o lv in g problem s These n a t i o n a l i s t s w ere n o t a d i r e c t p ro d u c t o f th e o c c u p a tio n, b u t t h e i r prew ar co n v ic tio n s o f P an-A sianism, cu lm in atin g in th e g ov ernm ental concept o f th e G re a te r E a st A sia C o -P ro s p e rity S p h e re, had Ju stifie d th e Ja p an e se o c c u p a tio n o f S o u th e a s t A sia c a lle d th e "S outhern r e g io n " ). Some o f t h e m m a n a g e d t o e stab lish d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t c o n ta c ts w ith h ig h -ran k in g p o s tw a r governm ent and b u s i n e s s Through t h i s p ro fit co n n ectio n, le a d e rs in both c o u n tr ie s. o th er n a tio n a lis ts from th e r e p a r a t i o n s (then a tte m p te d to funds and o th e r ty p e s === [PDF page 15] === governm ent aid to Ind o n esia. T heir fu n ctio n s v a rie d according to p e rs o n a l c a p a b il i ty, co n n ectio n s, tio n s, as w e ll as g e n e ra l c o n d itio n s perio d; th e y a c te d as a d v i s o r s, b r o k e r s, n eg o tiato rs, u n o f f i c i a l d ip lo m ats, in g en eral, as lo b b y is ts. The l o b b y i s t s ' resp ectiv e and c o n v ic in the postw ar a ssista n ts, o r sim p le c o n t a c t m en — r o l e s were h i g h l y com plex, a s were t h e i r c o n n e c tio n s w ith p a r t y lead ers b u sin ess firm s. Som etim es t h e y a p p e a r e d t o a c t w i t h t h e genuine p u rp o se o f im p ro v in g r e l a t i o n s betw een J a p a n and In d o n e s ia b u t seldom w ith o u t th e assurance of p erso n al p ro fit from t h e i r serv ices. fore, t h a t what i s p o p u larly term ed th e not su rp risin g, th ere "In d o n esia Lobby" i n Tokyo a n d t h e " J a p a n Lobby" i n D j a k a r t a w ere not actu ally lobby g ro u p s. c o llec tiv e in teg rated re fe re n c e to th e co n n ectio n s T h is i s tio n s hav in g v a rie d i n t e r e s t s the lo o se ly -stru c tu re d p resen ce o f th e lo b b y is ts Sukarno h im s e lf ) rela tio n s. P artic u la rly co u n tries. lo b b ie s, th e study su g g ests th a t and th e c o n ta cts w ith t h e i r Indonesian frie n d s P resid en t and o r g a n i z a in each o t h e r 's o f postw ar Ja p a n e se -In d o n e sia n i n te r a c t io n the a c tiv e in stead co m p licated li n e s o f p e rs o n a l c ris s c r o s s in g th o se in d iv id u a ls D espite and contin u ed (in clu d in g c e n t e r e d on t h e s e b i - n a t i o n a l d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 1958 t o 1 9 6 5, when S u k a r n o ' s p o w e r r e a c h e d i t s clim ax, the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n T o k y o a n d D j a k a r t a was r e f e r r e d t o " s p e c i a l " — a te rm w hich r e c o g n iz e d t h e i r clo se a f f i n i t y === [PDF page 16] === in sp ite of th e d ifferin g id e o lo g ie s behind t h e i r fo re ig n p o lic ie s. B ecause J a p a n 's p o s i t i o n p u b lic a tte n tio n, i n A s ia to d a y draw s c l o s e u s e fu l to study th e n a tu re o f i t s p o licies and a c t i o n s in reference to In d o n e s ia, populous co u n try i n S o u th e a st A sia. th e most T his t h e s i s d eals w ith Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e la tio n s fro m 1951 t h r o u g h 1 9 6 6, w hich i s o fficial th e p e r i o d from t h e betw een th e first co n tact tw o g o v e r n m e n t s a t t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e o f S e p t e m b e r 1951 t o t h e March 1 1, 1966 A f f a i r i n w hich G e n e ra l S u h a r to v i r t u a l l y took over th e p r e s i dency from S u k a rn o. T h i s f i f t e e n - y e a r p e r i o d may a l s o b e s e e n a s th ree su b periods in Ja p an ese-In d o n esian r e l a ti o n s. first of th ese T he fro m S e p te m b e r 1951 t h r o u g h A p r i l 1 5, 1 9 5 8 when J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s i a o f f i c i a l l y d ip lo m atic r e l a t i o n s. The s e c o n d s u b p e r i o d r u n s 1958 th r o u g h th e G e s ta p u i n c i d e n t T h i s p e r i o d saw t h e e stab lish ed from o f Septem ber 30, 1965. a llo c a tio n o f the r e p a ra tio n s funds become a d o m in a n t c o n c e r n o f t h e two g o v e r n m e n t s a s w e l l as those i n t e r e s t e d in p r o f its second su b p e rio d roughly from th e funds. T his c o in c id e s w ith In d o n e s ia 's G u id e d D em ocracy P e r i o d d u r i n g w h ic h S u k a r n o was i n p o w e r, r u lin g over the g io u s, com peting n a t i o n a l i s t. and m i l i t a r y Com m unist, r e l i f o r c e s w hich sh a p e d d o m e s tic p o l i t i c s. The G e s t a p u A f f a i r i n w h ic h t h e Com m unists a l l e g e d l y s t a g e d a coup d ' e t a t ag ain st the s o - c a l l e d C o u n cil o f === [PDF page 17] === G e n e r a l s, w h i c h w a s a c c u s e d o f e x i s t i n g w i t h i n t h e Army. The i n c i d e n t, among t h e how ever, d e stro y ed th e b alan ce com peting f o r c e s, and t h e o f power Com m unists so o n were c ru s h e d w h ile Sukarno h i m s e l f began t o be s u s p e c t e d o f c o m p licity w ith th e coup a tt e m p t. The t h i r d fro m O c t o b e r 1965 t o M arch 1 1, 1 9 6 6, betw een th e S u k a r n o i s t sa w a b i t t e r was a l s o a t i m e o f t r a n s i t i o n Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia L o bbies th e sis, o f th e latter. f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n ts in t h e i r re sp e c tiv e T his in the cap itals. g r e a t e r em phasis w i l l be p la c e d on t h e f i r s t and se co n d s u b p e r i o d s, p a r t l y d a t a on t h e s e are a v ailab le and l a r g e ly b ecau se th e stru g g le f o r c e s and th e N a su tio n -S u lia rto s u p p o rte rs, w ith th e e v e n tu a l v ic to ry In t h i s subperiod, b e c a u s e more to th e p u b lic a t first th is tim e, and second su b p e rio d s se e m t o p r o v i d e more i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l f o r t h e s t u d y o f Japanese r e la tio n s tio n e d e a r l ie r, w ith o t h e r A sian c o u n t r i e s. t h e two c o u n t r i e s m a i n t a i n e d f r i e n d l y rela tio n s du rin g th e se p e rio d s, subperiod, d esp ite rev ealed. still p articu larly th e second th e ir id eo lo g ical d ifferen ces. s e e k in g to explain, t h i s ch aracteristics As men unusual arran g em en t, general o f o t h e r i n t e r - A s i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s may b e The l a s t su b p erio d, in tr ig u in g too re c e n t to produce as i t a balan ced a n a ly s is. T h e s t u d y o f J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n r e l a t i o n s may a ls o provide some i n s i g h t i n t o th e r e l a ti v e a m a jo r and a m inor power i n A s ia. p o sitio n W hat d i p l o m a t i c m e a n s === [PDF page 18] === does a m in o r pow er te n d t o em ploy to w a rd a m a jo r one? co n v ersely, what m ethods does a m a jo r pow er use to w ard a m inor one? m oral, o r c o e r c iv e m eans, t o w hich o f t h e s e rem u n erativ e, in flu en ce a r e m a jo r and m inor pow ers i n c l i n e d seen in term s o f to re s o r t? Do t h e y d i s c r i m i n a t e among t h e s e m e a n s, d e p e n d i n g on t h e d i p l o m a t i c is s u e s in v o lv ed? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s may f i n d answ ers in th e re se a rc h p re se n te d h e re. W hile t h e 1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 6 p e r i o d o f J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n r e l a t i o n s may b e d i v i d e d i n t o th esis th ree i s n o t meant t o d e s c r i b e although a sense o f a m ajor concern o f th e w r i t e r. a study of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s. id en tify th e th is th e postw ar in te r a c t io n s o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s h i s t o r i c a l l y, h isto ry su b perio ds, c h a r a c te r o f the r e l a t i o n s R ath er, th is striv es b etw een Ja p an a n d I n d o n e s i a by s e l e c t i n g s e v e r a l m a j o r i s s u e s and su b jects o f c o n c e r n f o r t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s. For in sta n c e, t h e I n d o n e s ia n C o n f r o n t a t i o n w it h M a la y s ia w hich l a s t e d from 1963 t h r o u g h 1 9 6 6, o v e r l a p s t h e second and t h i r d subperiods in Ja p an ese-In d o n esian r e l a t i o n s. some o f t h e t i e s betw een th e J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l i s t s th e In d onesian m ilita r y su b p erio d s. over a l l also o v erlap th e The s t u d y o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s th ree S im ila rly, and se co n d and t h i r d funds ex ten d s sub p erio d s. The f i r s t ch ap ter attem p ts to p r e s e n t an overview o f b o th th e J a p a n e s e and I n d o n e s ia n p o l i c i e s tow ard A sia, w i t h i n w h i c h f r a m e w o r k t h e i r b i - n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s may b e === [PDF page 19] === given a b e t t e r p e rs p e c tiv e. th e g e n e ra l sc a le T h is c h a p te r a ls o in d icates o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s b y lo o k in g a t t h e i r fo re ig n p o lic y a im s, t r a d e volum e, o f ordinary of lea d in g fig u re s. c itiz e n s, C h ap ter I I t r e a t s n eg o tiatio n s and v i s i t s th e form al phase o f th e r e p a r a tio n s fro m 1951 t h r o u g h 1 9 5 8, w h e r e a s C h a p t e r I I I an aly ze s th e in fo rm a l phase of th e n e g o tia tio n s, o f the lo b b y ists, "Peace L obby." tio n o f the C h a p t e r IV t r a c e s o f the a re term ed the d is tr ib u f u n d s on b o t h J a p a n a n d Ind o nesia. C hapter V d e s c rib e s rep aratio n s lo b b ies, the g e n e ra l n a tu re from 1958 t o 1 9 6 5, o f the and i d e n t i f i e s lo b b y is ts and t h e i r p e rs o n a l t i e s w ith prom inent fig u res. These l o b b y is ts f u n d s, e v a l u a t i n g th e p r o j e c t s i n v o l v e d and t h e econom ic e f f e c t s th e th e ro le Ja p a n e s e and I n d o n e s i a n, i n s e t t l i n g th e re p a ra tio n s n e g o tia tio n s. here the flow C h a p t e r VI d i s c u s s e s J a p a n ' s r o l e the Indonesian as m ed iato r c o n fro n ta tio n w ith M alay sia, again i n c l u d i n g t h e p a r t s p l a y e d by b o t h t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l p a rticip a n ts. The s u b j e c t o f J a p a n e s e m e d i a t i o n i s s ig n ific a n t in th a t t h i s was t h e p o litic a l ro le th e J a p a n e s e governm ent p la y e d i n p o st-1 9 4 5 A sia. th at first doubly e x p licitly T he i n f o r m a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in J a p a n 's m e d i a t i o n w e re r e p r e s e n t e d by Kawashima S h ô j i r ô, V ice- P re s id e n t o f the r u lin g p a rty, to h e re as the "Kawashima L o b b y." and a re r e f e r r e d C h a p te r V II f o c u s e s on t h e r o l e o f th e "S u k a rn o ist groups" in Ja p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n r e l a tio n s d u r i n g t h e G u id ed Democracy P e r i o d and s t u d i e s the === [PDF page 20] === Im pact o f th e ab o rtiv e c o u p o f 1 9 6 5 on t h e s e g r o u p s. C h ap ter V III e x p la in s th e s o u rc e s o f Ja p an e se su p p o rt f o r t h e new S u h a r t o r e g i m e. p riv ate assistan ce T his su p p o rt o r i g i n a t e d w ith f o r t h e a n t i - S u k a r n o movements t h a t began i n a b o u t 1955. T h is ch ap ter also trea ts the Sato g o v e rn m e n t's r e a c t i o n t o th e S u h a rto reg im e. S p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n has been g iv en to th e u n o f f i c i a l p a rtic ip a n ts Ind o n esia. the fo rm a l r e l a t i o n s betw een Ja p an and T h is in f o r m a l d iplom acy i s o bservable i n alm o st a l l b i - n a t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s and in t h i s n o t unique t o J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s ia n p a rticip a tio n a ffa irs. The a c t i v e o f t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e governm ent i n g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n s may b e a t t r i b u t e d A sian p o l i t i c a l to t h a t a s p e c t o f c u l t u r e w h ic h p l a c e s g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s on personal fav o ritism p o ssib le c o n n e c tio n betw een what t h i s w r i t e r "p o litic a l sense is t h a n on p u b l i c c u ltu re" ex p lo red in th e a cco u n tab ility. The c alls and " in f o rm a l diplom acy" w i l l be concluding c h a p te r o f t h i s th esis. in f o r m a l d iplom acy d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r in v o lv e s d ip lo m atic a c t i v i t i e s The the c o n d u c t e d by t h o s e n o t h o l d i n g o f f i c i a l governm ent p o s i t i o n s, f o r the p u rpo se of i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r g o v e rn m e n t's r e l a t i o n s w i t h and p o l i c y tow ard a n o th e r g o v ern m en t. Th e r e l a t i v e l a c k o f d a t a on t h e I n d o n e s i a n msdces u n a v o i d a b l e a J a p a n e s e b i a s w hich h o p e f u l l y in th is can be c o r r e c t e d i n th e the in fo rm atio n in th is th esis sid e study— a b ia s fu tu re. Much o f was c o l l e c t e d i n i n t e r v i e w s === [PDF page 21] === 10 but in th o se c a s e s i n w hich th e p e rs o n i n te r v ie w e d ask ed n o t t o be i d e n t i f i e d, g e n e ra l term s. tie s th e sources Much o f t h e are c i t e d in only d a ta concerning the p e rso n a l o f members o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s lo b b ies i s dependent upon p o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s r a t h e r t h a n upon more a c a d e m ic m aterials. a v aila b le How ever, t h e s e to d ate. more w i d e l y are th e only w r i t t e n m a t e r i a ls H o p e f u lly t h e s e d a t a can be docum ented in the fu tu re. I n d i v i d u a l names a p p e a r h e r e they are in th e used in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e case of Japanese, C hinese, s u r n a m e s p r e c e d e g i v e n naimes etc.). c o u n tries. F o r exam ple, and I n d o n e s ia n names, (Prim e M i n i s t e r K is h i N o b u s u k e, P r e m i e r Chou E n - l a i, N atsir, in th e o rd er th a t P r i m e M i n i s t e r Mohammed Many I n d o n e s i a n n a m e s a r e e x p r e s s e d c u s t o m a r i l y b y e i t h e r s u r n a m e o r g i v e n name o n l y. === [PDF page 22] === FOOTNOTES: INTRODUCTION An a c r o n y m f o r G e r a k a n T l g a p u l u h S e p t e m b e r, S eptem ber 30th M 11 th e === [PDF page 23] === CHAPTER I JAPANESE-INDONESIAN INTERDEPENDENCY Al'ÎD THE INTENSITY OP THEIR CONTACTS Japanese In terests In S o u th e a s t A sia J a p a n ’s postw ar p o lic y first restrain ed. t o w a r d S o u t h e a s t A s i a was D u rin g th e s e v e n y e a r s o f th e A m eri c a n - d o m i n a t e d A l l i e d O c c u p a t io n fro m S e p te m b e r 1945 t h r o u g h A p r il 1952^ p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f J a p a n 's d ip lo m atic a c t i v i tie s had been suspended, though th e y resum ed u n d e r th e aegis o f t h e San F r a n c i s c o P e a ce T r e a t y o f S e p te m b e r 1951. The p r e p a r a t o r y p r o c e s s f o r t h e Sa n F r a n c i s c o C o n f e r e n c e and th e were c a r e f u l l y resu ltin g trea ty A m erican i n t e r e s t s the P a c i f i c, c o o p e r a tio n w ith W a sh in g to n 's tailo re d e x c h a n g in g T o k y o 's co ld war p o lic y tow ard th e S o v i e t U nion a n d Communist C h in a f o r W a s h i n g t o n ' s com m it ment t o d e fe n d J a p a n. The p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t a l s o J a p a n t o pay w ar r e p a r a t i o n s claim an t o b lig ed to th e S o u th e a s t A sian co u n tries. By r e c o g n i z i n g N a t i o n a l i s t C h i n a, J a p a n d i f f e r e d f r o m some A s i a n n a t i o n s, i n c l u d i n g I n d o n e s i a, w hich ch o se r e c o g n iz e th e P ek in g regim e as e a r l y o b l i g a t i o n im p o s e d upon J a p a n by t h e as A p ril 1950. tre a ty to n e g o tia te w ar r e p a r a t i o n s w ith th e c la im a n t A sian c o u n t r i e s also p r e c lu d e d th e im m ediate e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d ip lo m a ti c 12 The === [PDF page 24] === 13 r e l a ti o n s w ith those the P h ilip p in e s, Cambodia. In d o n esia, in te re sts cle arly th a t in in i t s in the reg io n and A sian program, form ed a m ajo r u n d e r c u r r e n t o v e ra ll fo re ig n p o lic y to g e th e r w ith a pro-A m erican c u r r e n t. shows i t s South V ietnam, L ao s, such o b s ta c le s o f concern in i t s T h o se i n v o l v e d w ere Burma, D espite J a p a n 's c o u n tries. reflected T h is l i n k betw een A s ia and A m erica in J a p a n 's tra d e perform ance trad e p a tte rn s. fro m 1951 t o 1 9 5 1, 52 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s T able I - l 1970, i n d i c a t i n g e x p o r t s went t o A sia a n d 16 p e r c e n t t o N o r t h A m e r i c a, w h e r e a s 29 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n 's im p o rts A m erica. came f r o m A s i a a n d 46 p e r c e n t f r o m N o r t h The l a r g e e x p o r t s to A sia and im p o rts U n ite d S t a t e s were i n f l u e n c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y by t h e K o re an W ar, a s J a p a n r e c e i v e d l a r g e p r o c u r e m e n t o r d e r s U nited S t a t e s. in itia lly from th e P o s t w a r J a p a n e s e e c o n o m i c r e c o v e r y was accom plished in s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t as a r e s u l t t h e K o r e a n War. tru ce in from t h e 1953, A lthough t h e s e th ere fig u res changed a f t e r th e a g e n e ra l p a tte r n over the next tw o d e c a d e s o f o n e - t h i r d o f J a p a n ' s a n o th e r t h i r d w ith N orth A m erica, w ith the r e s t tra d e b ein g w ith A sia, and th e r e m a in in g t h i r d o f th e w orld. T h is p o stw a r p a t t e r n prew ar tra d e p a tte r n. s h o u ld be compared t o t h e In 1930, 48 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s e x p o r t s w e n t t o A s i a a n d 36 p e r c e n t t o N o r t h A m e r i c a. But i n 1940, 68 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s a n d 17 p e r c e n t t o N o r t h A m e r i c a. e x p o r t s went t o A s ia T h is sh a rp i n c r e a s e === [PDF page 25] === 14 Japanese ex p o rts in ex p o rts to A sia and a s i m i l a r l y sharp decrease t o N o rth A m erica w i t h i n a p e r i o d o f t e n y e a r s s ig n a lle d J a p a n 's m ilita r y advances i n A sia and th e m o u n ti n g t e n s i o n s b e tw e e n Tokyo and W a s h i n g t o n. prew ar im port p a t t e r n i s no t as i l l u s t r a t i v e J a p a n 's of its p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h A s ia and N o rth A m erica as i s export p a tte r n, the a lth o u g h Ja p a n rem ained h e a v i l y d ependent upon A s ia and N o r th A m erica f o r i m p o r t e d m a t e r i a l s and goods. In 1930, 4 l p e r cent o f J a p a n 's im ports A s i a d n d 32 p e r c e n t f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a. came f r o m I n 1940 t h e s e f i g u r e s w e r e 43 p e r c e n t f r o m A s i a a n d 38 p e r c e n t f r o m N o rth A m erica. The c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n p r e w a r a n d p o s t w a r t r a d e p attern s d em o n strates t h a t J a p a n d e p e n d e d m o r e h e a v i l y on A sia in th e prew ar p e rio d of its (s o m e 48 p e r c e n t t o 68 p e r c e n t e x p o r t s a n d 41 p e r c e n t t o im po rts) th an in th e postw ar p e rio d cent of i t s (28 p e r c e n t t o defeat in im p o rts). T h is in tu r n su g g e s ts t h e P a c i f i c War f o r c e d J a p a n f u r t h e r in to t h e A m e r i c a n camp: less o n A s i a t h a n on N o r t h A m e r i c a f o r i m p o r t s. sid erab le 52 p e r e x p o r t m a r k e t a n d t h e s o u r c e o f 26 p e r c e n t t o 37 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s th at its 43 p e r c e n t o f i t s d u rin g the 1 9 5 0 's Jap an r e l i e d T his con e c o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c e upon t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s t r i c t e d J a p a n ' s p o l i t i c a l and econom ic r e l a t i o n s w i t h th e r e s t o f A sia, as in the case of J a p a n 's re c o g n itio n o f N a t i o n a l i s t C hina i n s t e a d o f th e P e o p l e 's R e p u b lic o f C hina === [PDF page 26] === 15 TAB LE I-l R EGIONAL COMPOSITION OF JAPANESE TRADE IN %, 1951-1970 EXPORT Year Total amount 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1,355 1,273 1,275 1,629 2,011 2,501 2.858 2,877 3,456 4,055 4,236 4,916 5,452 6,673 8,451 9,776 10,441 12,971 15,990 19,318 Am& F S B a ASgUEGa Africa Oceania Total* Asia Europe 52% 52 52 49 42 41 40 37 33 36 37 34 34 33 33 34 34 34^ 11% 14 10 10 12 12 11 13 14 17 16 16 16 16 16 15c 13c 16% 21 24 22 27 26 26 30 36 33 31 34 33 34 35 36 35 37 34 34 10 10 10 16 17 14 12 10 101% 100 101 101 99 100 100 100 99 99 100 101 100 100 102 100 101 ■ 100 95 94 11 11 12 13 13 13 12 13 15 10c 10^ 46 1 00 50 43 46 41 44 46 45 41 42 45 41 40 38 37 36 36 35 32 34 101 100 1 00 28 IMPORT 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 2,047 2,027 2,410 2,399 2,471 3,230 4,284 3,033 3,599 4,491 5,810 5,637 6,736 7,938 8,169 9,523 11,663 12,987 15,024 18,881 Sources: Note: 29 31 33 31 37 32 29 32 32 30 26 29 31 30 33 33 31 31c 28 10 99 99 99 101 100 99 99 100 101 99 99 10 0 101 100 10 10 96 95 ^Quoted from Japan Statistical Yearbook 1 9 6 3, p p • 255-59 for 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 4 Japan Statistical Yearbook 1 9 6 9, op._291-94 for 1955-1968; Asahi nenkan 1971, p. 572; and Tsusho hakusho 1 9 7 1. v o l. I I, p. 346. ^Total does not always amount to 100% as numbers are rounded. ^Does not Include figures for trade with Communist bloc. === [PDF page 27] === 16 Among t h e A s i a n c o u n t r i e s I n d o n e s i a h a s p a r t i c u larly a t t r a c t e d Japan w ith i t s g e o p o litic ally W ar. r i c h n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and im portant lo c a tio n sin ce before the P a c if ic s h o u ld be rem em bered t h a t J a p a n ’s so u th w a rd ad v au ice i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 ’ s was m o t i v a t e d p r i m a r i l y by I n d o n e s i a ' s — th e n th e D utch E a s t I n d i e s ' — o i l. One o f t h e m ain ite m s i n t h e J a p a n e s e - D u tc h t r a d e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n 1 9 4 0 - 4 1 w a s J a p a n ’ s dem and f o r a n i n c r e a s e d o i l q u o t a. When t h i s a n d o t h e r demands w ere n o t f u l l y m e t, J a p a n b r o k e o f f n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e D u tc h a n d b e g a n t o work out p lan s to take c o n tro l o f the East In d ies m ilita r ily. P lans r e s o u r c e s i n t h e D utch T he O u t l i n e of A d m in istrativ e f o r S o u t h e r n O c c u p i e d A r e a s w a s f o r m u l a t e d on November 2 0, 1941 and s t i p u l a t e d Japanese m ilita ry "th ree p rin c ip le s " o ccu p atio n, one o f w h ic h was t o s e c u r e f o r th e d efen se o f Japan. Three th e e s s e n tia l reso u rce s w e e k s l a t e r t h e P a c i f i c War b r o k e o u t. G e n e r a t e d by g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o x i m i t y a n d j u s t i f i e d by e t h n i c a ffin ity, rein fo rced i t s from w h i t e J a p a n ’s co n cep t o f P an-A sianism effo rts co lo n ial ru le o f the 1940's "lib e rate in th e its 1930's A sian b r o t h e r s " and th e first h a lf and h e lp e d t o e s t a b l i s h J a p a n ’s le b e n s ra u m. I n d o n e s i a was c o u n t e d o n a s a n e s s e n t i a l m em ber o f t h i s A sia n econom ic b l o c. O v e r lo o k in g t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e S o u th C hina S ea and s h a r i n g t h e S t r a i t s o f M alacca w i t h t h e M alayan p e n i n s u l a, t h e D utch E a s t I n d i e s p r e s e n t e d a g e o p o litic a l defense lin e fo r Japan. T h i s e x p l a i n s why === [PDF page 28] === 17 d u r i n g t h e P a c i f i c War t h e J a p a n e s e I m p e r i a l Army a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e M alay P e n i n s u l a, S i n g a p o r e, and S u m a tr a under th e 2 5 th A rm y 's c o n t r o l r a t h e r t h a n p l a c i n g them under se p a ra te m ilita r y J a p a n 's a d m in istratio n s. in te re st in and g e o p o l i t i c a l l o c a t i o n p erio d. As e a r l y I n d o n e s ia 's n a tu r a l re s o u rc e s co n tin u ed in to th e postw ar a s 1951 t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e rn m e n t b e g a n d is c u s s in g m easures t o develo p In d o n e sia n i n d u s t r i e s and to im port In d o n esian r e s o u rc e s. Japan h eld i t s f i r s t rep aratio n s t a l k s w i t h t h e I n d o n e s i a n m i s s i o n i n Tokyo i n December 1951. A lso i n r e g a r d t o th e r e p a r a t i o n s issu e. F o re ig n M in is te r O kazaki v i s i t e d D ja k a rta in 1953. Y u k a t a, who h a d b u i l t sta tio n th e huge Suiho h y d r o e l e c t r i c power i n t h e Amur R i v e r, w a s i n t e r e s t e d in d ev elo p in g a s i m i l a r w a te r pow er sy s te m i n th e Asahan v a l l e y S u m atra an d, t h e sa m e t i m e, refin ery th at v ic in ity, K ubota o f N orth i n b u i l d i n g an alum inum u s in g A s a h a n 's w a te r and e le c tric ity and b a u x i t e from th e n e ig h b o r i n g i s l a n d o f B in tan g.^ In 1956 Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i s e n t a p ro m in e n t businessm an, Kobayashi A taru, as a s p e c i a l a d v is o r to o b s e r v e t h e econom ic c o n d i t i o n s Upon h i s retu rn K o b a y ash i recommended t o K i s h i t h a t J a p a n 's A sian p o l i c y be g e a r e d to w a rd c l o s e t i e s In d o n esia because of i t s In d ia because o f i t s Y am ashita T a ro, D jak arta to o f v a r i o u s A sian c o u n t r i e s. w ith rich n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and w ith p o litic a l p o ten tial. T h a t same y e a r, a n o th e r p ro m in e n t b u sin e ssm a n, went to o b tain o i l co n cessio n s. Ayukawa G i s u k e, who === [PDF page 29] === 18 In th e 1 9 3 0 's had d e v e lo p e d M anchurian a g r i c u l t u r a l and i r o n m ining r e s o u r c e s, went to I n d o n e s ia i n 1956 i n co n n e c tio n w ith r e p a r a t i o n s problem s b u t a ls o showed a stro n g in te r e s t th e J a p a n e s e d evelopm ent o f S um atran o il.9 I n d o n e s ia 's o i l was n o t a b l e t o b e i m p o r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y t o J a p a n on a c c o u n t o f t h r e e p r i n c i p a l o b stacles. F irst, th ere rem ained i l l I n d o n e s ia n s o v e r J a p a n 's w artim e conduct; e x is te d bo th p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y sen tim en t in feelin g s among t h e second, th ere and a n t i - f o r e i g n I n d o n e s i a, h i n d e r i n g f o r e i g n in v e s tm e n t; and th ird, Ja p a n 's b u sin e sse s fo reig n in v estm en t. lacked s u f f ic ie n t c a p ita l for To m i n i m i z e I n d o n e s i a ' s — a s w e l l a s t h e w h o l e A sian r e g i o n 's — h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d t h e m, t h e J a p a n e s e made its retain in g approaches c a u tio u s ly, p o litic a l issu es in th e a re a. and s t r i v i n g its n e u tra lity to expand i t s trad e a ctiv ity An e x a m p l e i s J a p a n ' s b e h a v i o r a t t h e A s i a - A f r i c a B andung C o n f e r e n c e i n 1955 d u r i n g w h ic h C h i e f D eleg ate T akasaki T atsunosuke, then d ir e c to r of th e N a t i o n a l Econom ic P l a n n i n g A g en cy, to o k e x tr e m e c a r e n o t to tak e s i d e s i n any i d e o l o g i c a l a rg u m e n ts. a p o lo g iz e d f o r J a p a n 's w artim e aged econom ic and c u l t u r a l I n s t e a d he con d u ct i n A sia and e n c o u r c o o p e r a t i o n among A s i a n s. J a p a n 's g e o p o litic a l i n t e r e s t in In d o n esia as a defense lin e a g a in s t the A llie s n a tu r a lly d isap p eared in 1945, b u t in the p o stw a r p e rio d Japan hoped t h a t Indonesia === [PDF page 30] === 19 w ould re m a in n on-C om m unlst. i n m ain lan d C hina i n th re a t to The M a o i s t r e g i m e e s t a b l i s h e d 1949 h a d i n c r e a s e d t h e Communist th e w hole S o u t h e a s t A s ia n r e g i o n, w here l o c a l su b v ersiv es, a i d e d by C h in a a s w e l l as t h e S o v i e t U n io n, w ere v e ry a c t i v e. J a p a n w ould have had d i f f i c u l t y con d u c t i n g t r a d e w i t h a Communist r e g i m e i n I n d o n e s i a w h ic h p r e f e r r e d b u s i n e s s r e l a t i o n s w i t h P e k i n g o r Moscow. the la rg e s t co u n try in S o u th e ast A sia, In d o n e s ia a ls o m ig h t hav e c o n c e iv a b ly im peded J a p a n 's t r a d e w it h th e r e s t o f the re g io n. A n o n -C o m m u n ist I n d o n e s i a a s w e l l a s a non-Communist A s ia a l s o w ould i n s u r e o i l ro u te the o f th e Japanese from th e M iddle E a s t v i a t h e S t r a i t s and th e S o u th C hina S e a. 91 p e r c e n t i n th ro u g h the S t r a i t s in te re sts f r o m 76 p e r c e n t i n 1969 s t i l l to ta l o il o f M a l a c c a a d d e d a new d i m e n s i o n t o In d o n esia: c o n stitu ted im p o rts. J a p a n 's d esire e x p lain s its 1955 t o Thus J a p a n ' s i m p o r t a t i o n o f o i l the s a f e ty o f th e S t r a i t s becam e more v i t a l t o J a p a n t h a n I n d o n e s i a n o i l, o f M alacca P o s t w a r J a p a n e s e d e p e n d e n c e on M iddle E a s t e r n o i l i n c r e a s e d its secu rity less t h a n 10 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s T his c o n s id e r a tio n in fo r a frien d ly w hich even turn rein fo rce d In d o n e sia and p a r t i a l l y o f f e r t o m e d ia te b etw een D j a k a r t a and K u ala L a m p u r f r o m 1 9 6 3 t o 1 9 6 6 w hen t h e d ip lo m a tic r e la tio n s. two c a p i t a l s broke === [PDF page 31] === 20 J a p a n e s e P o l i c y Toward S o u t h e a s t A s i a J a p a n 's w ith i t s c a u t i o u s, p o s tw a r diplom acy to w ard A sia away f r o m p o l i t i c s and to w a rd econom ic a n d c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i o n was a c t u a l l y designed to achieve J a p a n 's p o l i t i c a l to w it, cally em phasis v iab le go als in th e a re a, and p o l i t i c a l l y an econom i s t a b l e non-C om m unist A s ia. T he t e r m " e c o n o m i c c o o p e r a t i o n " was u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e governm ent t o d e s i g n a t e com m ercial lo a n s the p r iv a te c a p i t a l in v e s tm e n t and a s s i s t i n g tra d e exp an sio n. By a t t a c h i n g "econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n a g r e e m e n ts " t o a l l w ar r e p a r a t i o n s agreem ents, Japan ad vantageously used i t s expand i t s trad e. o rig in a lly w ere m eant t o redeem J a p a n 's w artim e were a c t u a l l y co u n tries tio n s, Thus t h e w a r r e p a r a t i o n s w hich u tu liz ed t o prom ote i t s ex p o rts. conduct, W ith t h o s e s u c h a s Laos a n d Cambodia t h a t r e n o u n c e d r e p a r a and w ith T h a ila n d, M alaya, and S in g a p o re w hich w ere not ab le to c l a i m t h e m, J a p a n made o t h e r co operation" arran g em en ts. from p o s s i b l e to p r o te c t Ja p a n 's c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h C o m m u n is t C h i n a, w h i c h w ished to m arket i t s own g o o d s i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a. non-C om m unist A s ia w ould p r o t e c t m entioned J a p a n e s e "econom ic 12 A non-C om m unist A s ia w ould h e l p trad e paym ents t o o il rou te the secu rity Too, a o f th e a f o r e from t h e M iddle E a s t. F in ally, s t r e n g t h e n i n g A s i a a g a i n s t Communism was c o n s o n a n t w i t h J a p a n 's p o l i c y o f c o o p e r a tio n w ith W ashington. === [PDF page 32] === 21 K is h i N o b u su k e 's em ergence as F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r in the sh o rt-liv e d I s h ib a s h i C ab in et (Decem ber 1956 - F e b ru a ry 1957) and as Prim e M i n i s t e r i n F e b ru a ry m arked th e a d v e n t o f a m o re p o s i t i v e p o s t u r e by J a p a n to w ard A sian p ro b le m s. K i s h i became t h e f i r s t Prim e M i n i s t e r t o S o u th e ast A sia. lated v isit "th ree p rin c ip le s " c o o p e ra tio n w ith of J a p a n 's Japanese He a l s o form u fo reig n p o lic y: t h e F re e W orld, s u p p o r t o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s as a p e a c e k e e p in g o r g a n i z a t i o n, A sian i n t e r e s t s. 1 9 57 13 S tressin g the and p r o t e c t i o n o f them e " J a p a n i s a member o f t h e A sia n com m unity," K is h i a d v o c a te d J a p a n a s a s p o k e s l4 man f o r A s i a a n d a s a p r o m o t e r o f A s i a n c o n c e r n s. h is 1957 t r i p s t h e a r e a he c a r r i e d w i t h him a p r o p o s a l f o r a S o u t h e a s t A s i a D e v e l o p m e n t F u n d w h i c h was a i m e d a t t h e econom ic d e v elo p m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n w i t h J a p a n e s e a n d, i f p o ssib le, A m erican s u p p o r t. i z e d b e c a u s e most o f t h e o t h e r A sian c o u n t r i e s t h a t t h e Fund m ig h t be u sed t o econom ic c o n t r o l T h is p la n n e v e r m a t e r i a l fa c ilita te over th e reg io n. t h a t i n November 1957 K i s h i s e t t l e d issu e Japanese N ev erth eless, th e f a c t the lo n g -sta n d in g o f re p a r a tio n s w ith S o u th east A s ia 's I n d o n e s i a, m arked a s t e p suspected forw ard in J a p a n 's larg est n a tio n, r e l a t i o n s w ith th e r e s t o f A sia. sh o u ld not be f o r g o t t e n p r e d e c e s s o r s, Y oshida S h ig e ru t h a t K i s h i ' s two (May 1 94 6 -M a y 1 9 4 7, O c t o b e r 1 9 4 8-D ecem ber 1954) and Hatoyam a I c h i r o (December 1954- D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 6 ), h a d p a v e d t h e way f o r t h i s p o s i t i v e === [PDF page 33] === 22 d ip lo m a c y to w a rd non-Com m unist A s ia. I n December 1 9 51, soon a f t e r t h e San F r a n c i s c o P eace C o n fe re n c e and h a l f a y e ar b efo re Japan regained i t s so v ereig n ty, Y oshida s e t up a n A s i a n A f f a i r s B u r e a u w i t h i n t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, and F o re ig n M i n i s t e r O kazaki K atsuo v i s i t e d A sia in 1953. Upon h i s S outheast appointm ent as F o re ig n M in is te r i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 4 S h i g e m i t s u Mamoru p r o m o t e d J a p a n ' s ra n k in g envoys i n A sia to the rank o f am bassador, th e re b y d em o n stratin g th e s e rio u s n e s s In a d d itio n, rep aratio n s o f J a p a n 's concern f o r A sia. t a l k s were c o n c lu d e d s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h Bu rm a i n 1 9 5 4 a n d w i t h t h e P h i l i p p i n e s Japan e s ta b lis h e d topi n 1956. d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s w ith th e S o v ie t U n i o n i n O c t o b e r 19 56 a n d w i t h S o v i e t c o n s e n t b e c a m e a m em ber o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n D e c e m b e r o f t h a t y e a r. These d ip lo m a tic a c tiv itie s u ndoubtedly a s s i s t e d K i s h i 's endeavors in S o u th e a st A sia. K is h i's successor, Ik e d a H ayato (Ju ly November 1 9 6 4 ), o p en ed a n o t h e r e r a o f J a p a n e s e d ip lo m a c y tow ard S o u th e a s t A sia. I n I 9 6 3 when t e n s i o n s grew b e tw e e n I n d o n e s i a and M alaya o v e r I n d o n e s i a ' s o p p o sitio n to M a la y a 's p la n t o o f M a l a y s i a by jo in in g th e B orneo), form t h e F e d e r a t i o n form er B r i t i s h Saw arak, and S in g a p o r e, o ffe re d to m ediate. o f Sabah (N orth Prim e M i n i s t e r Ik e d a T h i s was J a p a n ' s i n A s i a s i n c e t h e War. sib le co lo n ies Ikeda f e l t first p o litic a l ro le t h a t J a p a n was r e s p o n f o r k e e p i n g I n d o n e s i a f r o m Communism, a b e l i e f b o r n e o u t by t h e I n d o n e s i a n Communist P a r t y ' s (PKI) stro n g === [PDF page 34] === 23 s u p p o r t f o r I n d o n e s i a ’ s " C r u s h M a l a y s i a " p o l i c y a n d by t h e P a r ty ’s in cre ased in flu e n ce In d o n esia’s fo reig n a f f a ir s. J a p a n 's i n t e r v e n t i o n was a c c e p t e d b y t h e p arties, alth o u g h in J a p a n 's d isp u tin g t h e e n d m e d i a t i o n was u n n e c e s s a r y. o f f e r o f such p o l i t i c a l c o n tr a s te d w ith "econom ic" p art in creased self-co n fid en ce to J a p a n 's econom ic g ro w th. J a p a n 's secu rity a n o t h e r f a c t o r was t h e n e g o tiatio n s can be t r a c e d i n through i t s A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t was u n d o u b t e d l y concern fo r th e and s t i l l diplom acy) d iplom acy w ith th e F in ally, last o f th e S t r a i t s com pletion o f r e p a r a tio n s c la im a n t, e ig h tee n years P a c i f i c W a r, J a p a n was f r e e d o f M alacca, Burm a, i n March a f t e r th e end o f th e from t h e b u r d e n o f w ar in d em n ificatio n. A f t e r 1963 J a p a n became i n v o l v e d i n m atters to a g r e a t e r e x te n t th an b e fo r e. Indonesian When I n d o n e s i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y m o v ed c l o s e r t o t h e C o m m u n i s t c a m p, J a p a n e s e governm ent e x te n d e d yen c r e d i t s $49 m i l l i o n fro m 1963 t o E isak u coup i n e q u iv a le n t to 1 9 6 5 ^^ t o p r e v e n t I n d o n e s i a ' s le a n in g even f a r t h e r to th e ab o rtiv e the left. A fte r In d o n e s ia 's 1 9 6 5, J a p a n u n d e r Prim e M i n i s t e r S a to (November 1 9 6 4 - J u l y 1972) to o k s tr o n g e r m easures to p r o p up t h e c o u n tr y w i t h econom ic a i d and t o b r i n g a b o u t sta b ility. T h is e x p re s s e d J a p a n 's S o u th e a s t A sian c o u n try since 1945. o r g a n iz a tio n o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l 1966 a n d, th e deepest c o n c e rn f o r any Japan i n i t i a t e d con so rtiu m the fo r Indonesia sam e t i m e, i n A p r i l s p o n s o r e d t h e === [PDF page 35] === 24 S o u t h e a s t A s la n M i n i s t e r i a l C o n f e r e n c e f o r Econom ic D e v e lo p ment. S ince 1966 J a p a n h a s shown a more p o s i t i v e t o A sian a f f a i r s. In th a t y e a r i t A sia and P a c i f i c C o u n c il, approach decided to jo in th e a m eetin g -g ro u n d f o r th e r e g i o n 's fo reig n m in isters to d isc u ss p o l i t i c a l, eco n o m ic, and c u ltu ra l issu es. A lso t h a t y e a r, J a p a n 's c o n trib u tio n t h e A s i a n D e v e lo p m e n t Bank Fund was o n e - t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l. I n 1968 t h e S a t o C a b i n e t s t a t e d c ip a te i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l its w illin g n ess to p a r t i c o n f e r e n c e on t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e V i e t Nsim War a n d p r o p o s e d a n I n t e n n a t i o n a l F u n d f o r P o s t-w a r V ietnam ese D evelopm ent. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r M iki Takeo th e n ad v an ced th e i d e a o f an A sia n and P a c i f i c E conom ic Community. I n N ovem ber 1969 S att) w en t so f a r a s t o rem a rk t h a t J a p a n w ould p l a y in A sia. 17 "a le a d in g ro le I n May 1 9 7 0 J a p a n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n (shuyaku) " an A sian C o n f e r e n c e on C am bodia a n d e v e n a g r e e d t o be one o f t h r e e m e d i a t i n g member n a t i o n s. In O ctober o f t h a t y e a r th e S a to governm ent e x p re s s e d i t s a V i e t Nam a r m i s t i c e form ed. in ten tio n c o n t r o l team, A b r i e f sum mary o f J a p a n ' s A sia r e i t e r a t e s th at i t ro le one s h o u l d be p o stw a r in v o lv em en t in b e g a n w i t h econom ic d ip lo m a c y c e n t e r e d on r e p a r a t i o n s n e g o t i a t i o n s tio n. to p a r ti c i p a te S ince 1963, Japan g ra d u a lly as a le a d e r in p o l i t i c a l and econom ic c o o p e r a has been w idening i t s as w e l l a s econom ic s p h e r e s. T h e su m m ary a l s o h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t J a p a n ' s p o l i c i e s === [PDF page 36] === 25 S o u th e a st A sia ev o lv ed f i r s t I n d o n e s ia 's n a tu r a l from i t s in te rests r e s o u r c e s, p o t e n t i a l e x p o rt m ark et, and g e o p o l i t i c a l l o c a t i o n. n otew orthy a ls o t h a t t h e s e p o s t w a r p o l i c i e s were f o r m u l a t e d and c a r r i e d o u t under a sim p le p o l i t i c a l a e g i s, th e L i b e r a l D em ocratic P arty. In d o n e s ia 's E x te rn a l B ehavior: An O v e r v i e w A f t e r 1945 w h i l e J a p a n w a s p r o t e c t e d p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m ic a lly u n d e r th e A m erican s e c u r i t y u m b rella, In d o n e s ia e x p e r ie n c e d r e p e a t e d d o m estic u p h e a v a ls and fo reig n in te rv e n tio n s. From 1945 t o 1949 t h e I n d o n e s i a n s f o u g h t w ith th e r e t u r n e d D utch and o t h e r fo rm e r A l l i e d forces. I n December 1949 i n d e p e n d e n c e b u t I n d o n e s ia 's t e r r i t o r i a l what i t c a l l e d W est I r i a n, fin ally was g a i n e d, c l a i m t o W e s t New G u i n e a, was n o t r e c o g n i z e d. L eft u n r e s o l v e d. W e st I r i a n r e m a in e d one o f I n d o n e s i a ' s n a tio n al issu es se ttle d u n til larg est in I 962. I n d o n e s i a was p r e s s e d b y W a s h i n g t o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e in the 1 95 1 S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e. went p a r t l y S tates from a s e n s e o f o b l i g a t i o n In d onesia th e U nited f o r h e lp in g I n d o n e s ia g a in independence N eth erlan d s through U nited N atio n s m e d ia tio n. a f t e r 1945, d u rin g th e b i t t e r r e t u r n e d D utch f o r c e s, stru g g les from t h e However a g a in s t the I n d o n e s i a ' s n a t i o n a l i s m became synonymous w i t h a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m, a n ti-im p e ria lism, an ti-w estern t o be f r e e d a ttitu d e. The d e s i r e and an (m erdeka) === [PDF page 37] === 26 from f o r e i g n dom inance h a s g r e a t l y in flu e n c e d I n d o n e s ia 's fo reig n p o licy p o s itio n s. T his d e s i r e of fo reig n p o lic y, T h is them e, e n g e n d e re d I n d o n e s i a ' s m ain p r i n c i p l e a ctiv e independence fo rm u lated in (bebas a k t i f ). le d D ja k a rta to r e c o g n i z e t h e P e k i n g re g im e i n A p r i l 1950 w h i l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e A m e r ic a n - c o n tr o lle d San F r a n c i s c o m e e tin g th e fo llo w in g y e a r. However I n d o n e s i a ' s co n d itio n a f t e r the p o litic a l opposed to t i e s forces W ilopo C a b i n e t ratify conference (A p ril 1952-July in te rn a l p o litic a l f a v o r e d t h e grovfth o f w i t h t h e W est. Under th e 1953) I n d o n e s ia r e f u s e d to th e Peace T re a ty w ith Ja p an and i n s t e a d d is p a tc h e d an am b a ssad o r t o P e k in g. At f i r s t In d o n esia took l i t t l e fo reig n p o lic ie s. T he I n d o n e s i a n s r e s e n t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e War a n d a s a r e s u l t b illio n in te re st i n war r e p a r a t i o n s. first J a p a n 's in J a p a n 's the Japanese demanded $ 1 7.5 a tten d an ce a t th e A s i a - A f r i c a Bandung C o n f e re n c e o f 1955 h e l p e d t o m o d e ra te In d o n e s ia 's ill-fe e lin g, a lth o u g h d u rin g th e C onference n o r e f e r e n c e w a s m ade t o J a p a n i n a n y p u b l i c In d o n e s ia 's (the h o st illu stra te d In d o n e s ia 's n a tio n s co u n try ) s p e e c h e s by governm ent l e a d e r s. 20 T h is s u p p o r t o f th e new ly in d e p e n d e n t o f A sia and A f r ic a and i t s lack of i n t e r e s t J a p a n 's p o l i t i c a l p o s tu re. I n d o n e s ia 's economy was e x h a u s t e d by t h e s i o n i s t m ovem ents t h a t d u rin g the occurred in seces th e O uter Is la n d s 1 9 5 0 ' s, a s w e l l a s by t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c and === [PDF page 38] === 27 irre d e n tist fe rv o r o f the cam p aig n t o r e c o v e r W est I r i a n w hich l e d to th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n In d o n esia. o f D utch p r o p e r t i e s i n N e v e r th e le s s Sukarno gave p r i o r i t y r a t h e r th a n econom ic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s. to p o l i t i c a l T he a n t i - S u k a r n o r e b e l l i o n i n S u m a tra and S u la w e s i became a c t i v e in 1957, p r o t e s t i n g S u k a rn o 's lack o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e econom ic w e lfa r e o f h i s p eo p le and h i s attitu d e Communist P a r t y len ien t to w ard th e (PK I). A g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g ro u n d S u k a rn o r e c e i v e d Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i i n November 1 9 5 7, a n d b e tw e e n them t h e y se ttled th e long -stsin d in g r e p a r a tio n s t h i s was a way t o s a v e h i s n a tio n 's issu es. d e t e r i o r a t i n g e c o n om y and to s tre n g th e n h is p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n. Sum atra and S u la w e si r e b e l s, w ith th e th e U nited S t a te s, o fficially t h e i r o p p o sitio n to h is F o r Sukarno However t h e s e c r e t b acking o f d e c la re d in February 1958 lead ersh ip. A n g e re d by A m e r i c a ' s e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f t h e reb els, S u k a r n o m o ved c l o s e r t o Moscow a n d o b t a i n e d m i l i t a r y o f some $10 b i l l i o n, the re b e ls w hich I n d o n e s i a u se d f i r s t and t h e n t o c l a i m W e st I r i a n. U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d no c h o i c e b u t t o lan d s, a NATO a l l y. W est I r i a n b e t w e e n t h e tw o s u p e r p o w e r s. to q u e ll B ecause th e support th e N ether t h u s became an i s s u e In d o n esia s t i l l of actJve claim ed adherence to i t s p o licy its cam paign w ith s t r o n g i n t e r n a l s u p p o r t irre d e n tist in d e p e n d e n c e, b u t opened t h e PKI a n d t h e p a t r o n a g e o f Moscow a n d P e k i n g. resu lt, aid from As a t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was f o r c e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e D u t c h === [PDF page 39] === 28 to r e tr e a t In th e hope t h a t I n d o n e s i a m ight rem a in open t o A m erican i n f l u e n c e. When t h e W e s t I r i a n n e s ia 's ad vantage, t o o k up s t i l l condem ning th e a B ritish econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t. n eo -co lo n ialist 1964, Sukarno i n t u r n attem p t to c o n ta in In d o n esia, in O ctober tow ard form ing an a n t i - c o l o n i a l A sia n a x i s w hich e v e n t u a l l y N o rth V ietnam, A fter a r e s p o n d e d more p o s i t i v e l y id eo lo g ica l lean in g s, in c lu d e d N orth K orea, and Cam bodia. W ith r e s p e c t t o t h e In d o n esia-M alaysia q u e stio n. Prim e M i n i s t e r Ik e d a H ay ato and t h e r u l i n g p a r t y ' s P re sid e n t, Kawashima S h ô j i r ô, D j a k a r t a an d K u a la Lumpur. By 1 9 6 3 J a p a n ' s p ro fit among t h o s e J a p a n e s e in p a r tic ip a tin g in These i n d i v i d u a l s w ith im p o rtan t payment o f S u k a rn o and Kawashima. com a n d I n d o n e s i a n s who sa w th e r e p a r a tio n s program s. seem t o h a v e b u i l t fig u res V icea tt e m p t e d to m e d ia te b etw een r e p a r a t i o n s v;as u n d e r way a n d h a d g e n e r a t e d a c t i v e p e titio n Upon f o r m a t i o n o f M a l a y s i a i n S e p t e m b e r I 963 a s s e c r e t m e e t i n g i n S h a n g h a i w i t h C hou E n - l a i ist an o th er in te r n a tio n a l is s u e. he r e c e i v e d s t r o n g encouragem ent from P e k in g. P e k in g 's Indo was e x p e c t e d t h a t S u k a r n o w o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e upon i n t e r n a l how ever, i s s u e was s e t t l e d up c l o s e in both c o u n tr ie s, conn ectio n s in clu d in g B o th I k e d a a n d Kawashima t r i e d u se t h e s e Tokyo-Dj a k a r t a t i e s a s a means o f p e r s u a d i n g Sukarno to ta k e p e a c e f u l s t e p s tow ard s e t t l i n g M alay sian i s s u e. Sukarno, h av in g l o s t the the su p p o rt o f === [PDF page 40] === 29 W a s h i n g t o n a s w e l l a s o f Moscow b e c a u s e o f h i s w ith P eking, a p p a re n tly thought i t advantageous to m a in ta in c o n t a c t w i t h Tokyo. H is J a p a n e s e w i f e, trib u tin g the fa c to r in c o n tin u in g b e t w e e n t h e tw o A s i a n c o u n t r i e s c lo ser tie s Dewi, was a c o n clo se r e la tio n s h ip d esp ite t h e i r opposing fo reig n p o lic ie s. T h e S e p t e m b e r 30 Movement o f I 9 6 5 was a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s w e l l a s an i n t e r n a l a f f a i r b e c a u s e Communist C hina h ad a l l e g e d l y supported a p e o p le 's army e q u i p p e d w i t h C h in e s e arm am ents sm uggled i n t o D j a k a r t a u n d e r t h e g u i s e of co n stru ctio n m a te ria ls E m erging F o r c e s f o r th e C onference (CONEFO) b u i l d i n g. form er p o lic y o f n e u tra lis m, o f New T u r n i n g away f r o m i t s I n d o n e s i a ' s new r e g i m e w h i c h em erged a f t e r th e Q e sta p u a f f a i r, a d v o cated a r e t u r n c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h W ash in g to n and i n 1967 b ro k e r e l a t i o n s w ith P eking. S u rveying I n d o n e s ia 's e x te rn a l b eh av io r d u rin g t h e two d e c a d e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n - f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s, c a n be s e e n t h a t I n d o n e s i a a t no t i m e r e a l l y its p u rp o rted n e u tra lism. to d isg u ise its T h is p o s i t i o n m ain tain ed fu n c tio n e d only p ro -W e s te rn o r pro-C om m unist lean in g s. w as a d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n ' s way o f a s s e r t i n g n a t i o n a l i s t se n tim e n t and in d ep en d en ce. I n d o n e s ia 's flu c tu a tin g e x te rn al p o litic s re fle c te d in i t s tra d e perform ance. Indonesian tra d e se le c te d co u n tries W ith few e x c e p t i o n s the ta b le m irro rs also T a b l e 1 - 2 shows from 1 9 52-1970. D ja k a rta 's p o litic a l === [PDF page 41] === 30 TABLE 1 - 2 COMPOSITION OF INDONESIAN TRADE WITH SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1952-1970 EXPORT Total amount 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 19 68 1969 1970 J an an U.S.A. 25% 10,652 9,344 9,759 10,618 10,054 11,052 8,612 8,158 841 754 682 696 724 708 679 665 751 831 1,009 10 17 16 18 29 23 29 29 17 16 23 24 14 12 24 22 20 15 15 13 11 USSR China 10,806 8,584 7,172 6,888 9,799 9,158 5,860 5,229 577 794 647 521 680 695 527 649 716 697 893 14 17 22 14 16 15 14 15 16 18 21 17 21 23 27 28 22 29 30 17 18 14 16 16 17 16 16 15 17 18 11 16 19 18 Hoiland 10 13 22 11 16 17 21% 23 19 16 19 17 • 10 13 14 Malay Singa sia pore 25% 22 22 20 21 27 25 23 23 21 21 15 10 15 16 15 Total 80% 76 73 75 77 76 73 75 71 74 76 69 64 67 62 66 66 67 64 IMPORT 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 Note: Sources: 1952-1960 In millions 1952-1955 1952-1955: 1956-1959 I960 1961-1969 1970: 13 10 14 13 12 10 12 11 10 53 55 53 52 54 53 51 57 54 50 58 48 42 55 53 58 59 68 65 of P.p., and 1961-1970 in m illions of $. Bank of Indonesia, Report for the Years 105=^-1Q‘^6. 107. Bank of Indonesia, Repor . 119. Bank of Indonesia, Report: . Ç0O-C0 0. 1 0 0. Bank of Indonesia,- Ina -n e sian Financial Sté; ti: s, De cember 1970, j. - 100, and pi II6. Bank of Indonesia, Indonesian Financial Statistics. August ---- ---1 9 7 2, pp. 112-1 3, 130-31. === [PDF page 42] === 31 rela tio n s S ta te s, o v e r t h e p a s t tw o d e c a d e s w i t h t h e U n i t e d th e S o v i e t U nion, Communist C h i n a, Kingdom, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s, M a l a y s i a, th e U nited and S in g a p o re as w e ll as w ith Japan. s h o u l d be i n d i c a t e d first t h a t both th e e x p o rts from and th e im p o rts to I n d o n e s ia g e n e r a l l y in crease in term s o f v alu e d u rin g t h i s did not p erio d. T h i s was t y p i c a l o f S u k a rn o 's p o lic y o f a t t a c h i n g g r e a t e r im p o rtan c e to p o litic s th a n to econom ics. T rade w ith th e N e th e r la n d s, w h ic h s h a r p l y d e c r e a s e d b e tw e e n 1958 and 1 9 6 4, r e f l e c t s th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f D utch p r o p e r t i e s by I n d o n e s i a i n D ecem ber 1957 and t h e s u b s e q u e n t t e n s i o n s A m arked d e c r e a s e i n o v e r West I r i a n. In d o n esian tra d e w ith G reat B r i t a i n, M a l a y s i a a n d S i n g a p o r e f o r a few y e a r s a f t e r 1963 was c a u s e d by t h e p r e v a i l i n g "Crush M alaysia" p o l ic y. c r e a s e d t r a d e w i t h C h in a and t h e S o v i e t Union d u r i n g S u k a r n o ' s G u id e d Democracy p e r i o d o f 1 9 5 7 -1 9 6 5 b e a r s w itn ess to t h e i r co ntem p orary p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s. rela tiv e ly l a r g e r t r a d e w ith C hina a l s o D ja k a rta 's c l o s e r t i e s w i t h P e k i n g t h a n w i t h M oscow, i n a d d itio n to th e advantages t h a t s e a s C hinese t r a d e r s f ig u r e s w ith th e S ta te s, P e k in g e n jo y e d from o v e r in and around In d o n e s ia. U nited S ta te s p o litic a l re la tio n s te stifie s The Trade do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y reflect betw een I n d o n e s i a and th e U n ite d s a v e t h a t t h e s h a r p d e c r e a s e i n i m p o r t s a f t e r 1964 was c a u s e d by t h e A m erican a t t e m p t t o f r e e z e t h e goods i n t o flow o f I n d o n e s i a where a n ti - A m e r i c a n i s m h ad i n c r e a s e d. === [PDF page 43] === 32 I n d o n e s i a ’ s t r a d e w i t h J a p a n was c a r r i e d o u t w i t h ex cep tio n al s te a d in e s s, p a r tic u la r ly a f t e r 1957 and d e m o n s tr a te d t h e g r a d u a l l y g ro w in g econom ic bond w i t h Tokyo. E v e n d u r i n g t h e G u i d e d D e m o c r a c y p e r i o d w hen I n d o n e s i a was t u r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e W e s t e r n b l o c, Japan s te a d ily o f th e in creased. "sp ecial" T his i s tra d e w ith an econom ic i n d i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p m a in ta in e d b etw een D j a k a r t a and T okyo, a r e l a t i o n s h i p w hich w i l l be e x p lo r e d f u r t h e r in fo llo w in g s e c tio n s of th is T able 1-2 r e v e a l s tra d e perform ance. ch ap ter. a strik in g aspect of In d o n esia’s W hile S u k a rn o a d v o c a te d b o t h p r o - Communist a n d p r o - A f r o - A s i a n p o l i c i e s, s u b s t a n t i a t e d by econom ic t i e s t h e s e w ere n o t w ith th e s e re g io n s. I n d o n e s ia 's tra d e w ith su rp risin g ly lo w — no more t h a n f i v e p e r c e n t o f i t s exp o rts o r im p o rts. from C hina i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s was Only a s u d d e n i n c r e a s e 1965 s u g g e s t s U n t i l t h e W e st I r i a n t o be a m i l i t a r y In d o n esia rela tiv e ly ex te n t, to i t s T h is a ls o q u e s t i o n grew s u rp r is in g ly m aintained c lo s e r e l a t i o n s w ith i t s the N e th e rla n d s. in im ports econom ic c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e D Jak arta-P ek in g a x is. issu e, ap p lies, o ld p o l i t i c a l to a s t i l l enemy, g reater econom ic r e l a t i o n s w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s. J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n E conom ic I n t e r d e p e n d e n c y T able 1-3 l i s t s the c h a n g in g m o n e ta ry v a l u e s from 1947 t o 1970 o f t r a d e b e tw e e n J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s i a, ratio s to ta l of Japanese exp o rts to th e In d o n e sia to t o t a l Jap an ese === [PDF page 44] === 33 e x p o rts and to t o t a l the r a tio s Indo n esian im p o rts, o f Jap an ese im p o rts t o t a l Japanese im ports These r a t i o s, and, sim ilarly, from I n d o n e s i a i n te rm s o f and t o t a l In d onesian e x p o rts. t a k e n o v e r a p e r i o d o f some t w e n t y y e a r s, provide a u s e fu l index o f th e d e g re e o f m utual dependency b e t w e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s. V arious F irst, u n til c o n c l u s i o n s may b e d r a w n f r o m t h i s tab le. 1962 t h e t r a d e b a l a n c e f a v o r e d J a p a n e x c e p t 1955 a n d 1956 b u t n e sia except in a f t e r 1963 t h e b a l a n c e f a v o r e d I n d o 1965? i n d i c a t i n g th at from t h e m id d le o f S u k a r n o ’ s G u id e d D em ocracy p e r i o d J a p a n i m p o r t e d more fro m In d o n esia than i t th at exported to i t. T h i s was b e c a u s e from tim e J a p a n b o u g h t more o f I n d o n e s i a ' s n a t u r a l resources. Second, th e in c re a s e Ind o n esia, in sp ite o f th e in J a p a n 's ex p o rts le tte r 's e x c h a n g e h o l d i n g s, was due t o t h e d ecreasin g fo reig n "p o litica l" yen c r e d i t e x t e n d e d t o S u k a r n o by P rim e M i n i s t e r I k e d a a n d t h e r u l i n g p a r ty 's V ice-P resid en t, Kawashima. When I n d o n e s i a ' s a n t i - W e s t e r n s t a n c e became more a p p a r e n t, th e W estern n a t i o n s w ith d rew t h e i r the m a jo rity o f c re d its, Jap an alo n e c o n tin u in g to supply yen c r e d i t to Sukarno. ranking o f f i c i a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade and In d u s try o f the M in istry A h ig h - (M ITI) r e a s o n s t h a t J a p a n ' s p e r s e v e r a n c e d u r in g I n d o n e s i a 's m os. t u r b u l e n t a n d u n s t a b l e y e a r s was resp o n sib le f o r t h e e a s y and f a s t - g r o w i n g volume o f t r a d e 21 b e t w e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s i n t h e p o s t - 1 9 6 5 y e a r s. T his leads to th e t h ir d c o n c l u s i o n drawn from T a b le 1 - 4; th at === [PDF page 45] === 34 TABLE T-3 DEGREE OF TRADE INTERDEPENDENCY BETWEEN JAPAN AND INDONESIA, 1947-1970 Japanese exports to Indonesia total Jap.ext. YEAR (thousands 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 i 960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 23,457 56,764 15,279 46,281 128,390 59,842 105,436 119,715 64,715 76,031 67,095 49,056 73,019 110,821 154,774 116,305 99,068 122,089 207,192 118,615 155,149 146,595 235,811 315,780 13.5% 22.0 Note: ^This figure is too high due 1947-1956 1967-1969 1970 total I n d o n.I m p. (thousands $) Sources: Figures Japanese Imports 16.4% 18.7 14.3 16.8 21.7 13.7 15.6 15.0 13.6 14.9 16.0 17.9 20. 8 16.7 21.0 22.9 26.8 28.0 21.7 29.4 35.3 1,304 11,941 15,328 13,303 104,557 27,495 48,848 60,385 81,156 91,180 65,109 37,004 56,588 71,286 86,687 92,876 104,808 130,740 149,282 175,505 195, 009. 251,829 397,319 636,553 from Indonesia Trade total balance total J a p.i m p. Indon.exp. (l)-(4) 16.8 15.9 17.8 29.2 22.9 29.3. 63.5 22,153 44,823 -49 32,978 23,833 32,347 56,588 59,330 -16,441 - 15,449 1,986 12,052 16,431 39,535 68,087 23,429 -5,740 - 8,651 57,910 - 56,890 -39,860 - 105,234 - 1 6 1,50s - 320,773 (1),_(2), (4), (5)^ and (7) are based on J apanese statistics: Tsusho Sangyô C h o s a k a i, Sense Nihon no bcekl n i / u n e n s h i, p p. 290-91. Asahl.nenkan 1 9 6 9. p- 346: and Asahl nenkan 1 9 7 1, pi 372. Tsusho hakusho i S ’?'l, vol. 11, pp. j 4 1 - 4 5. Figures in (3) and (6) are based on I n d o nesian-statistics: United Nations, Yearbook of International Trade Statistics 1 9 5 3, 1948-1951: Bank of Indonesia, Report for the Years 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 5 6, p. 107. 1952-1955 Bank of I n d o n e s i a,Report for the Years ISt.-'-iyoC, P- 119. 1956-1959 Bank of Indonesia,.Report for t ne Years I - ou-. lOo, p. 100. I960 Bank of Indonesia, Indonesian Financial S t a t i s t i c s, December 1 9 7 0, 1961-1969 p. 116. Bank of Indonesia, Indonesian Financial Statistics, August 1 9 7 2, 1970: === [PDF page 46] === 35 J a p a n ' s t r a d e w i t h I n d o n e s i a was more i m p o r t a n t t o In d o n esia th an to Japan. ex p o rts The p e r c e n t a g e o f J a p a n ' s Indonesia out of i t s the d ecreasin g since p erio d i t a v e r a g e d o n l y two p e r c e n t and a f t e r 1966 t h i s had shrunk to le s s 1950's; t o t a l e x p o rts had been d u r i n g t h e G uided Democracy th a n 1.4 p e r c e n t. ex p o rts of its t o t a l exp o rts is That J a p a n 's I n d o n e s i a i n 1 9 4 8 h a d c o n s i s t e d o f 22 p e r c e n t r a t h e r am azing, as i t d isclo ses t h a t J a p a n was f a r m o r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n I n d o n e s i a a t d ate th an i t a t the p re s e n t. L ik ew ise, J a p a n 's th at im ports f r o m I n d o n e s i a now o c c u p y a v e r y s m a l l p o r t i o n o f i t s to ta l im p o r ts, w hereas th e y occupy a f a r g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f In d o n e s ia 's B eginning i n to ta l ex p o rts, p a rtic u la rly 1967 b o t h J a p a n ' s In d o n e s ia have com prised n e a r ly to ta l sin ce 1963. e x p o r t s to and im p o r ts from 30 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a ' s trad e. The o v e r a l l c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t In d o n e sia has been m ore d e p e n d e n t upon J a p a n t h a n v i c e - v e r s a, t r e n d became c o n s p ic u o u s an a n a l y s i s th is from t h e m id d le o f t h e S u k a rn o phase of Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e l a ti o n s. Ju stifie s and t h a t T h is i n i t s e l f o f th e b i- n a tio n a l r e l a ti o n s of th at p erio d. J a p a n buys p rim a ry goods from I n d o n e s i a and s e l l s in d u s tr ia l p ro d u cts. T his p a t t e r n by T a b le 1 - 4, w hich g i v e s of trad e ev id en ced a com m odity-based p i c t u r e t r a d e b e t w e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s fro m 1956 t o 1 9 7 0. p a ttern t r a d e w ith m ost o f th e ap p lies also to J a p a n 's T h is === [PDF page 47] === 36 TABLE 1 -4 COMPOSITION OP COMMODITIES IN JAPANESE TRADE WITH INDONESIA 1956-1970 EXPORT Foodstuffs 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1969 1970 Foodstuffs 1956 1957 20? 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 19 68 1969 1970 Sources: Light Manuf. goods Heavy Manuf. goods Others 12% 21? 68 48 39 63 34 31 29 37 39 50 44 31 26 1968 IMPORT Crude fuels 41 53 29 57 69 71 18 15 15 27 39 42 36 32 33 38 50 53 62 73 69 21 57? 52 39 27 23 61 60 22 Raw Materials Mineral Fuels 20? 33 52 63 . 70 73 77 97? 98 98 99 99 100 100 100 99 100 101 100 100 99 99 Total? 97? 93 97 92 96 95 96 80 69 57 50 55 62 58 1956-1958 Tsüshô hakusho 1 9 5 9, 1959-1961 Tsüshô hakusho vo l. II, 1962. v o l. II, 1962-1964 Tsüshô hakusho 1965. 1965-1967 Tsusho hakusho 1 9 6 8. v o l. II, vol. I I, 1968-1970 Tsüshô hakusho vo l. II, 1971, Others Total? 100 101 101 100 101 100 100 100 240-41 320-22 341-45 === [PDF page 48] === 37 o th e r dev elo p in g n a tio n s. One o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t In d o n e sia n item s t h a t Japan im p orts i s 1-5 show s, i t s o il, im p o rta tio n of Indonesian in c re a s e d every y e a r sin c e 1958. and a s T a b le crude o i l has B e t w e e n 1 95 6 a n d 1 9 7 0 t h e v a lu e o f o i l im p o r te d from I n d o n e s i a i n c r e a s e d 1 7.5 tim es. J a p a n d ep en d ed upon f o r e i g n per cent of i t s p erio d, s o u r c e s f o r o v e r 97 o i l needs during t h i s a n d o v e r 99 p e r c e n t s i n c e fifte en -y e ar 1965- Annual o i l im p o rts from I n d o n e s i a a v e ra g e d 8.5 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ’ s to ta l c r u d e o i l i m p o r t s b e tw e e n 1956 and 1 970. much l o w e r t h a n t h e p r e w a r f i g u r e: o f J a p a n 's o il im ports i n 1936, T h is i s 35 p e r c e n t came f r o m t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i e s. S i n c e t h e War t h e m a j o r s o u r c e of o il th e M iddle E a s t, some 76 p e r c e n t o f i t s to ta l co n stitu tin g o i l im port in 1955, 22 f o r Japan has been 88 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 6 5, 91 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 6 7, ^ 3 a n d 85 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 0. Th e l o w - s u l p h u r o i l o f I n d o n e s i a now h a s a s p e c i a l a t t r a c t i o n fo r Japan. In d u stries and a u to m o b i le s, p o llu tio n i n th e m e t r o p o li t a n and i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s of Japan, th e m ajor causes o f a i r use m a in ly h i g h - s u l p h u r M iddle E a s t e r n o i l. W hile I n d o n e s i a ' s i s much m o r e I m p o r t a n t t o o il is im p o rtan t to Jap an, i t Indonesia. Betw een I 9 6 O and 1970 a t l e a s t 46 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a ' s went to J a p a n a n d by 1962 t h i s fig u re crude o i l e x p o r t s r e a c h e d 87 p e r c e n t. T he p e r c e n t a g e o f o i l in I n d o n e s ia 's t o t a l e x p o rts to Japan has not f a l l e n b e l o w 49 p e r c e n t. th at i f J a p a n d i d n o t buy cam b e i n f e r r e d any I n d o n e s i a n o i l I t w o u ld === [PDF page 49] === 38 TABLE 1 - 5 IMPORTANCE OF INDONESIAN OIL TO JAPAN AND INDONESIA, 1956-1970 Î of total Jap. crude oil I m p. % of total 1956 Jap. Imp. of Indon. oil (crude petroleum) (In thousands of $) 18,089 1957 16,846 YEAR 1958 18,262 I n d o n.crude oil exp. ? of Jap. Indon. dependence on exp. to Japan oil imp. % of total 97? 25.9 98 49.3 98 1959 34,528 61.0 98 I960 49,263 10 5 57.0 69.1 1961 61,245 11 3 45.5 70.6 1962 67,255 10 8 87.0 72.3 1963 78,822 54.9 75.2 98 98 98 98 1964 87,956 44.0 99 1965 84,139 48.0 56.3 99 1966 87,418 60.4 49.3 99 1967 95,413 49.6 48.9 99 1968 132,167 51.1 99 1969 207,374 10 8 53.3 52.1 318,091 14 2 75.2 49.9 99.5 1970 Data not available Sources: Col. 1956--5 8: Tsüshô hakusho 1 9 5 9, II, p. 241. 1959-. 6 1: Tsüshô hakusho 1962, II, p. 2 7 3. 1962 --67: Keizai vôran 19 6 9, pp. 256- 5 7. Col. 1 9 7 1, II, p. 346. Calculated from the sources for column (1). Col. 1960- 6 8: Bank of Indonesia, Indonesian Financial Statistics, December 1 9 7 0, pü 98. 1969- 70: Japan-Indones’ i a Association, no. 283 (June 1971), p- 23. 1968-■70: Tsüshô hakusho Col. Column Col. 1956- 6 9: Gekkan I n d o n e s i a, (1) of this to be divided by TABLE 1-3, column Japan Petroleum Federation, Nalgai sekiyu shiryS 1 9 7 0. p. 78. === [PDF page 50] === 39 a f f e c t a t l e a s t h a l f o f I n d o n e s ia 's o i l e x p o rts to th e w orld and a s i m i l a r p r o p o r tio n o f I n d o n e s ia ’ s t o t a l exp o rts to Japan. 25 A su sp en sio n o f J a p a n 's o i l im ports from I n d o n e s i a w ould a l s o affect se v e re ly In d o n e s ia 's to ta l e x p o r t s — by 5. 8 p e r c e n t i n I 9 6 0, 1 1. 8 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 6 5, a n d 1 7.4 p e r c e n t i n 1970 — d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e r a p i d grow th o f J a p a n ’ s i n f lu e n c e T a b le 1-6 s e l e c t s fo u r m ajor In d o n e s ia n goods i m p o r t e d by J a p a n — b a u x i t e, a n d shows t h e i r r e l a t i v e Ind o n esia. o v e r I n d o n e s i a ’ s economy. n ick el, rubber, and lum ber— im p o rtan c e t o b o th Jap an and B etw een 1956 a n d 1970 a l l b u t r u b b e r i n c r e a s e d in im port v a lu e. J a p a n e s e im p o rts o f n i c k e l and lum ber i n p a r t i c u l a r r o s e b e tw e e n 1964 an d 1 9 7 0, a l t h o u g h t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f In d o n esian n ic k e l in J a p a n 's t o t a l im ports from I n d o n e s i a d i d n o t i n c r e a s e o v e r two p e r c e n t. c o n stitu ted o n l y two p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s Indonesia in 1 9 64 b u t 28 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 0. Lumber im p o rts from J a p a n h a s no b a u x i t e and d e p e n d s upon f o r e i g n s o u r c e s f o r i t s e n t i r e 27 supply. B e tw ee n 1956 a n d 1970 an a v e r a g e o f 2 9. 5 p e r cent o f J a p a n 's t o t a l b a u x ite im ports alth o u g h they averaged le s s t o t a l im ports East In d ies. than th re e p e r cen t o f J a p a n 's from I n d o n e s i a. once were J a p a n 's came f r o m I n d o n e s i a, N a tu r a l r u b b e r and p e tr o le u m two m a j o r i t e m s I m p o r t e d f ro m t h e D u tch As s y n t h e t i c how ever, th e r e l a t i v e rubber p roduction in c re a se d, I m p o r t a n c e o f n a t u r a l r u b b e r was r e d u c e d and a c c o r d i n g l y, as t h i s tab le In d icates, Japan’s i m p o r t s o f I n d o n e s i a n n a t u r a l r u b b e r plum m eted d u r i n g t h e === [PDF page 51] === flfteen-year period from 29 per cent of Japan's Imports from Indonesia in 195fi to two per cent in 1910. Except for natural rubber, therefore, bauxite, TABLE 1-6 nickel, lumber, and o il are a ll essential to Japan. While OF SE L E C T E D lîlD O K ESIÆ tl E IP O E T S TO J A P J E M iD IK D O î.'E SIi th eir relative importance has varied, the basic pattern Goods and Jap. Isp, fron Î or tot 1 Î of total Indon. Jap. iio years ( i n i i i l l l o n s o f 5) froti Indon. J a n. iiao. o f g iv e n goods B a m lte of Japan's importation of Ë neral resources in exchange for manufactured goods has remained unchanged. Indone s ia 's need for manufactured goods in connection with 1956 I 960 2,989 1969 1968 3,095 5,599 6,796 1910 (A verage) 9,299 I 5, W 5^ I ( 108) 1956 I 960 357 1969 1968 679 3,779 1970 (A verage) ( 9, 225J I ( 188) 90.89 29.5 30,6 26,9 25.2 Japan's payment of reparations w ill be discussed in Chapter IV. N ick el 5. The Plow of Nationals between Japan and Indonesia Another indication of the closeness of Japanese- Indonesian contacts is the mobility of th eir nationals N a tu ra l R ubber 1956 I 960 1569 1968 1970 (A verage) 26,689 29.1 36.3 between the two countries. The steady flow of tourists 19,308 15,700 13,100 10.9 15.1 18,8 and businessmen into a country often reflects the p o litic a l 1 17, 997. 8) 11.3 995 2,699 30,695 176,911 12,1 27,7 ( 92, 190. 9) sta b ility of the country while a sudden outflow is likely L uiaber 1956 1960 1969 1968 1970 (A verage) to signify p o litical in stab ility. Both Japanese and Indonesian sta tistic s on the interchange of foreign 11.2 nationals are deficient, owing to the difficulty of obtaining such figures and also to a lack of in terest by f i g u r e s not p rovid ed in o f f ic i a l so u rces. Sources: 1956: T s û s h ô h a k u s h o 1959, I I, n o. 168. 199, 199. I 960: T s û s h ô h a k u s h o 1962, I I, o n, 169. 208, 209. 1969: T s û s h ô h a k u s h o 1965. I I. o n, 198. 199, 219, 216. 1968: T s û s h ô h a k u s h o 1970, I I, d o, 209. 223, 229. T s û s h ô h a k u s h o 1971. I I. o n. 227. 292, 293. either government. Nevertheless a general picture can be obtained. Table 1-7 is an attempt to identify the changing number of Japanese nationals in Indonesia through re si dents, size of embassy and consulate sta ffs, and short term v isits. The number of Japanese residents in Indonesia === [PDF page 52] === 42 I n c r e a s e d s e v e n - f o l d f ro m a b o u t 200 i n 1958 t o a b o u t 1,500 i n 1970. fo r Japanese B oth f i g u r e s a p p e a r to be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d, co n su lates in D jak arta, Surabaya, a n d Medan ap p aren tly reg iste red o n l y t h o s e J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s who v o lu n ta rily rep o rted th e ir resid en cy. b u s i n e s s m e n came on s h o r t - v i s i t th e ir stay s the co n su lates. Some J a p a n e s e, e v e n Indonesian a u th o r i ti e s o r d e r t o o b t a i n work p e r m i t s, th e Japanese v is a s but then ex ten d ed do f u r t h e r b u s i n e s s. they r e g i s t e r e d w ith th e Many J a p a n e s e o fte n did n o t r e g i s t e r w ith For in stan ce i n D ecem ber 1970 c o n su la te in D ja k a rta inform ed t h is w r i t e r th a t as of O ctober 1, 1970 t h e r e w ere 1, 5 2 8 n a t i o n a l s In d o n esia, w hereas th e la tter a lso ap p lies resid in g in In d o n e sia n a u t h o r i t i e s had r e p o r te d t h e num ber o f work p e r m i t s T his issu e d to Japanese as 2,136. c o u n t to o m ig h t be an u n d e r s t a t e m e n t. T h is to the 1968 f i g u r e of Japanese re s id e n ts In d o n e s ia; w hile Jap an ese s t a t i s t i c s sian record l i s t s list 712, an In d o n e 1,277 p e rs o n s. D i s c r e p a n c i e s betw een th e d i f f e r e n t Indonesian s t a t i s t i c s to In d o n esia are sources of on t h e num ber o f J a p a n e s e v i s i t o r s u n av o id ab le, s i n c e n o t e v e r y J a p a n e s e who o b ta in e d an I n d o n e s ia n v i s a a c t u a l l y trav e le d th e re, nor d i d e v e r y J a p a n e s e who came t h r o u g h I n d o n e s i a n I m m i g r a t i o n o b t a i n a v i s a from t h e I n d o n e s i a n Kobe. In e i t h e r d isp lay c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r e n d s b e t w e e n t h e tw o o f f i c i a l fig u res. case, colum ns c o n s u l a t e s i n Tokyo a n d (3) and (5) o f T a b le 1 -7 The s u d d e n d r o p i n J a p a n e s e v i s i t o r s fro m 1965 === [PDF page 53] === 43 TABLE 1-7 JA P AN ESE IN INDONESIA, N o. of residents Size of Embassy staff® 1958-1970^ Jap, Nos. by Indon. Immigration % of total YEAR c. 200 1959 19 60 503 10+2 11+2 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 C.900 16+5 17+6 712^ 1.345 1969 1970 12+6 1968 1,485 18+8 24 + 8 24+5 27+8 4,523 11? 10 10 14 12 10 8,416 394 555 1,366 1,131 2,676 1,809 1,558 655 1,213 1,846 1,873 2,985 1,841 3,785 6,689 9,552 ^These figures are often underestimated as many people do not report to hthe authorities, w ho have limited means of locating their nationals, Right-hand figures are numbers of Embassy staff and left-hand ones are numbers of ccr.suîa staff. Both refer to "home staff" only, and not glocally hired staf ^Does not include n umber of visas issued by the Consulate in Kobe, 1,277 according to an Indonesian source. Statistical Pocketbook cf Indonesia 196 2-196 P- 39. According to an In icnesian source, there were 2,136 Japanese who obtained work perm its from the Indonesian government in 1970. See,M e r d e k a, May 8, 19 Data not available 1958 Japan, Foreign Ministry, Indoneshla Japan Statistical Yearbook 1 96 I, p. 1963 Japan, Foreign Ministry, Indoneshla 1965 Asahl S h i n b u n, October 2, I 9 6 5. 1968- 6 9: Asahi nenkan 1 9 7 1. p. 227. 1970: Japan, Foreign Ministry, Waga aalkô i 960 1958-70; 1960- 6 8; 15+2 15+3 C.692 1967 Sources Nos. by visas issued by Indon. E m b. in Tokyo foreign visitors 1958 Notes; visitors to Indon. 1960-61 1962-63 1965-66 1968-69 1970 no k l n k v o. no. 15, ( 1 9 7 1 )p.496 Japan_,_Flnance Ministry Printing Office, Nihon shokulnroku. I 95O-I97O. 1970: Kycwakoku benran (I960), p. 97. 43I Kyôwakoku benran (1964), p. 170. Indonesia, Central Bureau of Statistics, Almanak Indonesia 1968. I, pp. 511- 1 9.-------------------------------------------------------—.4 Indonesian L e t t e r, no. 23 (September 1971). Same as sources for (3 ). Indonesian Emcassy, Tokyo, Laooran Tahunan 1961. n. 196. Laporan Tahunan 1 9 6 3, sec. V p. 3.----------- --Laooran Tahunan 1966, 101. CbO_ 0. 359. Laporan Tahunan Japan- Indone sia Association, Gekkan Indoneshla. no. 292 (March 1972), p. 1 9. === [PDF page 54] === 44 t o 1966 p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s the h e s ita tio n a t e n te rin g I n d o n e s i a a f t e r I t had b een throw n I n t o ab o rtiv e coup o f S e p te m b e r 1965. number o f v i s i t o r s In In d o n esia. p a ra lle ls c o n f u s i o n by t h e In c o n tra s t, a f t e r 1968 I n d i c a t e s the th e g r e a te r resto red order The l a r g e r n u m b e r o f e n t e r i n g J a p a n e s e th e s h a r p ly I n c r e a s e d m onetary v a lu e n a tlo n a l trad e In th e sa m e p e r i o d, of b las seen In T able 1 -3. A ccording to J a p a n e s e governm ent s t a t i s t i c s show ing t h e o c c u p a tio n a l com p o sitio n o f Ja p an e se v i s i t o r s t o I n d o n e s i a I n 1 9 6 5 a n d I n 1 9 6 8,^® d u r i n g 1 9 6 5 r e g is te r e d persons) w orkers p o rtatio n (202). th ey p riv ate co n sisted p rim arily company m a n a g e r s and com m un ication w o rk e rs The l a s t tw o g r o u p s w e r e l a r g e o f rep aratio n s p ro je c ts, c o n tra st, dams, and com m unications from 4 l 8 I n 1965 t o t h e number o f t r a d e r s 240 I n 1 9 6 8. and e n g in e e r s p robably because The c o m b in e d n u m b e r o f t h e s e dropped n o tic e a b ly tran s many o f w h i c h I n v o l v e d c o n s t r u c t i o n w orks such as b r i d g e s, fa c ilitie s. of c le ric a l (227), (216), rose two g r o u p s I 65 I n 1 9 6 8. f r o m o n l y 11 I n 1 9 6 5 T he 2, 8 0 3 J a p a n e s e v i s i t o r s c l e r i c a l w orkers ( 509), trad e rs (240), In d u strial c o n s tr u c tio n w orkers and housew ives (96). The e n t r y o f more t h a n t w i c e a s reflects trad e (1,2 3 2 ), p riv a te I n 1968 w ere m ainly many p r i v a t e company m a n a g e r s c o m p a n y m a n a g e r s a n d 96 h o u s e w i v e s I n 1 9 6 8 I n d o n e s ia 's Im proved c lim a te for In te rn a tio n a l as w e ll as g r e a t e r I n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y. === [PDF page 55] === 45 T ab le 1-7 a ls o I n d i c a t e s embassy and c o n s u l a t e s t a f f s estab lish m en t of th e th at size o f Japanese h a s grown s t e a d i l y co n su lates In g r e w f r o m 6 I n 1 9 5 8 t o 18 I n 1 9 6 6, a g a in can be s a i d t o the 1952. sin ce The "home s t a f f " a n d 27 I n 1 9 7 0. re p re se n t J a p a n 's the T his c lo s e r dip lo m atic Involvem ent In In d o n e sia n a f f a i r s. The t r e n d s n atio n als sian s o bserved In th e In to Indonesia g e n e ra lly coming t o J a p a n, Japanese s t a t i s t i c s, rose flow o f Ja p a n e se m atch t h o s e as se en In T able 1 -8. o f Indone A ccording to th e number o f I n d o n e s ia n r e s i d e n t s f r o m 20 5 I n 1 9 5 2, t h e y e a r t h e tw o g o v e r n m e n t s estab lish ed co n su lar r e la tio n s, dip lo m atic rela tio n s 1965> d ecreasin g to 260 I n 1 9 5 8, whe n f u l l were e s t a b l i s h e d, 834 I n 1968. and t o These f i g u r e s d i f f e r from I n d o n e s ia n governm ent s t a t i s t i c s, a lth o u g h th e d iscrep an cy Is not g re a t. sizes D a t a on t h e I n d o n e s i a n em bassy and c o n s u l a t e from c o m p lete b u t a t least "home s t a f f s " late 1 9 6 0 's s u g g e s ts th e number o f In d o n e s ia n s decade. resid en ts far I n 1958 and a phenom enal grow th In coming t o J a p a n d u r i n g t h i s The o c c u p a t i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f I n d o n e s i a n I n J a p a n g i v e n I n I n d o n e s i a n Embassy r e p o r t s shows an I n t e r e s t i n g tio n are suggest gradual In c re a se s. n u m e ric a l co m p ariso n b etw een th e v i s i t o r s th o se In th e o f the c o n t r a s t to t h e o c c u p a ti o n a l com posi of Japanese re s id e n ts In In d o n esia. Fro m 1 9 5 9 t o 1 9 6 5 t h e r e w e r e n o m o r e t h a n 20 I n d o n e s i a n b u s i n e s s m e n re g is te re d In Japan, a n d e v e n a f t e r I 968 t h e y d i d n o t === [PDF page 56] === 46 TABLE 1-8 INDONESIANS IN JAPAN, Nos. of residents By? of by In total sourc foreign residents by Jap. sources YEAR 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 260 297 420760 912 897 976 1,026 920 1,017 834 953 1,036 286 257 515 782 857 965b 1,138 1,145 1,250 1,048 1958-1970^ Nos. of size of Embassy Staff 18 19 25 28 27 27 Nos. of visitors J apan total visitors 1,311 1,267 1,694 2,510 2,421 2,626 4,498 4,656 3,699 4,134 4,936 8,692 Notes: Sources: (1) and 1958-59: 1960-70: Japan Statistical Yearbook I960, p. Japan Statistical Yearbook 1970. p. (3) and 1958: 1959: Indoneshla Kvowakoku benran fiQBOlnvs i.ndonesh Kycwakoku ber.r( i 960 )p.94. Indonesian Embassy, Tokyo, aooran Tahunan 19o p. 207. Laporan Tahunan 1963. sec.• V, p. 1 9. Laporan.ahunan 1966, p. 1 1 2. Laooran L’ahunan lib9. 369. 1960-61 Japan, Foreign Ministry, .J A n A n. Foreign -i err, Ministry Japan, 1962-63 1965-66 1968-69 (5) and 21, 44 i 1958-59 1960-69: . 1970: Japan, Justice Ministry, ShutsunyGgoku kanrl tSkel nennS 19b4. pp. 2-5. Japan pp. 44-45, — - -- Statistical Yearbook —uiwwvn 1970. s yI' Japan Statispical Yearbook- - 71 197: p-. 47. === [PDF page 57] === 47 a m o u n t t o m o r e t h a n 53 p e r s o n s. o f th e Japanese re s id e n ts p riv ate 29 W hile a g r e a t m a j o r i t y I n I n d o n e s ia w ere r e l a t e d c o m p a n i e s, o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e resid en ts I n J a p a n w ere s t u d e n t s In donesian and t r a i n e e s sen t under re p a ra tio n s program s. In s h o rt, th ese f i g u r e s on J a p a n e s e a n d I n d o n e s i a n v isito rs and r e s i d e n t s suggest th a t Increase did n o t d i f f e r g r e a tly the an nual r a t e I n any one y e a r, although t h e r e w e re c o m p a r a t i v e l y more J a p a n e s e I n I n d o n e s i a. C o n seq u en tly, the Japanese v i s i t o r s In In d o n esia th an the as th e In donesian v i s i t o r s form er c o n s t it u t e d t o t a l fo reig n v isito rs, larg est were I n J a p a n, l4 p e r cen t o f I n d o n e s ia 's w hile the la tter th a n h a l f o f one p e r c e n t o f J a p a n 's v isito rs. w ere more c o n s p i c u o u s c o n stitu ted to ta l less fo reig n I n i 960 a n d 1 9 6 2 t h e J a p a n e s e w e r e t h e th ird f o r e i g n g r o u p I n I n d o n e s i a a n d I n 19&5 a n d 1 9 6 8 th e seco n d l a r g e s t group a f t e r th e A m e ric a n s. As b l - n a t l o n a l t r a d e rela tio n s also show, the J a p a n e s e t r a d e p r e s e n c e I s more n o t i c e a b l e In Ind o n esia th an I t to In d o n esia Is In Japan, h a v e made t h e m s e l v e s The J a p a n e s e v i s i t o r s c o n s p i c u o u s n o t o n l y by t h e i r n u m b e r s b u t by t h e i r g e n e r o u s s p e n d i n g a s w e l l, c o n trib u tin g to "rich In d o n esia’s c r i t i c a l thereby view o f t h e J a p a n e s e A slan s." I t may b e n o t e d p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y obvious p re se n c e developm ent. th a t J a p a n 's In In d o n e s ia I s n o t m erely a p o st-1 9 6 0 E x ten siv e Japanese c o n ta c ts w ith th e === [PDF page 58] === 48 In d onesians can be t r a c e d b ack t o a t least 1 9 2 0, when t h e p r e s e n c e o f 4, 1 0 0 J a p a n e s e r e s i d e n t s, m o s t l y t r a d e r s, was 31 recorded. I n 19 3 9 whe n t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i e s a u t h o r i t i e s m ade t h e i r l a s t p o p u l a t i o n s u r v e y, 6, 4 6 9 J a p a n e s e 32 w ere counted."^ D u r i n g t h e P a c i f i c W ar, 9 0,0 0 0 J a p a n e s e o c c u p a ti o n t r o o p s were s t a t i o n e d I n I n d o n e s i a and 1 0,000 Japanese c i t i z e n s w ere a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 180 b u s i n e s s estab lish m en ts D uring th e tio n s o p e r a t i n g I n J a v a and t h e O u te r I s l a n d s. "Sukarno p e rio d " t h e r e w e r e 50 t o lia iso n o ffices of Jap an ese-In d o n eslan r e l a 60 J a p a n e s e In D jak arta. 34 When t h e n u m b e r o f Japanese b usiness re p re s e n ta tiv e s i 960'8 I s late firm s m a in ta in in g In D jak arta In th e e a rly c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e d u r i n g t h e War o r d u r i n g t h e 1930's, rem ark ab le. th e postw ar Jap an ese p resen ce What s e e m s t o make t h i s apparent Is p a rtly I s much l e s s p o s t w a r p r e s e n c e m o re t h a t b e f o r e t h e War m o r e J a p a n e s e liv e d In S u rab aja than In D ja k a rta (then c alle d B atav ia), w h i l e a f t e r t h e War m o s t J a p a n e s e h a v e l i v e d I n D j a k a r t a, th e R e p u b lic 's a ctiv ity c ap ita l. 35 The m o r e n o t i c e a b l e J a p a n e s e I n t h e p o s t w a r p e r i o d may b e a t t r i b u t e d th e h ig h ly v is ib le b usinesses and l a r g e - s c a l e also o p e r a tio n s o f m ajor su ch as th e M its u i and M lts u b a s h l t r a d i n g com panies, th e T a l s e l and O bayashi c o n s t r u c t i o n and th e Japan A ir L in e s. com panies, === [PDF page 59] === 49 T he E x c h a n g e o f V i s i t s bv J a p a n e s e and In d o n e s ia n L eaders J u s t as th e a fairly flow o f c i t i z e n s b e tw e e n two n a t i o n s Index to t h e i r frien d ly reliab le may b e t h e e x c h a n g e o f v i s i t s An e x c h a n g e a t t h e by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e sum m it l e v e l s o m e tim e s I s s o lv e m u tu al problem s and to e a se the frequency o f th e se lead ers ten sio n s. also w hich concerned. uneven r e l a t i o n s; o f su b o rd in ate n a tio n s ten d to v i s i t are tru e lead ers. But g e n e r a l l y recip ro cal v is its n a t i o n s more o f t e n t h a n t h e r e v e r s e. undertaken to m easu res th e a m i c a b i l i t y betw een th e n a t i o n s U nbalanced exchanges r e f l e c t re la tio n s, th e dom inant These assum p tion s f o r th e Sukarno p e r io d o f J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s la n re la tio n s. E very J a p a n e s e Prim e M i n i s t e r s i n c e K l s h l Nobusuke and e v ery F o re ig n M i n i s t e r s in c e Okazaki tio n o f F oreign M in is te rs has v is ite d ten u re. S hlgem ltsu, Indonesia o f f i c i a l l y The f i r s t (w ith th e excep K osaka, and M lkl) lea st once d u r in g h i s postw ar F o reig n M in is te r to v i s i t I n d o n e s i a was O k a z a k i I n 1 9 5 3 a n d t h e first to v i s i t T h e Crown P r i n c e I n d o n e s i a was K l s h l I n 1 9 5 7. a n d P r i n c e s s made a v i s i t Japanese le a d e rs Prim e M i n i s t e r I n 1962. seem t o v i s i t fo reig n co u n tries In th e o rd er o f t h e i r com m ercial and p o l i t i c a l I m p o rta n c e. U n til K lsh l'3 v i s i t In d o n e s ia In 1957, S ta te s, th e U nited C anada, and W e ste rn E urope w ere m ore I m p o r ta n t t o === [PDF page 60] === 50 Japan th an A sia. A f t e r 1957 J a p a n becam e more c o n c e r n e d w ith I t s I n A sia a n d, a c c o r d i n g l y, rela tio n s le a d e r s began to v i s i t. Prim e M i n i s t e r s trip s Japanese I n 1963 a n d 1967 r e s p e c t i v e l y. I k e d a and S a t o e x t e n d e d t h e i r I n d o n e s i a n t o A u s t r a l i a a n d New Z e a l a n d w h o s e c o m m e r c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l Im p ortance as P a c i f i c p a r t n e r s to Ja p an had Increased. V isits by J a p a n e s e lead ers fo reig n In clu d in g In d o n esia are sh o rt, u su ally comm uniques c a r e f u l l y w o rd e d I n c a p p e d by j o i n t a d v an c e by f o r e i g n m i n i s t r y Indonesian le a d e rs both o f f i c i a l en tly rig id ly co u n tries s c h e d u le d and o fficials. In c o n tra s t, c o n sid er Japan a s i t e and u n o f f i c i a l v i s i t s, lo c a te d as a sto p o v e r en ro u te fav o rab le a s Tokyo I s for conveni to th e U nited S t a t e s, th e U n ite d N a tio n s, W estern Europe v i a th e N orth P o le, even t o N orth K orea. T his h a b i t u a l p r a c t i c e h a s p r e v a i l e d under bo th the S u h arto and, p a r t i c u l a r l y, th e Sukarno p resid en cies. v isits b e tw e e n 1957 a n d 1970 t o Tokyo by I n d o n e s i a n p r e s i d e n t s and f o r e ig n m in iste rs v isitin g T able 1 -9 shows t h e In c o n tr a s t D jak arta. to t h e i r Japanese h is H is fifte e n th Of t h e s e first fo reig n t r ip s d u rin g h is was t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d l a s t was t o fifte e n co u n terp arts From 1945 t o 1968 P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o made a t o t a l o f f i f t e e n o ffice. and v isits, term o f I n 1951 and C airo and P a r i s In 1965. t e n In v o lv e d Jap an though only o n e. I n 1 9 5 8, was o f f i c i a l. The r e s t w e re e i t h e r u n o f f i c i a l o r In v o lv e d m ee tin g s w ith M alay sian and P h i l i p p in e === [PDF page 61] === 51 TABLE 1 - 9 VISITS OF J A P ANESE PRIME MI NISTERS AND FOREIGN MIN ISTER S AND INDONESIAN PRESIDENTS AND FOREIGN MINISTERS THE IR L ENGT H OF STAY AND SIZE OF PARTY, 1957-1970 JAPANESE PRIME MINISTERS IN INDONESIA JAPANESE FOREIGN MINISTERS Date Date Length stay (days) 1957: Nov 26-20 1958: Jan 19-23 I960) Length stay (days ) Klshi (Feb 1957: N o v 26-28 Ikeda (July 1960-Nov 1963: Sept 26-28 Sato (Nov 1964-July 1967: Oct 1957-July Size party (oerson 13 19 6 Ü) 14 Kosaka (July 1960-July 1 9 6 2 ) No visit 5hira (July 1962-July 1 9 6 4 ) 1963: Sept 26-28 1972) 8-11 IN INDONESIA 11 Shiina 1966: (July 1964-Dec Oct 25-28 Miki (De No visit 1966) 1966-Noy 1968) Aichi (Nov 1968-July 1 9 7 1 ) 1970: May 15-18 May 21-25 INDONESIAN PRESIDENTS IN JAPAN Sukarno (Aug 1945-Mar 1968) Jan 29-Feb 15 June 6-19 May 24-June 3 Sept 26-28 June 23-July 2 Sept 18-21 N o v 4-21 May 23-June 2 Jan 15-20 J une 7-21 Oct 26-Nov 1 18 14 10 11 18 10 15 1958: 1959: i 960: 1961: 1962: 1963: 1964: Suharto 1968: 1970: INDONE SIAN FOREIGN MINISTERS Sub andrl o 13 29 33 35 44 50 40 30 61 30 44 ^Dates in parentheses the leaders Indicate office. 1957: 1958: 1959: 1 960: 1961! 1962: 1963: (March 1968 to date) March 28-April June 3 45 after names of their terms of Sources: based on Japan, Foreig n Ministry, I ndoneshla Kvowakoku benran (1964), p p. 203-6. Asahi S h i n b u n, ard A n tara Warta B e r i t: 1964; 1965: Malik 1956 1967 1968 1969: 1970; IN JAPAN Sept 18-20 Aor 15-18 Oct 13-17 Nov 14-21 June 24-July 2 Oct 2-3 Dec 1-3 March 13 Aug 10-11 Aug 19 Nov 17-21 May 23-June 2 June 13-15 Sept 20 Sept 26 Jan 15-20 Jun e 7-21 Oct 26-Nov 1 Nov 26-29 Feb 11-14 May 19-25 (March 1968 to date) Oct 7-12 Apr 1-9 Oct 3-4 M ar 28-Apr Oct 11-13 Oct 26-27 N o v 23-27 June 3 Oct 17-19 Dec 11-14 10 11 15 === [PDF page 62] === 52 lead ers In re g a rd to the In d o n eslan -M alay sia n d is p u te s. These te n v i s i t s w e r e made b e t w e e n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 8 a n d November 1964: th erefo re t o J a p a n more t h a n o n c e, tw ic e each y e a r and t h r e e tim es in S im ila rly, c ertain years, I 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 6 I h e came t o T o k y o S uharto has 1968 and 1 9 7 0 ) s i n c e 1964. come t o J a p a n t w i c e he became P r e s i d e n t a d d itio n. F o reign M in is te rs S u k a r n o came 1968. S u b a n d rio u nd er Sukarno and Adam M a l i k u n d e r S u h a r t o made f r e q u e n t v i s i t s B etw een 1957 and I 965 S u b a n d r i o t o Tokyo. came t o J a p a n t w e n t y - o n e t i m e s a n d b e t w e e n 1 9 6 6 a n d 1 9 7 0 Adam M a l i k came t e n t i m e s, th o ug h o n ly once o f f i c i a l l y w ith P re s id e n t S uharto in March 1 9 6 8. A nother c o n sp ic u o u s f e a t u r e Indonesian le a d e rs th e huge s i z e S u k a rn o 's t r a v e l i n g p a r t i e s larg e, of th e t r i p s of t h e i r en to u rag es. t o Tokyo w e re u s u a l l y q u i t e r a n g i n g f r o m 29 p e r s o n s i n 1959 t o 6l persons in 1964. Most o f t h e s e p a r t i e s such as S u b a n d rio, in clu d ed cab in et m in iste rs L elraena, th e S u l t a n, Y ani, and N a su tio n — s i x p arty to In d o n esia in The r e a s o n s fo r th ese th ey ap pear to be th e K is h i's 1957 c o n s i s t e d o f o n l y 13 p e r s o n s. larg e re tin u e s rem ain u n c l e a r, but outcom e o f S u k a r n o 's p r o m is e s o f S u k a r n o h i m s e l f was r e p o r t e d p rid e on a t r i p In c o n tr a s t, p o l i t i c a l rew ard s and o f ex p an d in g h i s atten d a n ts' C h airu l S aleh, o f th e m in iste rs i 960 and s e v e n i n S e p te m b e r 1 9 6 1. h is a b ro a d by overseas p o p u la rity. to have been s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r g r e a t w e l c o m e i n Moscow === [PDF page 63] === 53 and P eking i n 1956— p resum ably in r e c o g n i t i o n o f In d o n e s ia 's and S u k a r n o 's im p o rtan ce.^® Form er Ja p a n e se A m b a s s a d o r t o I n d o n e s i a Oda T a k i o w r o t e t h a t S u k a r n o h a d w a n t e d a s many I n d o n e s i a n lead ers as p o ssib le a b ro a d w ith him, b e c a u se h e h ad f e l t suffered e a rlie r an i n d e s c r i b a b l e to tra v e l t h a t In d o n e s ia had l o s s by n o t b e i n g p r i v y to w orld a f f a i r s. A d e e p e r lo ok i n t o S u k a rn o 's p e rso n ality t h a t he f e l t rev eals c o m fo rta b le and s e l f - a s s u r e d o n l y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f many f a m i l i a r f a c e s a n d felt l o n e l y w i t h o u t them. In e i t h e r c a se, c o rre sp o n d e n c e betw een th e of his sty le of his th ere fo reig n tr ip s and "100 M i n i s t e r C a b i n e t, " form ed i n A ugust 1964 u n d e r t h e name o f t h e D w i k o r a C a b i n e t. Most o f P r e s i d e n t la stin g S u k a rn o 's a sin g le to u r. f r o m A p r i l 23 t h r o u g h J u n e S u k a rn o 's o ften one c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g h i s first and f o u r d u r i n g h i s 42 and S e p tem b er 21. they o fte n w ith th e le a d e rs trip f r o m A p r i l 16 t h r o u g h serio u s o f the h ost c o u n trie s, "ac tiv e d iscu ssio n s ap p ea lin g Indo cam paign and a d v o c a t i n g i t s independence" u su a l cerem onial o c c a s io n s. b e t w e e n A u g u s t 28 w ere term ed " r e s t a b r o a d," in clu d ed c a s e i n t h e W est I r i a n fo reig n p o licy o f lasted 1961 he v i s i t e d t w e n t y - second t r i p Many o f S u k a r n o ' s t r i p s but in r e a l i t y 1959 t r i p 29 a n d c o v e r e d s i x t e e n n a t i o n s s c a t t e r e d around th e w o r l d. I n n e s ia 's were l o n g, f o r tw o m o n t h s a n d c o v e r i n g m o r e t h a n a d o z e n co u n tries in Ju ly trip s S u k a rn o 's in a d d itio n to th e frequent v is its === [PDF page 64] === 54 Tokyo o f t e n ab ro ad." c o n stitu ted sto p o f a lon g " r e s t H e re, w h ile he e n jo y e d J a p a n e s e women, S u k a r n o a l s o lead ers the l a s t f o o d, d r i n k, and c o n d u c te d b u s i n e s s w ith governm ent and b u s in e s s m e n w i t h c o n c e rn s i n I n d o n e s ia and ha d a u d ie n c e s w ith th e Em peror and r e u n io n s w ith h i s w ar tim e f r i e n d s. Sukarno sp e n t a l t o g e t h e r b e t w e e n 1 9 57 a n d 1 9 6 4. six T h is c o n trasts d ay s t h a t Prim e M i n i s t e r s K i s h i In d o n esia d u rin g th e sam e p e r i o d. w ith a t o t a l D o u b t l e s s l y, J a p a n was so o f t e n and i n w hich he s t a y e d so lo n g w i t h su c h a l a r g e betw een th e len g th n esian le a d e rs. of v isits and I k e d a s p e n t i n t h e o n ly c o u n try w hich S ukarno v i s i t e d There a re s e v e r a l re a s o n s days in Japan retin u e. for th is co n trast made b y J a p a n e s e a n d I n d o As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r, the lo catio n Tokyo a s a c o n v e n i e n t s t o p o v e r b e tw e e n D j a k a r t a and o t h e r m ajo r w orld s i t e s S u b a n d rio 's, m ust c o u n t as a f a c t o r i n and t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s ' Tokyo, D ja k a rta i s v isits. S u k a rn o 's, Compared t o n o t as a c c e s s i b l e, b u t w ere i t situ ated b e tw e e n Tokyo a n d W a s h i n g t o n, t h e J a p a n e s e l e a d e r s m ig h t h a v e " s t o p p e d o v e r " more o f t e n, fu l th at th e th ese Indonesian though i t still doubt o c c a s i o n s w ould h av e b e e n as num erous as lead ers' v isits t o Tokyo. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c a u s e was S u k a r n o ' s p e r s o n a l a ttra c tio n to Ja p an. H is fo n d n e s s f o r T o k y o 's n i g h t l i f e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d w id e ly and d oes n o t n e e d t o be d o c u m ented h e r e, save t o n o te t h a t h is D e w i, was a f o r m e r n i g h t c l u b th ird h o stess o f f ic ia l w ife, i n Tokyo. A th ird === [PDF page 65] === 55 f a c t o r was I n d o n e s i a ' s As c a l c u l a t e d sia econom ic d e p e n d e n c e upon J a p a n. from T ab le 1 - 3, J a p a n 's exp o rts to Indone fro m 1958 t o 1965 a v e r a g e d 2. 1 p e r c e n t o f i t s ex p o rts, but th e p er cent of i t s com parable t o ta l im p o rts. from I n d o n e s i a d u r in g th e cent of i t s fig u re to ta l f o r I n d o n e s i a was I 8.9 L ik ew ise J a p a n 's im ports sa m e p e r i o d a v e r a g e d 1. 5 p e r t o t a l im ports b u t 8.9 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a 's t o t a l ex p o rts. In W estern and O r i e n t a l h i s t o r y, co u n tries freq u en tly v isit su b o rd in ate dom inant p o w e rs. Every Ja p a n e se prim e m i n i s t e r i n th e p o st-1 9 5 2 p e r io d has had to b e g in h is term o f o f f i c e p o ssib le p o lic ies. than the by g o i n g t o W a s h in g to n a s so o n a s fo rm u late h is fo reig n W h ile more J a p a n e s e l e a d e r s reverse, th an Japanese citizen s to A m erica. t r a v e l to Japan T h is tru e more I n d o n e s i a n come t o T o k y o t h a n J a p a n e s e t o D j a k a r t a, w h e r e a s more o r d i n a r y J a p a n e s e v i s i t t o Tokyo. th e too: dom estic v i s i t W ashington more A m e ric a n c i t i z e n s Ja p an ese-In d o n esian r e la ti o n s lea d ers and even h i s S u k a rn o 's trip s t o Ja p a n t h u s were sy m b o lic o f dependent r e la tio n s h ip A cco rdingly, was t h e firm s in v ite d betw een I n d o n e s ia and J a p a n. I n d o n e s i a n s who came t o T o k y o t o req u e st g re a te r Japanese advantage o f t h i s, "econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n. " T aking th e J a p a n e s e governm ent and b u s in e s s them t o t h e i r Japanese en terta in m e n t to econom ic p ro b le m s. D ja k a rta th an Indo n esian s c o u n try and p l i e d s e e k ways t o them w i t h ease p o l i t i c a l and === [PDF page 66] === 56 Is not s u r p r i s i n g t h e n t h a t Tokyo became a c e n te r f o r I n d o n e s ia 's d ip lo m a tic and i n t e l l i g e n c e a c tiv itie s. G estapu a f f a i r i n 1965, D uring th e the I n d o n e s i a n e m b a s s y i n Tokyo p l a y e d a s p e c i a l r o l e by p assin g in fo rm atio n o f i t s c o u n try 's p o l i t i c a l developm ents th e In d o n e sia n em bassies in o th e r m ajor c a p i t a l s o f the 44 w o rld w hich l a c k e d te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s f a c i l i t i e s. A lso in the e a rly I9 6 0 's the I n d o n e s i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o Tokyo occupied th e f i f t h - r a n k i n g p o s i t io n i n I n d o n e s ia 's serv ice, a f t e r W a s h i n g t o n, Moscow, L o n d o n, S ince about 1966, how ever, ran k s a f t e r W ashington, and A m sterdam. t h e a m b a s s a d o r s h i p t o Tokyo th u s r e f l e c t i n g T o k y o 's s h a r e o f g o v e rn m e n ta l a i d t o I n d o n e s i a and i t s o f o n e -th ir d o f In d o n e s ia 's a c tiv itie s few a n t i - S u k a r n o m i l i t a r y in Tokyo. th e a s s a s s in a tio n h a lf o f the tio n purchase groups i n i t i a t e d In e a rly le a d e rs o f th e R eb ellio n g ath ered s e c r e tly larg e ex p o rt goods. Both p r o - S u k a r n o and a n t i - S u k a r n o th e ir p o litic a l fo reig n 1958 a S um atra-S ulaw esi i n Tokyo, r e p o r t e d ly of P re sid e n t Sukarno. In th e to p lo t first 1 9 6 O' s, T o k y o ' s I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s A s s o c i a ( P P I ) was s u p p o s e d l y o n e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t student o rg an izatio n s o v erseas, S u k a r n o ' s W est I r i a n Indonesian s e r v i n g t o prom ote and a n ti - M a la y s i a cam p aig ns. There was a l s o a s p o r a d i c F r e e P a p u a n Mov em ent c o n d u c t e d b y W est Irian (Papuan) stu d en ts men w i t h i n t e r e s t s a n d s u p p o r t e d by J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s i n W e st I r i a n a n d New G u i n e a. === [PDF page 67] === 57 A b r i e f review o f th e Ja p an ese-In d o n esian co n tacts volume and f r e q u e n c y o f in th e areas of tra d e, o f p eo p le, and v i s i t s In d o n e s ia 's g ro w in g dependence upon J a p a n, b e g in n in g w ith th e of lead ers re v e a ls, flow sh o rt, e m e rg e n c e o f K i s h i N obusuke i n Tokyo and S u k a rn o i n D jak arta. appears th at fo r f u r th e r in terd ep en d en ce respect the p o l i t i c a l the tw o l e a d e r s p a v e d t h e way a f t e r about 1968. In t h i s developm ents d u rin g th e Sukarno p erio d of b i- n a tio n a l re la tio n s m erit clo se a tt e n t i o n. === [PDF page 68] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I ^ The S u p r e m e Commander f o r t h e A l l i e d P o w e r s (SOAP) w h i c h c o n t r o l l e d J a p a n f r o m S e p t e m b e r 2, 1 9 4 5 t h r o u g h A p r i l 2 8, 1 9 5 2, I n s t r u c t e d J a p a n on O c t o b e r 25 a n d N o v e m b e r 4, 19 4 5 t o s u s p e n d a l l d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i t i e s b u t a f t e r m i d - 1 9 4 8 moved t o r e l a x t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s. A p r i l 1 2, 1 94 9 I t p e r m i t t e d J a p a n t o go t o G e n e v a t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a c o n f e r e n c e on i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t i e s a s a n o b s e r v e r a n d a s a n a d v i s o r t o t h e SOAP d e l e g a t i o n. F r o m A p r i l 1 9, 1 9 50 J a p a n was p e r m i t t e d t o o p e n o v e r s e a s o f f i c e s i n o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h com m unication w ith f o r e i g n c o u n tries. O f f i c e s f i r s t w e r e o p e n e d I n New Y o r k, S e a t t l e, H o n o lu lu, and l a t e r In I n d i a, F r a n c e, and so f o r t h. A fter F e b r u a r y 1951 J a p a n was p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r I n t o d i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s on l i m i t e d s u b j e c t s such as e x i t and r e - e n t r y p e rm its f o r f o r e ig n n a t i o n a l s. S e e J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, e d., Gaimushô no h y a k u n e n (2 v o l s.; Tokyo: K a r a S h o b o, I 9 6 9 ), I I, 796 f f. A fter t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e on S e p t e m b e r 1 3, 1 9 5 1, J a p a n was g i v e n p r a c t i c a l l y c o m p l e t e p o w e r t o n e g o t i a t e d i r e c t l y w i t h f o r e i g n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n T o k y o on a l l su b jects. See A s a h l n e n k an 1 9 5 2, p. 548. T h a i la n d had no l e g a l r i g h t t o c la im r e p a r a t i o n s b e c a u s e i t r e t a i n e d I t s I n d e p e n d e n c e d u r i n g t h e w a r a n d was n o t o c c u p i e d by t h e J a p a n e s e. Nor w ere t h e c o l o n i e s o f M alaya and S in g a p o r e a b le to c la im r e p a r a t i o n s, b e c a u se G reat B r i t a i n had renounced t h e i r r i g h t s. Laos and Cambodia a t f i r s t c la im e d r e p a r a t i o n s b u t l a t e r. I n December 1956, a l s o re n o u n c e d them. F i g u r e s I n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r e com puted from th e d a t a I n Bank o f J a p a n, H u n d r e d - Y e a r S t a t i s t i c s o f t h e J a p a n e s e Economy ( T o k y o l Ba nk o f J a p a n, 1 9 ^ 6 ), p p. 2 9 0 - 9 7. K l s h l K o i c h i, e t a l., I n d o n e s h l a n l o k e r u Nihon Q ^ s e i n o k e n k y u (Tokyo*! K T n o k u n l y a S h o t e n, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 112 J a p a n ’ s Econom ic S t a b i l i z a t i o n B o a r d, w h ic h l a t e r became t h e c u r r e n t E conom ic P l a n n i n g Agency u n d e r t h e P rim e M i n i s t e r ’ s O f f i c e, d i s c u s s e d m ea su re s t o prom ote I n d o n e s ia n in d u strie s. See I t s I n d o n e s h l a sangyo s h ln k o t a l s a k u (Tokyo: E conom ic S t a b i l i z a t i o n B o a r d, 1 9 5 1 ). ® D aiyam ondo S h a, e d., N i p p o n K o e i mondo S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 1 0 2. 58 (Tokyo: D alya- === [PDF page 69] === 59 ^D av ld C o n d e, I n d o n e s h l a no hen b o (Tokyo: Kôbundô, 1966), p. l4 4. See a l s o A s a h l S h i n b u n. O c to b e r 1 9, 1957. S u g lm o ri H l s a l il d e, A r a b ly a T aro (Tokyo: Bungei S h u n ju S h a, 196O), p. I 8 5. ■^From A y u k a w a ’ s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h D J a m a l u d d l n M a l i k o f t h e N a h d l a t u l U la m a P a r t y I n J u l y 1 9 5 6. The l e t t e r s a re in th e hands o f N ish ijim a S h ig e ta d a o f the N o r t h S u m a t r a O i l D e v e l o p m e n t C o o p e r a t i o n Company i n Tokyo. ^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n. A p r i l 20 a n d 2 2, 1 9 5 5. See a l s o T a k a h a s h l T a t s u n o s u k e, " A j l a no h a n ' e l t o N ih o n no u n m e l, " Chüô' K o r o n. J a n u a r y, 1 9 5 8, p p. IO 5 - O 9. ^ ^ J a p a n, M i n i s t r y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l T rade and I n d u s t r y (M IT I), Sôgô e n e r u g l t o k e i 1968 (Tokyo: MITI, 1969), pp. 144-45. 12 F o r t h e e c o n o m i c c o o p e r a t i o n a g r e e m e n t s, Burma w a s t o r e c e i v e a y e n c r e d i t o f $50 m i l l i o n o v e r 10 y e a r s b e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 5 5, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s $ 2 5 0 m i l l i o n o v e r 20 y e a r s b e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 5 6; I n d o n e s i a $ 40 0 m i l l i o n o v e r 20 y e a r s b e g in n in g i n 1958; and S o u th V ietnam $ 7.5 m i l l i o n o v e r 3 y e a r s b e g i n n i n g i n 1963 and $ 9. 1 m i l l i o n more a f t e r 1965; and T h a ila n d $ 2 6.7 m i l l i o n o v e r e i g h t y e a r s b e g in n in g i n 1 9 6 2. T hese c r e d i t s w ere i n t h e form o f c o m m e rc ia l, r e i m b u r s l b l e l o a n s from p r i v a t e J a p a n e s e g r o u p s. Laos was g i v e n a n o n - r e l m b u r s i b l e g r a n t ( i n l i e u o f r e p a r a t i o n s ) o f $ 2.8 m i l l i o n b e g i n n i n g I n 19 5 9; s i m i l a r l y Cam bodia r e c e iv e d $ 4.2 m i l l i o n o v e r t h r e e y e a r s b e g in n in g i n 1959. Burma t h e n a l s o r e c e i v e d $ 1 4 0 m i l l i o n o v e r 12 y e a r s b e g i n n i n g i n 1965* S in g a p o re c la im e d $ l6 m i l l i o n I n 1967, w h i l e M a l a y s i a c l a i m e d a n d r e c e i v e d $50 m i l l i o n I n 1 9 6 7, a l l I n t h e form o f n o n - r e i m b u r s l b l e g r a n t s. See t h e R e p a r a t i o n s P r o b l e m s S t u d y G ro u p, N ih o n no b a l s h o 1965 (Tokyo: S e k a i J a n a r u S h a, 1 9 6 3 ), p p. 1 3 - 1 9; an d Gaimushô no h y a k u n e n. I I, l l 4 l, 1 1 7 0 -7 1. 11 14 January GalmushD n o h y a k u n e n. I I, See K i s h i ' s 1, 1958. 15 935. New Y e a r ’ s m e s s a g e i n A s a h i S h i n b u n. When t h e f i r s t r e p a r a t i o n s a g r e e m e n t w a s c o n c l u d e d w i t h Burm a I n 1 9 5 4, i t c o n t a i n e d a p r o v i s i o n w h e r e b y Burma r e ta in e d the r i g h t to re q u e s t a l a t e r re -e x a m in a tlo n of t h e r e p a r a t i o n s am ount. Burm a r e q u e s t e d a r e - e x a m l n a t l o n i n 1 9 5 9 a n d I n M a r c h I 9 6 3 r e a c h e d a new s e t t l e m e n t o n t h e b a s i s o f an a d d i t i o n a l g r a n t o f $140 m i l l i o n f o r r e p a r a t i o n s, p l u s $30 m i l l i o n f o r y e n c r e d i t ( d e f e r r e d p a y m e n t o f I m p o r ts from J a p a n ). S e e N i h o n n o b a l s h o 1963» p. 15 » === [PDF page 70] === 60 16 J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Econom ic A f f a i r s B u r e a u, I n d o n e s h l a (Tokyo: N ihon K o k u s a i Mondai K e n k y ü lo. 1 9 7 2 ), p. 117. 17 ' Shukan A s a h l. November 2 8, 1 9 6 9, p. 2 3. A sahi S h in b u n. O c to b e r 12, 1970. 19 On S e p t e m b e r 2, 1 9 4 8 t o t h e W o r k i n g Body o f t h e t h e n I n d o n e s i a n P a r l i a m e n t (KÎ^IP) t h e g o v e r n m e n t m e n t i o n e d th e I n d o n e s ia n " r i g h t to ta k e an in d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n. " On S e p t e m b e r 2 1, 1 9 5 0 t h e N a t s l r C a b i n e t f a v o r e d i n p a r l i a m e n t an " i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y, n o t a n o p p o r t u n i s t i c p o lic y." On May 28 o f t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h e S u k i m a n C a b i n e t i n d i c a t e d t h a t a n i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y was n o t o n e b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f n e u t r a l i s m. "An a c t i v e i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y " b e c a m e a s l o g a n on May 2 2, 1 9 5 2 wh en t h e W ilop C a b in e t s t a t e d t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n s s h o u l d co n n o tate a c tiv e a t t i t u d e s. The h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f " a n a c t i v e i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y " i s d e s c r i b e d i n J. M. Anton S o e w a rso, " P o l i t i k Bebas A k t i f, " R e s e a rc h P u b l l k a s l, I, n o. 1 0-969), 1 2 - 1 4. 20 The t e x t s o f t h e i r a d d r e s s e s a p p e a r i n I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, A s l a - A f r i c a S p eak s from Bandung ( D j a k a r t a [? ], n. p. 19 55 L? j ) p p. 1 9 - 2 9; a n d p p. 3 1 - 3 9. L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n l i k e w i s e i s g iv e n to Ja p a n and i t s a c t i v i t i e s in th e c o n fe re n c e, m entioned In th e c l a s s i c s t u d y b y G e o r g e K a h i n, The A s l a - A f r l c a n C o n f e r e n c e. B a n d u n g, I n d o n e s i a, A p r i l 19 55 ( I t h a c a. N. Y.: C o rn ell U n iv e rs ity P r e s s, 1956). 21 N o t o I s a m u, D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l o f JETRO ( J a p a n E x te r n a l Trade O r g a n iz a t i o n ), p r i v a t e in te r v ie w in D j a k a r t a, December 1 3, 1971. 22 Ja p a n S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1 9 4 9. p. 5 1 8. ^ ^ S o go e n e r u g l t o k e i 1 9 6 8, p p. Sogo e n e r u g i t o k e i 1971, pp. 144-45. 170-71. 25 T h e s e tw o p e r c e n t a g e s a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y, 57/Ï a n d 6 9. 1 % i n i 9 6 0. 48.0% a n d 5 6.3% i n 1 9 6 5, a n d 75.2% a n d 49.9 % in 1970. 26 O b t a i n e d fro m colum n (1 ) o f T a b l e 1 - 5 ( J a p a n e s e o i l i m p o r t s fro m I n d o n e s i a ) d i v i d e d by t h e f i r s t colum n o f T able 1-2 ( I n d o n e s ia ’s t o t a l e x p o r t s ). ^ ^ K e l z a l y o r a n 19 7 0, p. 242. === [PDF page 71] === 61 28 Jljl 1076. nenkan 1968, p. 910; and Jl.11 n e n k a n 1971. 29 In d o n e s ia n Em bassy, Tokyo, L aporan Tahunan 1 9 6 1, 1963, 19 6 6, and 1 9 6 9. 30 In d o n e s ia, C e n tra l B ureau o f S t a t i s t i c s, Almanak I n d o n e s i a 1 9 6 8, I, 5 1 1 - 1 9. T ak ed a S h i g e s a b u r o, e d., J a g e t a r a kanwa (Naga sak i: By t h e e d i t o r, 1 9 6 6 ), p p. 2 0 - 2 3. The f i r s t J a p a n e s e C o n s u l a t e - G e n e r a l was e s t a b l i s h e d i n J a v a i n 1 9 0 9, s o o n a f t e r t h e R u s s o - J a p a n e s e War o f 1 9 0 4 - 0 5. ®^I b i d. 3®I b i d. 34 " R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f J a p a n e s e F irm s and Banks in D j a k a r t a as o f O c to b e r 1, 1963” (m im eographed), p re p a re d u n o f f i c i a l l y b y t h e D j a k a r t a o f f i c e o f t h e JETRO ( J a p a n E x t e r n a l T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n ), l i s t s 48 e n t r i e s. "D aftar Nama P e n g u s a h a 2 D J e p a n g, D S B," p r e p a r e d b y t h e I n d o n e s i a n J a p a n e s e F r i e n d s h i p A s s o c i a t i o n ( L P I D ) i n 1 9 6 4, l i s t s 58 e n tries. The i n a u g u r a l m e e t i n g o f t h e J a p a n C l u b o f D j a k a r t a — a s o r t o f m i n i - J a p a n e s e C h a m b e r o f Commerce a n d I n d u s t r y i n D j a k a r t a — t o o k p l a c e i n l a t e A p r i l I 9 6 5, when 43 f i r m s r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e c l u b, a c c o r d i n g t o I t s o f f i c e record. ®^Out o f 6 9 2 J a p a n e s e l i v i n g I n I n d o n e s i a I n 1 9 6 3, 412 l i v e d I n D j a k a r t a, 1 7 0 I n Medan b u t o n l y 30 i n S u r a b a y a. See J a p a n, F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y, A sla n A f f a i r s B u re a u, e d., I n d o n e s h l a K yô w ak o k u b e n r a n ( T o k y o: N ih o n K o k u s a i Mondai K enkyujo, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 170. I n 1 9 7 0, 6 40 o u t o f a t o t a l o f 1,4 8 5 J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s l i v e d In D j a k a r t a, a c c o r d in g to i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from th e J a p a n e s e C o n s u l a t e - G e n e r a l, December 10, 1970. I n d o n e s h l a K y ô w ak ok u b e n r a n (1964), pp. 204-05. ®^For i 9 6 0, 1 9 6 1, 1 9 6 2, 1 9 6 3, a n d 1 9 6 4, s e e r e s p e c t i v e l y, J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Waga g a i k o no k i n k y o, n o. 5 ( 1 9 6 I ), p. 8 2; n o. 6 ( 1 9 6 2;% p 7 1 0 0; n o. 7 j ), p. 101; no. 8 (1 9 6 4 ), p. 95; and no. 8 (1 9 6 4 ), p. 96. S u k a r n o, S u k a r n o, An A u t o b i o g r a p h y a s T o l d t o C i n d y Adams ( I n d i a n a p o l i s, I n d i a n a: The B o b b s - M e r r i l l C o., I n c., 1965), p. 295. ^^ôda T a k l o, "Kokoro no a t a t a k a l s h i n no n l n g e n S u k a ru n o 3h i o I t a m u, " N ihon K e l z a l S h i n b u n. Ju n e 2 2, 1970. === [PDF page 72] === 62 liQ T h e D w i k o r a C a b i n e t f o r m e d on A u g u s t 2 7, 1 9 6 4, h a d 1 1 1 c a b i n e t p o s t s ( o r 92 m i n i s t e r i a l p o s i t i o n s p l u s 19 p o s i t i o n s o f m i n i s t e r i a l r a n k ). The c a b i n e t was r e s h u f f l e d on M a r c h 2 8, 1 9 66 a n d h a d 104 c a b i n e t p o s t s ( 8 7 d e p a r t m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p l u s 17 p o s t s o f m i n i s t e r i a l rank). C a l c u l a t e d from I n d o n e s i a, D e p artm en t o f I n f o r m a t i o n, Susunan K a b ln e t 1945-1970 ( D ja k a r t a: P radnja P a ra ra lta, 1 9 7 0 ), pp. 32-42. The c o u n t r i e s v i s i t e d w ere T u r k e y, P o l a n d, Sw eden, Denmark, t h e S o v i e t U n io n, H u n g ary, I t a l y, P o r t u g a l, S e n e g a l, B r a z i l, A r g e n ti n a, M exico, th e U n ite d S t a t e s, J a p a n, C am bodia, and N o rth V ie tn a m, I n t h i s o r d e r. See I n d o n e s h l a Kyôw akoku b e n r a n ( 1 9 6 4 ), p. 2 0 4. 43 205. F o r i n s t a n c e i n 1 9 6 6 some 2 2 3, 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n s v i s i t e d Ja p a n w h ile 55,000 J a p a n e s e v i s i t e d th e U n ite d S tates. See A sah i n enkan 1 9 6 9, p. 222. 44 L a p o r a n T ah u n an 1 9 6 6, p. 77. === [PDF page 73] === CHAPTER II FORMAL REPARATIONS NEGOTIATIONS AND THE KISHI-SUKARNO SETTLEMENT, 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 8 The P e a c e T r e a t y a n d t h e R ep aratio n s Agreem ent b e tw e e n J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s i a w ere s i g n e d on J a n u a r y and d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s reach th is stag e, tne o fficially 1958 b e g a n on A p r i l 1 5. two c o u n t r i e s h a d h a d t o c a r r y n e g o t i a t i o n s w hich h ad begun n e a r l y the 20, seven years e a r l i e r a t San F r a n c i s c o P eace C o n fe re n c e i n S ep tem b er 1951. I n d o n e s i a t h e s e were th e h eld, save th o se lo n g est n e g o tia tio n s o v e r t h e West I r i a n fro m 1945 t h r o u g h 1 9 6 2. in to the the A sian n a t i o n s. ^ territo ry For Japan to o, l e n g t h i e s t war r e p a r a t i o n s w hich l a s t e d they s t r e t c h e d talk s S e p t e m b e r 1 9 51 t o D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 7 r e v e a l s J a p a n 's in itia l sia, d i d n o t c o n s i d e r them s e r i o u s l y th at stip u la ted serv ices, th ird, from first, d esp ite Indone u n t i l m id-1 9 5 7; seco n d, w hile p ro lo n g in g th e n e g o ti a t i o n s, of the out had h e ld w ith com m itm ent t o p a y w ar r e p a r a t i o n s in te rp re ta tio n For had e v e r An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s p r o c e s s ib le on l o n g J a p a n made a f l e x San F r a n c i s c o P eace T r e a t y, w hich th a t th e re p a ra tio n s sh o u ld be in th e and d e c i d e d a l s o t o pay them i n Japan reduced I n d o n e s ia 's 63 form o f c a p ita l goods; o r i g i n a l c la im o f $17.5 and === [PDF page 74] === 64 b illio n $800 m i l l i o n latio n of In d o n e s ia 's the n e g o tia tio n s ( i n c l u d i n g econom ic a i d an d c a n c e l o u tstan d in g trad e a l s o shows t h a t d e b t). A survey of I n d o n e s ia 's p o s itio n changed from one dem anding r a p a r a t i o n s one r e q u e s t i n g them. B ehind th e scenes o f the n e g o tia tio n s seen th e ro le of the lobby ists, among whom w e r e f o r m e r w a r t i m e J a p a n e s e o f f i c e r s, prom inent in d u stria lists, and t h e i r In d o n esian f r ie n d s. T his p h ase o f in f o r m a l lo b b y in g w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I I. The E a r l y N e g o t i a t i o n T alks. 1951-1956 The S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e, S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 1 The S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e o f f e r e d J a p a n t h e o p p o rtu n ity to reg ain i t s p o sitio n m unity a f t e r the A llie d O ccu p atio n, o ffe re d In d onesia th e o p p o rtu n ity sta te o f war w i t h J a p a n. up c o n t r o v e r s y the la rg e st p o licy in the o p p o sitio n p a rty, term in ate th e p re v a ilin g th e J a p a n 's and t h a t co ncerned s o l e ly w ith the p r o t e c t i o n o fficial, and i t s P arty, newly p ro n o u n c e d f o r e i g n fo reig n com plaining t h a t P e o p le 's t h e P e a c e T r e a t y was o f A m erican i n t e r e s t s d o m in atio n o f Jap an. p e n d e n c e " a l s o was a t o d d s w i t h t h e ference, S o cialist the F ar E ast u n le s s th e R e p u b lic o f C hina were i n v i t e d, th e W estern P a c i f i c C onference s t i r r e d a d v o cated a n e u t r a l i s t and opposed th e Peace C o n fe re n c e, w ould n o t l e a d t o p e a c e i n The C o n f e r e n c e a l s o N onetheless, in both n a tio n s. I n t e r n a t i o n a l com p o licy of "activ e In d o n e s ia 's inde A m e r i c a n - c o n t r o l l e d Con a n d t h e r e was much d e b a t e b e f o r e t h e c o u n t r y d ecided to send a d e le g a tio n. I n d o n e s ia 's i n t e r n a l fin ally === [PDF page 75] === 65 p o l i t i c a l clim ate c ip atio n P arty in the a lso did not com pletely fa v o r i t s C onference and th e (PN I) p a r t i c u l a r l y In donesian N a tio n a lis t opposed i t. N ev erth eless, W e s t e r n - o r i e n t e d M asjum l P a r t y c a b i n e t W irjo san d jo jo f i n a l l y p a rti the l e d by Sukiman d e c i d e d on A u g u s t 24 t o s e n d a d e l e g a tio n. The U n i t e d S t a t e s o f the Peace T re a ty a t as th e s i t e drawn up. d id n o t want to d i s c u s s t h e the C o n fe re n ce b u t w anted o n ly t o use f o r sig n in g th e t r e a t y w hich a l r e a d y h a d been T h i s was t o w a r d o f f o p p o s i t i o n b y t h e b l o c, w hich th e U nited S ta te s m ight ham per th e p r o c e e d in g s and i t s o f the 1 9 5 1, whe n I n d o n e s i a r e c e i v e d t h e from th e U n ite d S t a t e s, o f which were a c c e p t e d. ^ in clu d e a sp ecific e reig n ty and th e C om m u n ist W estern a l l i e s C onference. feared On A u g u s t 6, d r a f t o f th e Peace T re a ty responded w ith fiv e r e q u e s ts, The f i r s t was t h a t that r ig h t to sov I n d o n e s i a be e n t i t l e d The U n i t e d S t a t e s two the tr e a ty cla u se re c o g n iz in g J a p a n 's second, ese re p a ra tio n s. co n ten t to Japan o b je c te d to In d o n e s ia 's r e q u e s t f o r a referen du m o f form er Japan ese te rrito rie s a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e y w i s h e d t o become p a r t o f In d o n esia. T his r e q u e s t I n d o n e s ia m ig h t have i n te n d e d as a s t r a t e g i c in i t s n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e D u t c h o v e r t h e d i s p u t e d W est Irian te rrito ry. Communist C h in a t o In d o n e s ia 's The U n i t e d S t a t e s a lso o b jected to in v itin g the and l a s t l y C onference, re q u e st to ho ld deb ates a t th e te x t o f the t r e a t y. step t u r n e d down C o n fe re n c e on th e === [PDF page 76] === 66 I n d o n e s i a r e c o g n i z e d C o m m u n is t C h i n a i n A p r i l 1950 and assum ed a n e u t r a l i s t p o s i t i o n a n d Burma. W h i l e I n d o n e s i a was d e b a t i n g w h e t h e r i t to San F r a n c i s c o, n o t go b u t s im ila r to th a t of In d ia I n d i a a n d Burma d e c l a r e d t h a t th e y w ould s i g n s e p a r a t e t h a t th e y would b i l a t e r a l peace t r e a t i e s w ith J a p a n, a d e c i s i o n w hich p r e s s u r e d fo llo w t i o n s betw een I n d o n e s i a and th e U n ite d S t a t e s th e d e c isiv e ro le th at th e N etherlands the p o s s ib le advantage T herefore, d eleg atio n but ordered i t unless Nor o f ag ain using West I r i a n areas t h e Sukim an C a b in e t s e n t a In t h is way I n d o n e s i a u n favorable re a c tio n s t h e same t i m e t r i e d from a t t e n d o nly and n o t to s i g n th e la te r in stru cted. to av o id p o s s ib ly the U nited t h a n two y e a r s e a r l i e r. to re g a in the d is p u te d from th e N e t h e r l a n d s. co u ld n o t ig n o re " tra n s fe r of so v ereig n ty " Ind o n esia le s s co u ld In d o n e sia n e g le c t A m erican i n f l u e n c e co rd ial r e la th e l a t t e r had p lay ed in N ations in b r in g in g about th e and a t In d o n esia to su it. The S u k i m a n C a b i n e t i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e trea ty s h o u l d go sa tisfy trie d by I n d i a a n d Burma th e w h i c h was e a g e r f o r a s many p a r t i c i p a n t s U nited S t a t e s, as p o s s ib l e. On S e p t e m b e r 6 t h e e x e c u t i v e c o m m itte e o f t h e M asjumi P arty, the m a jo rity p a r ty, favor of sig n in g trea ty by s e v e n t e e n v o t e s t o second stro n g e st p a rty, s ig n in g the t r e a t y. a ls o m eeting t h a t decided in The f o l l o w i n g d a y t h e t h e PN I, v o te d u n a n im o u s ly a g a i n s t F in ally, day, fo u rteen. the t h e M a j u m i —c o n t r o l l e d voted f o r s ig n in g, six teen cab in et, to s i x, w ith === [PDF page 77] === 67 w i t h a l l t h e PNI m i n i s t e r s opposed. Subardjo t h u s was in s tr u c te d to sig n the t r e a ty. In d o n e sia used th e over J a p a n 's re p a ra tio n s.^ C onference to i n i t i a t e n eg o tiatio n s P r i o r t o a s p e e c h by t h e Indonesia d e l e g a t i o n h e a d. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r Ahmad S u b a r d j o, i n w h i c h h e stated I n d o n e s ia 's p o s i t i o n on t h e asked th e U nited S ta te s Peace T r e a ty, fo r assurance of J a p a n 's Indonesia payment o f rep aratio n s. A li S a s t r o a m i d j o j o, t h e n Am bassador t o U nited S t a t e s, s p o k e w i t h Dean R u s k, t h e n A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y of S tate f o r F a r E a s t e r n A f f a i r s, who s a i d t h a t r e g a r d i n g payment o f r e p a r a t i o n s gested th a t the the the d e c is io n r e s t e d w ith J a p a n and su g In d o n e s ia n d e l e g a t i o n m eet w ith th e J a p a n e s e. The U n i t e d S t a t e s d id n o t want t o g u aran tee, h a d n o d a t a on how much d a m a g e w a s c a u s e d for i t c o m m it i t s e l f y e t i n I n d o n e s ia d u r in g th e war hoped t h a t th is J a p a n w ould n o t have t o p a y much b e c a u s e t h a t w o u l d mean m o r e A m e r i c a n a i d t o Japan. The J a p a n e s e d e l e g a t i o n a p p e a r e d r e l u c t a n t m eetin g, deem ing t h a t th ey w anted to talk. Indonesians s h o u l d come t o t h e m i f The I n d o n e s i a n d e l e g a t i o n was t h e J a p a n e s e who s h o u l d come a n d t a l k, who w e r e i n the s u b o rd in a te p o s i t i o n. to R u sk 's p r e s s u r e. In d o n esian s a t Y oshida d id d e l i v e r a p le d g e t o pay r e p a r a t i o n s as i t was t h e y How ever, p e rh a p s due t h e i r h o t e l on S e p t e m b e r from th e Ja p a n e se governm ent to In d o n esia, but th e re o f th e amount o f t h e paym ent e i t h e r C onference « thought t h a t Prim e M i n i s t e r Y o s h id a S h i g e r u and h i s p a r t y went t o se e th e the to have a in th is was n o d i s c u s s i o n m eeting o r in th e === [PDF page 78] === 68 On S e p t e m b e r 6 I n t h e C onference S u b ard jo d e liv e r e d a s p e e c h I n w hich he s t r e s s e d the im p o rtan ce o f Jap an ese rep aratio n s to a peace tr e a ty He s a i d; th a t, as a p r e r e q u i s i te subsequent w i l l be a b le set to o b ta in th e assurance the c o n c lu sio n o f th e Peace T r e a ty, provided in th e Peace th e te r m s u n d e r w hich J a p a n w i l l pay f o r war damages Ind o n esia, and an a g re e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g f i s h i n g and f i s h e rie s." He d e c l a r e d f u r t h e r t h a t g reatly i n f l u e n c e my g o v e r n m e n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g i t s J a p a n 's response re g a rd to th e s ig n in g o f the t r e a t y. " asked the Japanese the a sep arate, agreem ent w ith I n d o n e s ia, am ounts and s p e c i f i c term s Y oshida a c c e p te d a l l of In d o n e s ia 's o f paym ent. Indonesia a n tic ip a te d th at some way w o u l d o v e r s e e J a p a n ' s felt p o sitio n in d e le g a tio n w h e th er im m ed iately fo llo w in g la te r a l rep aratio n s For in s ta n c e. I a llie s the Prim e M i n i s t e r dem ands.? th e U nited S ta te s rep aratio n s f r o m J a p a n i n t h e sa m e way i t paym ents t o Am bassador t o G re a t B r i t a i n secure re p a ra tio n s stip u la tin g help s Indon Subandrio t h a t th e U n ite d S t a t e s m ight h e lp I n d o n e s i a t o rep aratio n s "w ill S u b jard jo then d i r e c tl y P eace C o n fe re n c e J a p a n would n e g o t i a t e esia. to c o n c lu d e an a g re e m e n t w ith J a p a n w hich w i l l out in g r e a te r d e t a i l th an is T rea ty, governm ent w ish es w ith Ja p a n.^ its secure W o r l d War f r o m Germ any b y f o r m u l a t i n g t h e Dawes P l a n i n 1 92 4 a n d t h e thus In d o n e s ia sh o u ld have sig n e d th e Peace T reaty f e lt th at Young P l a n i n 1 9 2 9. ® t h a t would have p u t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s p o sitio n of g u a ra n te e in g J a p a n 's Subandrio i n a more l i k e l y rep aratio n s p ay m en ts.9 === [PDF page 79] === 69 The D j u a n d a M i s s i o n, D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 1 - J a n u a r y 195 2 A fte r the iately San F r a n c i s c o was o b l i g e d Ind o n esia. P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e, J a p a n immed to open r e p a r a t i o n s At t h e C onference F o re ig n M s t a t e d t h a t t h e damage and s u f f e r i n g d u r i n g th e w ar am ounted t o a l o s s and " b i l l i o n s of d o lla rs." m ated I n d o n e s i a 's n e g o tia tio n s w ith In d o n e s ia 's first c a u s e d by t h e J a p a n e s e o f four m illio n Indonesians L a te r th e damages a t i s t e r S u b a rd jo had D juanda M iss io n e s t i $17.5 b i l l i o n. r e p a r a t i o n s m i s s i o n was h e a d e d by D ju an d a K a r t a w i d j a j a, M i n i s t e r o f C om m unications and l a t e r Prim e M i n i s t e r, January 18, a n d was i n T o ky o f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 5, 1 95 2 t o i n v e s t i g a t e J a p a n 's econom ic c o n d i t i o n s and to ascertain its n esia. W hile t h e M i s s i o n was e v a l u a t i n g J a p a n ' s goods and i n d u s t r i a l th at c ap a b ility t o pay r e p a r a t i o n s fa c ilitie s, o f r e p a r a t i o n s paym ent. c a p i t a l goods c o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n t h e o f th e Japanese p eo p le" Indo c ap ita l s u g g e s t e d on D e c e m b e r 22 th e goods and use o f th e i n d u s t r i a l sid ered p art 1951 t o as s t i p u l a t e d fa c ilitie s be con argued th a t J a p a n 's category of "serv ices A rticle l4 o f th e San F r a n c i s c o P e a ce T r e a t y. The I n d o n e s i a n s made a g e n e r a l d e m a n d o f $ 1 7. 5 b i l l i o n in rep a ra tio n s i n c a p i t a l goods and s e r v i c e s. Y o shida governm ent i n t e r p r e t e d A r t i c l e 14 l i t e r a l l y o pposed th e paym ent o f war d e b ts th ro u g h in g th a t J a p a n 's its goods and i n d u s t r i e s econom ic r e c o v e r y. $17.5 b i l l i o n n early th e and c a p ita l goods, argu were i n d i s p e n s a b l e reg ard ed I n d o n e s ia 's f a r too h ig h, In r e p l y, d e m a nd o f eq u al to J a p a n 's 1952 === [PDF page 80] === 70 G ross N a tio n a l P ro d u c t o f $17.39 b i l l i o n. Japan th a t y ear had fo re ig n In a d d itio n, currency re s e rv e s o f only $9 79 m i l l i o n, w i t h e x p o r t s w o r t h $1, 2 7 3 m i l l i o n a n d i m p o r t s w o r t h $2,028 m i l l i o n. I n had re s e rv e s In d o n e s ia 's co n tra st, a t t h e end o f 1951 I n d o n e s i a o f $511 m i l l i o n and i n 1 9 5 2, demand f o r $ 1 7.5 b i l l i o n was i n f l a t e d. Many J a p a n e s e in rep aratio n s lead ers D ir e c t o r o f th e A sian A f f a ir s $31 4 m i l l i o n. 1^ obviously e v e n a g r e e d w i t h W a jim a Bureau and a p r i n c i p a l n e g o t i a t o r w i t h t h e D j u a n d a M i s s i o n, who t h o u g h t t h a t J a p a n s h o u l d n o t h a v e t o pay any r e p a r a t i o n s as i t never a ctu ally f o u g h t w i t h I n d o n e s i a. 1^ The D J u n d a M i s s i o n h a d come t o a s t a l e m a t e. 1^ a r e m i n d e r by W ajim a t h a t J a p a n h a d made n o w r i t t e n ment o f t h e e x a c t amount o f r e p a r a t i o n s, who h a d f l o w n i n c o n ta c te d the com m it A li S a stro a m id jo jo, from W ashington to a s s i s t t h e M is s io n, U nited S ta te s Embassy i n Tokyo. U. A l e x i s J o h n s o n, D i r e c t o r o f t h e O f f i c e A ffa irs, o f N o r t h e a s t A sian who s a i d t h a t h e w o u l d r e f e r t h e m a t t e r t o t h e c is c o Peace C onference p ro c e e d in g s. J a p a n i n d e e d h a d made no w r i t t e n rep lied affirm ativ ely comm itm ent o f am ount b u t h a d to In d o n e s ia 's demand f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s a s w e l l a s on w a r d e b t s, the Japanese G o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e r e b e some a g r e e m e n t, o f f s e t a com plete to h is San F r a n A fter lea rn in g th a t on f i s h e r i e s p arties then He m e t w i t h S t a t e D epartm ent and r e q u e s t a re - e x a m in a tio n o f t h e A fter Johnson su g g e ste d to only failu re by t h e M i s s i o n. He i n v i t e d b o t h own r e s i d e n c e f o r an e v e n in g, a n d on J a n u a r y 1 7, 1 9 5 2, an i n t e r i m a g r e e m e n t was w r i t t e n Just before the === [PDF page 81] === 71 o th erw ise in te rim u n s u c c e s s f u l D juanda M iss io n l e f t Japan. a g r e e m e n t was o n l y p r o v i s i o n a l h o w e v e r, w aitin g fo r th e o th e r claim an t n a tio n s T his a s J a p a n was in S o u th e a s t A sia to su b m it t h e i r demands. On A p r i l 1952 W ilo p o, b e l o n g i n g t o t h e PNI, s u c c e e d e d P rim e M i n i s t e r Sukim an o f t h e M asjum i P a r t y. May 17 W i l o p o p o s t p o n e d i n d e f i n i t e l y the r a t i f i c a t i o n San F r a n c is c o Peace T re a ty and e n d o rs e d t h e tio n s th e agreem ent. first o f the repara T hus t h e D j u a n d a M i s s i o n was d i s b a n d e d a n d found o f n e g o t i a t i o n s ted a se p a ra te, in te rim b i l a t e r a l peace ended. I n d o n e s i a now s u p p o r treaty fo llo w in g I n d i a 's and B u rm a's e x a m p le s. s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t J o h n M. A l l i s o n was A m bassador t o J a p a n fro m 1953 t o 1 9 56 w h i l e the r e p a r a t i o n s t a l k s b e tw e e n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a were i n p r o g r e s s. February 1957 t o F e b r u a r y In d o n esia. T his i n v i t e s 1958, the A l l i s o n was A m b a s s a d o r t o s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t A l l i s o n m ight h a v e a c t e d a s m e d i a t o r b e tw e e n t h e two p a r t i e s h im s e lf den ies ial F ro m a l t h o u g h he I n 1971 an A m e ric an g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c in D jak arta to ld th is w r i t e r t h a t h e t h o u g h t t h a t Ambas sad o r A lliso n had m ain tained c lo se The n e x t f i v e y e a r s, c o n ta c t w ith both s id e s. f r o m 1 9 52 t o 1 9 5 6, saw many changes d u r in g th e n e g o t i a t i o n s betw een Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia. I n 1954 J a p a n s e t t l e d on a p a y m e n t o f $200 m i l l i o n t o B u r m a, i n 1 9 5 6 o n a p a y m e n t o f $5 50 m i l l i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s, th at i n sa m e y e a r I n d o n e s i a p r o p o s e d a s e t t l e m e n t m illio n f o r w a r d a m a g e s a n d $250 m i l l i o n in lo an s. o f $5 50 and === [PDF page 82] === 72 J a p a n 's R e - I n te r p r e ta tlo n D u rin g 1952 l i t t l e tia tio n s although of A rtic le 14 a f t e r O c t o b e r 1952 p r o g r e s s was made i n t h e n e g o t h e J a p a n e s e made some c o n c e s s i o n s. O cto b er F o re ig n M i n i s t e r Okazaki K atsuo s t a t e d 'p o lic y speech t h a t J a p a n 's rep aratio n s in a fo re ig n s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d on a p o l i t i c a l l e v e l and t h a t J a p a n w ould be f l e x i b l e in te rp retatio n o f "the s e r v ic e s A fter th is of th e its Japanese p e o p le."^? c o n c e s s i o n was a n n o u n c e d, W ajim a E i j i w a s s e n t i n November t o S o u t h e a s t A s i a t o d e t e r m i n e a tio n s th ese n a tio n s 's repar d e m a n d s b u t was n o t s u c c e s s f u l. ^ ® I n O c t o b e r I 9 53 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r O k a z a k i h i m s e l f w e n t t o M anila, Rangoon, and D ja k a r ta. category B esides th e of "serv ices" in clu sio n c a p i t a l goods i n the p e rio d of ten to tw e n ty y e a r s, he o f f e r e d r e p a r a t i o n s ^ ^ l l l o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s, $60 m i l l i o n m illio n to In d o n esia. and a payment o f $250 t o B u r m a, a n d $ 12 5 On O c t o b e r 3 w h i l e in D ja rk a rta, F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r O kazaki t a l k e d w ith Prim e M i n i s t e r A li S a s t r o a m i d j o j o who now c l a i m e d $ 1 7. 2 exact fig u re c o u ld n o t be r e a c h e d, d r a w up a b i l a t e r a l a tio n s peace trea ty paym ents o v e r t e n t o ^ th o u g h an t h e tw o l e a d e r s and t o agreed to schedule th e r e p a r tw enty y e a r s. Soon a f t e r th is m eetin g th e A li C abinet d is p a tc h e d a second f a c t - f i n d i n g m issio n to Japan. H eaded by S u d a r s o n o, P a c i f i c B ureau o f th e F o re ig n M i n i s t r y, determ in e J a p a n 's reach cap acity th is m i s s i o n was t o t o meet I n d o n e s i a ' s a n i n t e r i m a g r e e m e n t on J a p a n ' s vessels C h ie f o f th e A sia and sunk in I n d o n e s i a n w a t e r s. demands an d t o assistan ce N eg o tiatio n s salv ag in g on t h e === [PDF page 83] === 73 s a l v a g i n g o f s u n k e n s h i p s b e g a n on November 2 a n d w e re l e d by S u d a r s o n o a n d Dno K a t s u m i, try. C ounselor in th e F o re ig n M inis Two w e e k s l a t e r a n i n t e r i m a g r e e m e n t was made a n d S u d a r s o n o w ent b a c k t o I n d o n e s i a on November 2 4. On D e c e m b e r 10 S u d a r s o n o r e t u r n e d t o J a p a n t o s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t on D e c e m b e r 16 w i t h O kum ura K a t s u z o, a v i c e - m i n i s t e r i n t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y. On M a rch 1 7, in terim 1954 t h e Japanese D iet r a t i f i e d a g r e e m e n t on s h i p s a l v a g i n g a n d a w a i t e d i t s ra tific a tio n. c o -s ig n e r's The I n d o n e s i a g o v e r n m e n t was n o t s a t i s f i e d t h e a g r e e m e n t, h o w e v e r, a n d n e v e r moved t o in sisted th e ratify t h a t t h e e x a c t amount o f r e p a r a t i o n s d e te r m in e d and c lu n g t o its first s h o u l d be o r i g i n a l demand o f $ 1 7.5 b i l l i o n. The O n o - S u d a r s o n o t a l k s send a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e itZ O w ith i n November 1953 a g r e e d t o o f th e J a p a n e s e governm ent t o D j a k a r t a to m a in ta in c l o s e r t i e s w ith th e I n d o n e s ia n g o vernm ent. W a j im a E i J i was s e l e c t e d a n d w e n t t o D j a k a r t a on J a n u a r y 4, 1954 a s a s p e c i a l e n v o y t o n e g o t i a t e tio n s betw een J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a. to d iscu ss the re p a ra tio n s dip lo m atic r e la tio n s rep aratio n s of a ll 21 th at to e s t a b l i s h s in c e Japan had should not have to pay In d o n e sia had taken p o ss e s sio n th e Japanese had b ro u g h t d u rin g th e w ar. should p rovide H i s d u t y was n o t o n l y argum ent t h a t fu rth erm o re, the m a te ria ls relaw ith In d o n e s ia. fought w ith In d o n e s ia, and, d ip lo m atic i s s u e s b u t was a l s o W a jim a c o n t i n u e d h i s not a ctu ally fu tu re governm ent and p e o p le H i s p o s i t i o n was t h a t J a p a n some a s s i s t a n c e as a g e s tu r e of r e g r e t fo r the m e n ta l a n g u i s h — n o t t h e p h y s i c a l damage— t h a t J a p a n m ig h t === [PDF page 84] === 75 71 have caused by occupying Indonesia for three and a half years, ïhis was not solely Kajima's view. Although ïoshida had prom ised at San Francisco that Japan would pay reparations to Indonesia, many Japanese p o litical and business leaders dis agreed over whether Japan should have to pay reparations at a ll. Prime Minister Yoshida fe lt that Japan should pay but that there was no hurry. A special envoy, Ogata Taketora, visited Southeast Asia in the spring of 1552 and upon his return urged that Japan should adopt a wait-and-see position regarding this p o litically unstable area, rather than quickly settlin g the reparations. In February 1553 being urged by a member of the Diet to speed up reparations settlements with Southeast Asia, Prime Minister Yoshida answered that the damages in flicted up on Asia by several years of war with Japan could not be repaired immediately despite Japan's willingness to do so.^^ Obviously Japan had no intention of hastening the settlem ent. Ihe Japanese government also fe lt that i f reparations to Indonesia were paid at a ll they should be paid through com mercial loans and private investment. Ihese plus the exchange of Japanese imports for Indonesian raw materials would develop hinted that i t would refuse to pay its |15 m illion trade debt to Japan. 25 On June 30 when Indonesia actually stated its refusal, Japan began considering restrictio ns on imports from Indonesia. In early July Indonesia proposed talks on the trade debt issue, thereby complicating the reparations issue even further, Indonesia's p o litical climate continued to be unstable and constructive discussion was impossible. The Afro-Asian Conference, held in Bandung in April 1555) provided a new opportunity for the two governments to discuss these issues. Takasaki Tatsunosuke, head of the Japanese delegation, held talks with Indonesia's Foreign M inister Sunario, also a leader of the PHI. Takasaki pressed for a more re a listic reparations claim in view of Japan's economic condition. He reportedly remarked that Japan's payment to Indonesia would be somewhere between those to the Philippines and Burma. In April 1554 Burma had concluded a separate, b ila te ra l peace treaty with Japan and had agreed to compensation of $200 m illion, $20 m illion annually for ten years starting in April 1555, Negotiations between Japan and the Philippines at that time were approaching an agreement in which Japan would pay $550 m illion over twenty years. the Indonesian economy by means of Japanese technology and capital. Therefore Wajima did not negotiate seriously with (4) Indonesia's Demand of |1 Billion in April 1555 Indonesia except to try to persuade i t to lower its claim come at least for Japan as Indonesia's reparations claim from |17,5 b illio n. This, not unexpectedly, irrita te d Indo dropped drastically from $17.5 billio n to $1 b illio n. But nesia and early in 1554 i t began tightening the residence this was s t i l l too high for Japan. Indonesia became anxious requirements for Japanese nationals living in Indonesia and The Takasaki-Sunario talks had a more positive out without a settlement in sight, without which its economic === [PDF page 85] === 76 d e v e lo p m e n t w ould be d e l a y e d, and th e n th e A ll C a b in e t f e l l. The s u c c e e d i n g c a b i n e t was f o r m e d on A u g u s t 1 2, B u rhanuddin H a rah a p, in te reste d se ttlem en t. sta te d th a t n e g o tiatio n s the r e s u l t s refra in e d o f th e l e a d e r o f t h e M asjum i P a r t y, i n an e a r l y 27 a n d was Prim e M i n i s t e r H arahap s h o u l d be re s u m e d w i t h o u t w a i t i n g f o r general e le ctio n s from r e f e r r i n g t o on S e p t e m b e r 29 a n d I n d o n e s i a ' s new c l a i m o f $1 b i l lio n. In th e fall o f 19 5 5 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r I d e Anak Agung Gde A g u n g, o r Anak A g u n g, d e l i v e r e d a new r e p a r a t i o n s p o s a l to th e H arahap C a b in e t. th an th e P h ilip p in e s trad e $2 0 0 m i l l i o n, w orth 27 though, i t as w e ll as c a p i t a l goods w orth a n d l o a n s o f $70 m i l l i o n, B efore th e H arahap C ab in et f e l l on March 2 6, serv ices to ta lin g co u ld d e cid e $800 on t h i s, 1956. A f t e r J a p a n made a r e p a r a t i o n s P h ilip p in es In d o n e s ia 's c o n s u m e r g o o d s w o r t h $300 m i l l i o n, $50 m i l l i o n, m illio n. The a m o u n t s h o u l d n o t be l e s s c la im and w ould i n c l u d e d e b t o f $1 80 m i l l i o n, pro agreem ent w ith th e p a i d more a t t e n t i o n t o i t s 28 n e g o tia tio n s w ith In d o n e s ia. I n May W a j im a a n d S u k a r d j o trie d i n May 1 9 5 6, i t to d isc u ss th e In d o n esia in s is te d term s o f p ay m e n t b u t t o no a v a i l a s th a t Japan f i r s t m e n t, w hich J a p a n w ould n o t do. back to T okyo f o r f u r t h e r sta te the amount o f p a y I n J u n e W ajim a was summoned c o n su ltatio n s. The J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t o u t l i n e d a new p r o p o s a l w h i c h w o u l d p u t t h e b etw een th e P h ilip p in es' w ould pay th e rep aratio n s t o t a l amount and B u rm a 's s e t t l e m e n t s, w hich th e form o f c a p i t a l goods and === [PDF page 86] === 77 serv ices, and w hich m ig h t i n c l u d e Japan as p a rt of th e rep aratio n s m a l l y d e c i d e d t o demand a t l e a s t paym ent. Upon h i s retu rn I n d o n e s ia 's tra d e talk s. Ind o n esia in f o r a s much a s t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o D j a k a r t a on A u g u st l 6, s t a t e d t h a t J a p a n w o u ld pay $250 m i l l i o n tio n s but th a t i t w ould n o t debt to W a j im a in war i n d e m n i f i c a c an cel I n d o n e s ia 's trad e debt of claim f o r the $ 18 0 m i l l i o n. At t h i s p o in t, same a m o u n t a s t h e o f $400 t o I n d o n e s ia w ithdrew i t s P h ilip p in e s receiv ed $ 50 0 m i l l i o n. i n th e term s o f the There s t i l l lo a n s and th e and t a l k e d i n te rm s w e r e s o many d i f f e r e n c e s trad e debt se ttlem e n t th a t W ajim a' 3 n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h M aram is, D i r e c t o r o f th e A s ia and P acific B ureau, did n o t p r o g re s s. p o litic a l situ atio n became m uddled a s Prim e M i n i s t e r H a to y am a ’ s c o n tro v e rsial e ffo rts th e In t h e m eantim e J a p a n ' s to e sta b lis h d ip lo m atic r e la tio n s S o v i e t Union h a d c a u s e d f i g h t i n g w i t h i n o v e r who s h o u l d b e h i s pone th e F in ally rep aratio n s successor. talk s u n til o f a sudden i l l n e s s, a new c a b i n e t was f o r m e d. Ish ib ash i on D e c e m b e r 2 3, I 9 5 6. Tanzan, Because h o w e v e r. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r K is h i Nobusuke s u c c e e d e d I s h i b a s h i on F e b r u a r y 2 5, em ergence as Prim e M i n i s t e r, talk s p arty W a jim a was f o r c e d t o p o s t a s u c c e s s o r t o H a t o y a m a was c h o s e n, a n d h e s e l e c t e d a new c a b i n e t the r u l i n g w ith 1957 and w ith K i s h i ' s the p ro sp ects o f the r e p a r a tio n s turned b r ig h te r. K ishi and th e R ep aratio n s A g r e e m e n t o f 1958 The K i s h i g o v e r n m e n t t o o k a m o r e s e r i o u s tow ard th e rep aratio n s issu e than the p re v io u s a ttitu d e governm ents === [PDF page 87] === 78 had. The i m p o r t a n c e o f im proving J a p a n 's r e l a t i o n s w ith S o u th e a s t A sia o f t e n had been d e b a te d in and out o f govern ment c i r c l e s, b u t now t h a t J a p a n h a d r e s t o r e d d ip lo m atic rela tio n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t Union and h a d e n t e r e d t h e U n i t e d N atio n s, the tim e seem ed r i p e Japan s t i l l t o make p e a c e w i t h I n d o n e s i a. co nsidered i t s r e l a t i o n s w ith the r e s t A sia as o f only se c o n d a ry im p o rta n c e, reg ard in g i t s w ith the its to its U n ite d S t a t e s a s param ount t o economy. tow ard th e But in o r d e r to U nites S ta te s, m arket f o r Jap an ese e x p o rts resources as w e ll as i t s c o n tin u e d t o be a g r e a t a n d i t was i n J a p a n ' s and to prom ote i t s necessary to re s to re presence In d o n e s ia 's p o t e n t i a l l y larg e rich n atu ral a ttra c tio n 195 6 I n d o n e s i a h a d a c c u m u l a t e d a t r a d e m illio n, d e fe n se as w e ll as and to e n la r g e J a p a n 's i n th e o t h e r A sian c o u n t r i e s. rela tio n s stre n g th e n J a p a n 's p o s itio n K is h i found i t norm al d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s to Japan. d e b t t o Ja p a n o f $l80 in te r e s t to se ttle th is debt ex p o rts. I n 1 9 5 7 I n d o n e s i a a p p e a r e d a s e a g e r a s J a p a n was t o se ttle th e war r e p a r a t i o n s d e te r io r a te d as th e cam paign f o r i t s problem. I n d o n e s i a ' s e co n o m y governm ent i n t e n s i f i e d te rrito ria l its an ti-D u tch c l a i m t o W e st I r i a n. c u r r e n c y h o l d i n g s h a d d r o p p e d from $511 m i l l i o n i n Its fo reig n 1951 t o $2 55 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 5 6. By 1 9 5 7 o n l y I n d o n e s i a a n d S o u t h V ie tn a m h a d n o t a g r e e d upon t h e i r war d e b t n o t to In d o n e s ia 's and t o d e la y th e from J a p a n. I t was advantage to p ro lo n g th e s e n e g o tia tio n s u tiliz a tio n o f th e rep aratio n s. T herefore, === [PDF page 88] === 79 1 95 7 t a l k s began ag ain a lth o u g h urgency h ad weakened i t s I n d o n e s ia 's feelin g b arg ain in g p o s itio n. J a p a n ' s O f f e r o f $2 0 0 M i l l i o n a n d I n d o n e s i a ' s Demand o f $4 0 0 M i l l i o n p l u s t h e C a n c e l l a t i o n o f T r a d e D e b t, J a n u a r y - J u l y 1 9 57 On J a n u a r y 16, 19 57 P r i m e M i n i s t e r A l i a g r e e d w i t h W a j im a t h a t f o r m a l n e g o t i a t i o n s s h o u l d b e h e l d a t t h e m i n i s terial lev e l. On F e b r u a r y 5 W ajim a s u b m i t t e d t o the Indo n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t a n o f f e r o f $2 00 m i l l i o n i n r e p a r a t i o n s $ 10 0 m i l l i o n i n l i e u of In d o n e s ia 's d eb t, $ 50 0 m i l l i o n i n n o n - g o v e r n m e n ta l econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n, p l u s $70 m i l l i o n i n governm ent l o a n s, O n the f o llo w in g day I n d o n e s i a / s M in istry re v is e d th e o f f e r to $1 10 m i l l i o n i n o m ic a i d, trad e and $300 m i l l i o n i n r e p a r a t i o n s, liew of the tra d e a n d $60 m i l l i o n i n F oreign d eb t, $5 00 m i l l i o n i n e c o n l o a n s. O n M i n i s t e r A l i made a p r o p o s a l s i m i l a r t o February 26 P r i m e the F o reig n M in is tr y 's, e x c e p t t h a t h e l o w e r e d t h e e c o n o m i c a i d a l l o t m e n t t o $4 0 0 34 m illio n. W a jim a d i d n o t a c c e p t t h e $3 0 0 m i l l i o n i n r e p a r a tio n s a n d s t o o d by h i s o r i g i n a l o f f e r o f $200 m i l l i o n. O n M a rch 8 P r i m e M i n i s t e r A l i a m e n d e d h i s in rep aratio n s proposal to $250 m i l l i o n a n d $450 m i l l i o n i n e c o n o m i c c o o p e r a t i o n, ^ ® b u t on M arch 13 t h e A l i C abinet c o l l a p s e d. A new c a b i n e t was f o r m e d o n A p r i l 9, h e a d e d by D juanda K a r ta w i d j a j a w ith S u b an d rio as The D j u a n d a C a b i n e t, th e sid e w h i c h f i r s t m e t on May 3, p r o p o s a l s u b m i t t e d by t h e p r e v i o u s B ecause t h i s the the F o reig n M in is te r. cab in et 1957, endorsed on M a r c h 8. e n d o r s e m e n t h a d e n c o u n t e r e d much o p p o s i t i o n o u t c a b i n e t, how ever, th e D juanda C a b in e t l a t e r d e c id e d === [PDF page 89] === 80 t o r e - e x a m i n e t h e p r o p o s a l a n d summoned b a c k f r o m Tokyo i t s C onsul-G eneral, Iskandar Ishak. On J u l y one r e q u e s t e d 2 still an o th er p ro p o s a l was i s s u e d: th is $4 00 m i l l i o n i n r e p a r atio n s i n econom ic a i d w hich w ould i n c l u d e d eb t to Japan. T h is r e p r e s e n t e d an a n d $400 m i l l i o n In d o n esia’ s trad e i n c r e a s e o f $1 0 0 m i l l i o n over the p re v io u s p ro p o s a l. retu rn ed to 8 and on J u l y T ok y o o n J u l y D juanda p r o p o s a l to of the D juanda C a b in e t had n o t invo lv ed o f I n d o n e s i a ' s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s, w h i c h on p rev io u s o ccasio n s had su b m itted a l i s t in e t p o sts. 13 d e l i v e r e d t h e Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i. The s e l e c t i o n the p a r t i c i p a t i o n Ishak T his tim e t h e m i n i s t e r s o f nom inees f o r c a b in the D juanda C a b in e t h a d b e e n c h o s e n by P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o h i m s e l f i n a d r i v e t o co n so lid ate h is pow er. A lth o u g h Prim e M i n i s t e r D ju an d a h a d w ide know ledge o f an d e x p e r i e n c e i n econom ic p l a n n i n g. d e n t Sukarno d e c id e d to h a n d le th e r e p a r a t i o n s He p r e s e n t e d t h e issu e to th e chairm an, C abinet.^® Japanese a n d t h e n d r e w up a p r o p o s a l o f h i s A bdulgani, p arty 12, 19 57 a s a p o l i c y But w i t h S u k a r n o a s i t s t h e C o u n c i l b e c a m e m o re p o w e r f u l t h a n Sukarno s t u d i e d both th e th e lead ers. was s e n t t o the C a b i n e t. issue th e C ab in et. In d o n e sia n term s own w h i c h h e a s k e d R o e s l a n to d is c u s s w ith C ouncil e n d o rsed h i s p r o p o s a l, W a j im a E i j i ' s p o s i t i o n th e re p a ra tio n s and t h e v ic e - c h a ir m a n and o t h e r s A fte r the issu e him self. N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l (Dewan Nas i o n - w hich h a d b een form ed on J u l y a d v iso ry board to th e P resi as th e c h i e f n e g o t i a t o r o f was t a k e n o v e r i n late J u l y by T a k a g i === [PDF page 90] === 81 H iro ich i, t h e new C o n s u l - G e n e r a l t o T a k a g i h a d s e r v e d f r o m 19 5 5 t o a tio n s D iv isio n o f th e In d o n esia. 1957, as C h ief o f the R epar A sian A f f a i r s Bureau i n th e F o re ig n M in istry and had han d led the r e p a r a t i o n s and th e P h i l i p p i n e s. began n e g o tia tio n s th ere Upon h i s P reviously p a y m e n t s t o Burm a a r r i v a l in D ja k a rta Takagi i n a r a t h e r a l o o f f a s h i o n, know ing t h a t s t i l l was n o c o n s e n s u s among J a p a n e s e le a d e rs as w h e th e r o r n o t t h e i r c o u n tr y s h o u ld pay r e p a r a t i o n s 40 n esia. He t o l d t h i s w r i t e r t h a t h e e v e n t o l d t h e governm ent t h a t Japanese, In d o n esian s concluded t h a t in In d o n e sia, d ecisio n. an a t t i t u d e Takagi fav o rab le to the a sw ift s e ttle m e n t o f the r e p a ra tio n s i s s u e w o u l d be a d v a n t a g e o u s t o itie s to a C om m unists w ere g a i n i n g p o w e r. D e s p i t e c o l d r e c e p t i o n g i v e n t o h i m by t h e n e w s p a p e r s, p e r c e i v e d among t h e Indo- Indonesian Ja p a n d id n o t want t o pay r e p a r a t i o n s c o u n tr y i n w hich th e the J a p a n 's and urged h i s f u t u r e econom ic a c t i v governm ent t o h a s t e n its lip S ix y e a rs a f t e r the San F r a n c i s c o P eace C o n fe re n c e i n w hich Y o sh id a had c o m m itted J a p a n t o p a y in g r e p a r a t i o n s to In d o n esia, Japan s t i l l w ould pay them. o th er sources But w ith T a k a g i ' s u r g i n g and p r e s s u r e from (w hich w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e fo llo w in g chap J a p a n b e g a n t o move t o w a r d a s e t t l e m e n t. On S e p t e m b e r 1957 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S u b a n d r i o s t o p p e d i n T okyo e n r o u t e ter), 18, had n o t d ecid ed w hether o r n o t i t to th e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n New Y o r k a n d t a l k e d w i t h Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i, e m p h a s i z i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t of J a p a n 's rep aratio n s on t h e Indonesians and m en tio n in g === [PDF page 91] === 82 th eir grow ing i n t e r e s t nology. in J a p a n 's K ishi in re p ly advanced i n d u s t r i a l tech su g g e ste d a t o p - l e v e l m eetin g t o cuss the issu e The K o b a y a s h i P r o p o s a l a n d H a t t a ' s V i s i t t o T o k y o, S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r 1957 and r e q u e s t e d t h a t Sukarno v i s i t Ja p a n. A f te r S u b a n d rio 's try asked Kobayashi A ta ru, v isit Tokyo, th e F o re ig n M in is a p r o m in e n t b u s in e s s m a n, t o go t o S o u t h e a s t A s ia a s Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i ' s ev alu ate the d is a re a 's econom ic and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s. B efore th e K obayashi p a rty C ounselor in th e p e r s o n a l envoy to arriv ed, A sian A f f a i r s S h i r a h a t a T om oyoshi, B ureau and a fo rm er c o n su l in S u rab ay a and D ja k a r ta d u rin g 1952-1953, went s e c r e t l y D j a k a r t a t o w o r k o u t w i t h T a k a g i ways t o d r a w K o b a y a s h i i n t o th e problem o f r e p a r a t i o n s S h ira h a ta appears sense to r i s e In donesia. to have had enougn p o l i t i c a l due i n p a r t to h is fro m 1953 t o 1955. In any c a s e, he s h o u l d be c r e d i t e d w i t h m ak in g K i s h i ' s v isit ex perience above b u r e a u c r a c y, p e rh a p s good a s Prim e M i n i s t e r ' s secretary a n d K o b a y a s h i ' s work w o r t h w h i l e. a l s o was S h i r a h a t a who first th o u g h t o f s e l e c t i n g Kobayashi t o h a n d le th e r e p a r a t i o n s 45 issu e. I n s t e a d o f s p e a k in g d i r e c t l y w ith K obayashi, S h ir ah ata d isc u sse d the id e a w ith a n o th e r i n f l u e n t i a l businessm an, Ish ih ara H iro ich iro, who i n t u r n m an, M a t s u n a g a Y a s u z a e m o n * co n su lted a th ir d b u sin ess M a ts u n a g a was r e g a r d e d a s a s e n i o r m em ber o f t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d, h a v i n g b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e fo r th e s w ift postw ar r e c o n s tr u c tio n power a d r a i h i s t r a t l o n. o f J a p a n 's e l e c t r i c a l I t was h e who f i n a l l y suggested to === [PDF page 92] === 83 K o b a y a s h i t h a t he go t o S o u t h e a s t A s ia t o h e l p J a p a n 's fo re ig n p o licy made h i s d ecisio n, ways i n w h ic h t o to w ard t h i s area. form ulate Once K o b a y a s h i h a d S h ir a h a ta flew ahead to In d o n e sia to a rra n g e i n v o l v e him i n the r e p a r a tio n s n eg o tiatio n s. On S e p t e m b e r 22 K o b a y a s h i a r r i v e d i n D j a k a r t a n o t ex p ectin g to n e g o ti a t e th e re p a ra tio n s S h i r a h a t a took K obayashi im m ed iately G e n e ra l's issu e. 46 T ak ag i and to the Japanese C onsulsum m er h o u s e s o u t h o f D j a k a r t a, w h e r e t h e y t r i e d p e r s u a d e him t h a t h i s m i s s i o n c o u ld n o t be a c c o m p lish e d w it h out d is c u s s in g the r e p a r a tio n s problem. A m bassador, John A l l i s o n, and he to o s t r e s s e d rep aratio n s the T ie U n ite d S t a t e s a l s o was i n v i t e d on t h i s im portance o f J a p a n 's In d o n esia. 47 A ccording t o sid e trip payment o f T akagi, A lliso n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e Communist f o r c e s d i d n o t o c cu p y a s s i g n ific a n t a p o sitio n in I n d o n e s ia 's p o l i t i c s from t h e i r v i c t o r i e s also rem arked t h a t d in ate the th e ir effo rts as i t m ight a p p e a r the re c e n t lo c a l e le c t i o n s. U nited S ta te s in h elp in g m e n t, a l t h o u g h he a d d e d t h a t and J a p a n s h o u ld c o o r In d o n e s ia 's th is A lliso n econom ic d e v e l o p sh o u ld n o t be r e v e a le d to Ind o n esia, C onvinced, K obayashi h u r r i e d l y I n d o n e s ia 's $177 m i l l i o n in c lu d e d the c o llec tio n trad e debt to of th e se d eb ts d r e w up a p r o p o s a l f o r Japan. in d o lla rs t w e n t y - y e a r p e r i o d w ith an a n n u a l i n t e r e s t p lan t h a t seem ed t o s a t i s f y Kobayashi a ls o tio n s the proposed t h a t first ten years H is p r o p o s a l over a of 3 per cen t, b o t h D j a k a r t a and Tokyo. $ 20 0 m i l l i o n b e p a i d i n r e p a r a and $400 m i l l i o n be e x t e n d e d a s === [PDF page 93] === 84 e co n o m ic c o o p e r a t i o n by p r i v a t e a f t e r the rep aratio n s Japanese groups f o r te n y ears p a y m e n t was c o m p l e t e d. Prim e M i n i s t e r D juanda c o n s id e r e d K o b a y a s h i's p r o p o s a l "w ise and p r a c t i c a l, " as e x te n d in g I n d o n e s ia 's t h e b u r d e n on J a p a n, paym ents o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s w ould e a s e J a p a n 's F in an ce M in is try had s tr o n g ly opposed th e id e a o f c a n c e lin g the rep aratio n s and had s t r e s s e d th e n e ed t o lec tin g debt in d o lla rs the trad e d eb t th ro u g h th e c o llec t i t. as K obayashi p ro p o sed, f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y h o l d i n g s would be i n c r e a s e d w h i l e c e n t i n t e r e s t w ould b r i n g i n at least By c o l J a p a n 's the 3 per $30 m i l l i o n b e y o n d t h e debt i t s e l f. K o b ay ash i, T a k a g i, and S h i r a h a t a th o u g h t t h a t a rep aratio n s a g re e m e n t soon w ould be K obayashi' s p ro p o s a l. c o n c l u d e d on t h e b a s i s When K o b a y a s h i r e t u r n e d t o T o k y o on O c to b e r 11, he r e p o r t e d t o F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r F u jiy am a A i i c h i r o th at I n d o n e s i a was r e a d y for serio u s n e g o tia tio n s. was i n f o r m e d t h a t Mohammed H a t t a, still w ould v i s i t in flu e n tia l, Ja p a n e s e governm ent p r e p a r e d rep aratio n s Japan a form er v ic e - p r e s id e n t Tokyo i n m i d - O c t o b e r, fo r the and and th e co n clu sio n of a ag reem en t, H a tta 's v isit J a p a n, w h i c h l a s t e d f r o m O c t o b e r 16 2 9, was made i n a p r i v a t e c a p a c i t y as he h a d r e s i g n e d h i s go v ern m en tal p o s i t i o n as V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f th e R ep u b lic December 1956. 48 R esponsible f o r H a t t a ' s r e s i g n a t i o n were t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n him and h i s pendence, P r e s id e n t Sukarno. o ld co-w orker fo r in d e There had b e en s e v e r a l a tte m p ts a t r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 7 w he n t h e N a t i o n a l === [PDF page 94] === 85 C o n f e r e n c e on D e v e l o p m e n t ( M u s.la w a r a h N a s l o n a l P e m b a n g u n a n ) c o n v e n e d, H a t t a a n d S u k a r n o s e e m e d t o be i n th e end o f th e p ra is in g th e C onference th ey signed a J o in t statem en t " I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n, " b u t i t was o n l y a s h a m. S u k a r n o was d e t e r m i n e d n o t pow er, and H a tta f i n a l l y agreem ent. run th in g s h is a p p o i n t e d by t h e to g iv e H a tta any r e a l p o l i t i c a l succum bed t o "le ttin g Sukarno tr y B e fo re a n ine-m em b er com m ittee C o n f e r e n c e was a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e tw o l e a d e r s, t o P e k i n g a n d t h e n h a d come t o to c re a te a w orking H a t t a h a d made a t r i p Tokyo, On O c t o b e r 1 2, 1 9 5 7, J u s t b e f o r e H a t t a ' s a r r i v a l. SudJ o n o. D ir e c to r o f th e A sia and P a c if ic D J a n a m a r AdJam, t h e sen io r o ffic e r in the F o reig n M in is try, i s t e r F ujiyam a, B ureau, ta lk e d w ith H a tta, T okyo by P r i m e Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i, and I t a g a k i, K o b a y a sh i's p r o p o s a l. charge o f r e p a r a tio n s a l s o w ere s e n t to M in ister D j u a n d a. W h e n B u reau, and D irec to r of the F o r e i g n Min A sian A f f a i r s he a g re e d w ith t h e b a s i c But i t d id not form s o f se em t h a t H a t t a c o u l d b e w o r k i n g i n a c c o r d w i t h S u d j o n o a n d AdJam who h a d e x p r e s s e d d issa tisfac tio n w ith Ja p a n and s h o r t l y achieving n o th in g. the p ro p o s a l. afterw ard s D ism ayed, H a tta l e f t S u d j o n o a n d AdJam d e p a r t e d, was r u m o r e d i n Japan t h a t t h is also was b e c a u s e S u k a r n o d i d n o t w an t H a t t a t o be c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e lo n g -so u g h t rep aratio n s Adjam t o s t i f l e few i n s t a n c e s a g re e m e n t and th u s the n e g o tia tio n s. th at th e s e n t Sudjono and T h i s w o u ld be one o f t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n S u k a r n o a n d H a t t a was rev e ale d in d ip lo m atic m a tte rs. === [PDF page 95] === 86 K ls h l's V i s i t, November 1957 N ot b e i n g a b l e t o fathom I n d o n e s i a 's p o s i t i o n. M i n i s t e r K ish i w anted to t r y th e Kobayashi p ro p o s a l a g ain and s e n t Kobayashi back to D ja k a rta. th e b a sis th a t he, K ish i, Prim e K i s h i s e l e c t e d him on co u ld n o t a f f o r d to have h i s m ajor p o l i t i c a l o p p o n en t, I k e d a H a y a t o, b lam e him f o r t h e m i s h a n d lin g o f the I t was known t h a t issu e. Kobayashi fa v o re d Ik e d a, and K ish i found i t e x p e d ie n t to have h is (a lb e it any r e p e r c u s s i o n s in d ire ctly ) K obayashi decided a lly t h a t m ight e n s u e. t o go on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h e p e r s o n w o u ld n o t be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e o f the n e g o tia tio n s. secretary opponent sh are 51 Mizuno S o h e i, naval in te llig en c e fo r the p o ssib le He was a c c o m p a n i e d t o failu re I n d o n e s i a by h i s and N is h i j im a S h i g e t a d a, a w artim e o fficer, a n d was a s s i s t e d by S h i r a h a t a Tomoyoshi and Tsurum i K iy o h ik o, th e J a p a n e s e C onsul a l r e a d y D jak arta. The K o b a y a s h i p a r t y was t o a r r i v e on November 2 5, t h e v isit, d ay b e f o r e Indonesia Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i p l a n n e d o r d e r t o p a v e t h e way f o r K i s h i ' s t o p - l e v e l d i s c u ssio n s w ith In donesian lead ers. On N o v e m b e r 1 7, a m e e t i n g was h e l d among K i s h i, K o bayashi, and Ichim ade H i s a t o, They a g r e e d t h a t J a p a n ' s p o licy J a p a n ’s F inance M in is te r. w ould f o l l o w the Kobayashi p r o p o s a l o f $2 00 m i l l i o n i n r e p a r a t i o n s, $200 m i l l i o n in lo n g term loans trad e and (the c o lle c tio n o f I n d o n e s ia 's $400 m i l l i o n i n econom ic a i d. c an c ella tio n o f the trad e th o u g h t t h a t c o lle c tin g th e d eb t) Ichim ada p r e v io u s ly had opposed d e b t b u t now f a v o r e d i t, d e b t from a c o u n tr y a s he alread y === [PDF page 96] === 87 d e fic ie n t fo reig n c u r r e n c y h o l d i n g s w o u l d o n l y c r e a t e new problem s and c o m p lic a te th e i s s u e. c a n c e lla tio n, K ish i, though, opposed sa y in g t h a t Japan sh o u ld not change i t s at th is stage. Be f or e K is h i l e f t S h ô jirô, the r u lin g p a r t y 's fo r In d o nesia, S ecretary, th at th e K is h i Government d i d n o t have tio n s issu e to s e t t l e the r e p a r a upcom ing v i s i t, K ishi had been g ra n te d th e d r a w up a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h I n d o n e s i a i f Kawashima a n n o u n c e d on Novem ber l 8 " a t any c o s t " d u r i n g K i s h i ' s a d d in g, how ever, t h a t p o sitio n a u th o rity to one s h o u l d a r i s e. T h i s s t a t e m e n t was i n t e n d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n K i s h i ' s a n d K o b a y a s h i'3 b a r g a in in g p o s i t i o n s b e fo r e th e t a l k s commenced. B e s i d e s K o b a y a s h i ' s o f f i c i a l m i s s i o n t o w ork on t h e rep aratio n s n e s ia 's issu e, in te rn al a ffa irs. November t r i p, retly he and N i s h i j i m a w a n ted t o e v a l u a t e En r o u t e to D jakarta Indo on t h e th e y s to p p e d i n S in g a p o r e w here t h e y m et s e c w i t h E, 8. Pohan, a l e a d e r o f the S um atran g r o u p, e x p l a i n t h a t J a p a n ' s r e p a r a t i o n s w ere t o be u s e d f o r a l l I n d o n e s i a and were n o t e arm ark e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r th e Sukarno g ro u p o r f o r t h e S um atran g r o u p, a s s u s p e c t e d. S i n c e 1 95 6 m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l op en ly c r i t i c a l est ized an d i n December 1 9 5 6, t h e s e support lo c a lly made i n S i n g a p o r e lack o f i n t e r They d i s a p p r o v e d o f S u k a r n o ' s autonom ous B a f f a l o C o u n c il.^ ® late o u t s i d e J a v a h a d become o f S u k a r n o 's governm ent and h i s th e ir reg io n s. lean in g s forces forces le ftist o rg an iz ed the The C o u n c i l g r a d u a l l y m o b i l and a b r o a d, t h e i r th ro u g h Pohan. fo reig n co n tacts o ften === [PDF page 97] === 88 Upon a r r i v i n g i n D j a k a r t a on Novem ber 2 2, few d a y s b e f o r e K o b a y a s h i and K i s h i, t a n c e h e h a d made w h i l e S h ira h ata learn ed in D jak arta. c o n fid e n tia lly n a tu ra lly re st," to p u b lish th at a n t i - K i s h i m ovements r a d i c a l M urb a P a r t y who S h i r a h a t a conduct a n ti- K is h i cam an u n d e rg r o u n d n e w sp a p e r i n Sem ari n a u g u r a l cerem ony. opposed t h i s, was f r o m a n a c q u a i n o f th e h a d known w e r e p l a n n i n g n o t o n l y t o ang f o r i t s c o n su l in Surabaya and D ja k a r ta, Members o f t h e p aig n s b u t a ls o 1957, C onsul-G eneral Takagi b u t S h i r a h a t a went anyway, and su c c e e d e d in s to p p in g b o th th e "for a a n ti- K is h and a n t i - Sukarno cam paigns. S h i r a h a t a a l s o was t o l d c o n fid e n tia lly th a t w ith in a w e ek t h e I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t m i g h t s e v e r d i p l o m a t i c rela tio n s w ith the N e th erlan d s over th e West I r i a n T his i n f o r m a t i o n, t o o, m ight have been r e l e v a n t t o rep aratio n s so S h i r a h a t a p a s s e d i t issu e, a n d K i s h i who d e c i d e d t o lim it general d iscussion settlem en t. Sukarno t a l k s of the t h e i r t a l k s w ith Sukarno t o a The t e n o r o f t h e K ish ic o m m u ni On D e c e m b e r 1 a s e x p e c t e d, S u k arn o announced s t r o n g econom ic m e a su re s a g a i n s t in c lu d in g the h a l t the on t o K o b a y a s h i was r e v e a l e d i n t h e N o v e m b e r 28 J o i n t q u e, as w i l l be se e n l a t e r. issu e. the o f D utch s h i p p i n g o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n D utch, the area o f In donesia. Kobayashi a r r iv e d K i s h i on t h e fo llo w in g day. I n d o n e s i a o n N o v e m b e r 25 a n d On N o v e m b e r 26 t h e Indonesian c a b i n e t h e l d a m e e tin g i n w hich th e y a p p a r e n t l y d i s c u s s e d K o b a y a sh i's l a t e s t p roposal. A f te r th e m eetin g In fo rm a tio n === [PDF page 98] === 89 M in is te r SudibJo announced t h a t th e t a l k s M in is te r s D juanda and K ish i s e t i n f o r m a l. ^9 B oth t h e b e tw e e n Prim e f o r N o v e m b e r 27 w o u l d b e K is h i and th e Kobayashi p a r t i e s P r i m e M i n i s t e r D j u a n d a on N o v e m b e r 2 7 t o d i s c u s s p ro p o sal. m et w i t h K obayashi*s A lth o u g h b o th p a r t i e s h a d been s c h e d u le d t o meet w ith Sukarno l a t e r t h a t m o rn in g, Sukarno su d d e n ly r e q u e s te d a p riv ate, his c lo s e d m eetin g w ith only K is h i. in te rp re te r, In th is a c c o m p a n i e d him.®® m eetin g Sukarno s t a t e d t h a t Jap an to pay r e p a r a t i o n s econom ic a i d. p aid to $800 m i l l i o n, ($550 m i l l i o n in lo a n s ). K ishi o b je c te d, amount J a p a n saying t h a t and Japan th e amount p a id t o Sukarno th e n s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e nom inal r e p a r a t i o n s be $400 m i l l i o n b u t t h a t t h e m inus the in r e p a r a tio n s c o u l d n o t p a y much m o r e t h a n $ 2 00 m i l l i o n, Burma. I n d o n e s ia w anted o f $400 m i l l i o n a n d $400 m i l l i o n T h is would t o t a l the P h ilip p in e s $250 m i l l i o n O n ly T a k a g i, a s $170 m i l l i o n a g re e d as t h i s e stim atio n a c t u a l a m o u n t b e $ 4 00 m i l l i o n fo r In d o n e s ia 's am ount, tra d e d e b t. $2 30 m i l l i o n, would e x c e e d J a p a n ' s o f $200 m i l l i o n b y $30 m i l l i o n. u la of s u b tra c tin g trad e deb ts Takagai d i s How ever, t h e form from t h e nom inal r e p a r a t i o n s o f $ 4 0 0 m i l l i o n p r o p o s e d by S u k a r n o was e x a c t l y w h a t K i s h i so u g h t. Takagi t r i e d trade actu ally d ebts in te re st, m inus to p o in t out t h a t am ounted t o th e re p a ra tio n s since some $240 m i l l i o n s h o u l d b e $ l 60 m i l l i o n $240 m i l l i o n, n o t $ 4 0 0 m i l l i o n m i n u s K i s h i t u r n e d down T a k a g i ' s The K i s h i —S u k a r n o t a l k s $170 m i l l i o n su g g estio n, in clu d in g ($400 m i l l i o n $170 m i l l i o n ). d eclarin g i t ended w ith K is h i's " triv ia l." concession o f === [PDF page 99] === 90 $30 m i l l i o n m ore f o r r e p a r a t i o n s o f I n d o n e s ia 's trad e d eb t. he w ould s e t t l e the r e p a r a tio n s and w i t h th e c an cellatio n Sukarno had d e c l a r e d e a r l i e r issu e and a p p a r e n t l y he had. The a g e n d a o f K i s h i ' s v i s i t was v a g u e. of h is v isit alleg ed ly the re p a r a tio n s facade. P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o was n o t p r e s e n t To m a i n t a i n t h e a t th e a irp o rt for K i s h i ' s l a t e r m e e t i n g w i t h h i m was t e r m e d only a c o u rte s y c a l l, as in fo rm al. The p u r p o s e was g o o d - w i l l, b u t e v e r y o n e k n e w t h a t i s s u e was t h e r e a l p u r p o s e. K ish i' s a rriv a l, th at and th e r e p a r a t i o n s The J o i n t talk s were l a b e l e d c o m m u n iq u e i s s u e d by P r i m e M i n i s t e r s D j u a n d a a n d K i s h i o n N o v e m b e r 28 p r i o r t o K is h i's dep artu re d id n o t re v e a l the am ounts o f J a p a n 's r e p a r a t i o n s and lo a n s d id not even d is c lo s e Ind o n esia; ment h a d b e en m ade. m erely s t a t e d th at a fin a l th at they se ttle "fin ally r e a c h e d a m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g on t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s se ttle m e n t." of i t s K o b a y a s h i was t o r e m a i n i n D j a k a r t a t o p r o c e e d w ith n e g o tia tio n s " f o r a speedy c o n c lu s io n o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s a g re e m e n t" and " f o r an e a r l y e s ta b lis h m e n t o f norm al d i p l o m atic r e la tio n s." ® ^ O n ly a f e w d a y s l a t e r d i d t h e p r e s s th e p u b lic K ish i and Sukarno in d e e d had s e t t l e d th e learn th at a m o u n t o f $230 m i l l i o n an In d o n e s ia n n ew sp ap er, th is in re p a ratio n s.® ^ th e Ja p a n e se governm ent had c o n firm e d ru m o r on D ecem ber 1 a n d i n tu rn, I n d o n e s i a ' s Deputy K o b a y a s h i p r o p o s a l h a d be co m e w o r t h l e s s, Thus t h e m aking u n n e c e s s a r y t h e h a r d work t h a t K o b a y a s h i, S h i r a h a t a, T a k a g i, N i s h i j i m a h a d done s i n c e A ccording to F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r H a r d i a l s o h a d c o n f i r m e d i t. ®^ a ll and S eptem ber. and === [PDF page 100] === 91 The K o b a y a s h l - D J u a n d a Memorandum, D e c e m b e r 8, 1 9 5 7 K obayashi and h i s p a r t y had l i t t l e th e K is h i governm ent s e t t l e the m a tte r. choice b u t to h e lp B efore h is depar ture f r o m T o k y o, S h i r a h a t a was t o l d b y I k e d a H a y a t o t o s e e th at t h e r e was no m i s h a n d l i n g o f t h e m a t t e r l e s t r e p u t a t i o n — and i n d i r e c t l y leave I k e d a 's — be K obayshi’s ta rn is h e d.Y e t I n d o n e s i a and w ith d ra w from th e n e g o t i a t i o n s would r e v e a l t h e t e n s i o n a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n K i s h i a n d Kobay ash i, which i s factio n s t o s a y, t h e t e n s i o n b e tw e e n t h e two c o m p e tin g o f the r u lin g p a rty. To b r i n g i n t r a - p a r t y in to th e d ip lo m atic tig e a t home o r a b r o a d, e v e n i f strife a r e n a w ould n o t e n h a n c e K o b a y a s h i 's p r e s w ould i n c r e a s e Ik e d a 's power o v e r K is h i. K obayashi rem ained in In d o n e s ia u n t i l D e c e m b e r 8. H i s w o r k c e n t e r e d on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a f i f t e e n - y e a r p a y ment p e r i o d f o r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s and on t h e i n c l u s i o n "rao st-fav o red -n atlo n " the peace t r e a t y. clau se in h a d a bad e x p e r ie n c e w ith th e t r e a t y P h ilip p in e s because cla u se. A pparently o f both i t c lau se, treatm en t c o n tra d ic ted its the Japan s u b s titu te d "m o st-fav o red -n atio n " pleased. to the and t h e In d o n esia did not understan d "m o st-fav o red "n atio n " F in ally Japan had had s ig n e d w ith the did not c o n ta in a " m o s t-fa v o re d -n a tio n " T h i s was u n s a t i s f a c t o r y d elay ed r a t i f i c a t i o n of a because i t p o lic y o p p o sitio n p a rty rep aratio n s m a in ta in e d t h a t such of "ac tiv e but ag reem en t. th e m eaning o f a "n o n -d iscrim in ato ry c lau se, and in d ep e n d en c e." treatm en t" Ind o n esia s t i l l K o b a y a s h i was a d a m a n t a n d p r e p a r e d t o leave for was n o t === [PDF page 101] === 92 D ecem ber 7, b u t N i s h i j l m a and S h i r a h a t a p e r s u a d e d him t o delay h is dep artu re fo r tw en ty -fo u r h o u rs. T hey t h e n s p o k e w i t h Adam M a l i k who i n v i t e d tw o men t o m e e t w i t h t h e m t h a t evening a t h is resid en ce. T h e s e two men w e r e T o b i n g, a d v is o r to the In d o n esian N a t io n a li s t P a rty W inarno, S e c r e t a r y to P r e s id e n t Sukarno. d is c u s s e d the m ajor p o in ts (PN I), th rea te n ed th a t o f the peace t r e a ty but could n o t clau se. K o b a y a s h i was p r e p a r e d t o n e s i a w i t h o u t an a g re em e n t and l e f t and At t h e m e e t i n g t h e y r e a c h a n a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e m o s t —f a v o r e d —n a t i o n Japanese leg al The leave Indo Adam M a l i k ' s h o u s e. Then T o b in g c o n t a c t e d S u w i r j o, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e PNI; M a lik w en t t o s e e D Ju an d a; and W inaro t a l k e d w i t h S u k a r n o. J u s t before m i d n i g h t Adam M a l i k c a l l e d t h e J a p a n e s e p a r t y tell them t h a t t h e i r term s had been a c c e p te d. I n d o n e s i a and J a p a n s t i l l c o u ld on t h e not a g re e, how ever, le n g th o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s payment p e r i o d: in sisted on t e n y e a r s December 7, b e f o r e th e and Ja p a n c lu n g t o fin a l sessio n, K o b a y a s h i - D J u a n d a Memorandum. m ent p e r i o d b u t t o no a v a i l. fifte en. T ak agi, T s u r u m i, and S u d jo n o m et t o work o u t t h e Ind o n esia S h irah ata, w ording o f th e Tliey a g a i n d i s c u s s e d t h e p a y F in a lly, as S h ira h a ta to ld th is w r i t e r i n 1 9 7 2, h e s t a t e d t h a t h e w o u l d name a c e r t a i n n u m b e r som ewhere b e tw ee n t e n and f i f t e e n, h is and Sudjono s h o u ld c la p h a n d s a s a s i g n o f a c c e p t a n c e. ^6 T ak ag i became r e s t l e s s, n o t b e i n g s u r e w h a t n u m b e r S h i r a h a t a was g o i n g t o was a b o u t t o s t o p h i m when h e s a i d, "T w elve!" choose and Sudjono === [PDF page 102] === 93 c lap p ed h is hands. S h irah ata se le c te d th is number w i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g e i t h e r K o b a y a s h i o r Tokyo. The K o b a y a s h i - D J u a n d a Memorandum was p r e p a r e d a n d sig n e d a t seven o 'c lo c k in s t a t e d t h a t J a p a n 's 440,000 t h e e v e n i n g o f December 8. r e p a r a t i o n s w ould amount o f $ 2 2 5,- o v e r tw elv e y e a r s; th a t In d o n e s ia 's $1 7 4, 5 5 6,0 0 0 would be c a n c e l e d, and t h a t d i t w ould be g r a n t e d o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t. ^ ^ The f i n a l trad e debt of a $ 40 0 m i l l i o n f o r I n d o n e s ia 's econ term s o f agreem ent s p e c i f i e d t h a t J a p a n w o u l d p a y $20 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y fo r th e e l e v e n y e a r s and t h e r e m a i n d e r d u r i n g t h e tw elfth y ear. effect, cre first $400 m i l l i o n w o u l d b e g i v e n a s a n o n - r e i m b u r s i b l e g r a n t and a n o t h e r $400 m i l l i o n w o u ld b e g i v e n i n r e i m b u r s i b l e lo an s and in v e s tm e n ts. also stated th at The K o b a y a s h i - D J u a n d a Memorandum the peace t r e a ty d is c rim in a to ry -tre a tm e n t" clau se tio n e d the ity c la u s e by s a y i n g i t w ith th e d e c isio n s w ould c o n t a i n a " n o n but as a com prom ise c o n d i " w ill be b rou gh t in to conform ta k e n a t th e A s ia -A fric a n C onference i n B andung." On D e c e m b e r 9 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r F u j i y a m a r e q u e s t e d a s p e c i a l c a b in e t m eeting to approve th e K obayashi-D Juanda Memorandum, a n d o n D e c e m b e r 10 t h e Memorandum was a p p r o v e d i n D jak arta. T hen i n late December a J a p a n e s e team o f s p e c i a l ists d i r e c t e d by T a k a g i a n d T s u r u m i w o r k e d i n D j a k a r t a w i t h the I n d o n e s ia n team t o p u t t h e Memorandum i n t o sta tu to ry form. I n tw o weeks n i n e d o c u m e n ts w ere f o r m u l a t e d, in c lu d in g the R ep aratio n s The A greem ent and t h e Peace T re a ty. === [PDF page 103] === 94 R e p a r a t i o n s Agreem ent s t i p u l a t e d t h a t J a p a n w ould pay $2 2 3, 0 8 0,0 0 0 o v e r a p e r i o d o f t w e l v e y e a r s, I n d o n e s ia 's trad e would c a n c e l d e b t o f $ 1 7 6,9 1 0,0 0 0,^ ® and w ould g iv e $ 4 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0 i n econom ic a i d. i n D j a k a r t a on J a n u a r y These docum ents w ere s i g n e d 2 0, 1 9 5 8 by F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s F ujiyam a and S u b a n d r io. P resid en t Sukarno v i s i t e d J a p a n f r o m J a n u a r y 29 through February 15, 1958. I t was s a i d t o b e a g o o d - w i l l v isit and " r e s t " but actu ally tatio n o f th e R e p a r a tio n s A greem ent. began to d iscu ss t h e im plem en D uring h i s S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n was c o n d u c t e d a g a i n s t S u k a r n o ' s governm ent. these In th e m id st o f such t e n s i o n, docum ents w ere p r e s e n t e d as b i l l s P arliam en t (DPR) f o r r a t i f i c a t i o n. stay the c en tral on M a r c h 3, 1 9 5 8, to the Indonesian A f t e r some d e l i b e r a t i o n, t h e y w e r e p a s s e d u n a n i m o u s l y o n M a r c h 1 3.®^ How ever, i t to r a t i f y p arty, them. t o o k t h e J a p a n e s e D i e t a l m o s t two m o n th s Members o f t h e a n d m em b e r s o f t h e K ishi had r e s e r v a tio n s S o c ialist P arty, the opposing r u l i n g p a r t y who w e r e c r i t i c a l o f about the d ocum ents. P a rty argued t h a t $400 m i l l i o n w o u ld be u n f a i r t o Burma w h i c h g o t o n l y y am a a n d S h i r a h a t a d e f e n d e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o s i t i o n by rep eatin g amount o f r e p a r a t i o n s th a t the in re p a ra tio n s The S o c i a l i s t Indonesia $200 m i l l i o n. F u ji t o I n d o n e s i a was n o t $400 m i l l i o n b u t $ 2 2 3 m i l l i o n t h a t t h i s w o u l d n o t b e u n f a i r 70 t o Burma. On t h i s i s s u e, t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t s e e m e d t o be t w o - s i d e d. To I n d o n e s i a, sta te d th at the r e p a r a tio n s === [PDF page 104] === 95 I n d o n e s i a w ould be S o c i a l is t P arty $400 m i l l i o n, and i n d i r e c t l y w hereas i t to ld th e Burma t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e $223 m i l l i o n. The S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n S o c i a l i s t P arty and fo r m e r Prim e M i n i s t e r A sh id a H i t o s h i, now c h a i r m a n o f t h e F earing th a t r u l in g p a r t y ’s F oreign A ffa irs th e r e b e l l i o n m ight su c c e e d i n Sukarno regim e, o f the concerned both th e Japanese they th o u g h t i t docum ents. w ise t o F ujiyam a d is a g r e e d, C om m ittee. to p p lin g the delay r a t i f i c a t i o n o b s e r v in g t h a t Sukarno c o n tr o lle d th e n a ti o n and t h a t J a p a n 's rep aratio n s w ould h e l p t o s t r e n g t h e n h i s gove r nme nt. Japan thus d e c id e d to s u p p o rt S u k a rn o, fee lin g co uld n o t a f f o r d " s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p " b etw een l o s e him. T his began t h e T okyo a n d D j a k a r t a. D i e t on A p r i l 4, The b i l l s and t h e T o k yo o n A p r i l 1 5, w e r e p a s s e d by t h e N a t i o n a l ra tifie d 1958.^^ An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e C hapter I I has rep aratio n s fo r the began d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s. R ep aratio n s N e g o tia tio n s d e sc rib e d th e p ro cess n eg o tiatio n s. failu re docum ents w ere e x ch a n g ed i n On t h a t d a y, J a p a n a n d t h e R ep u b lic o f In d o n e sia o f f i c i a l l y th at i t of th e o f f i c i a l One o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s r e a s o n s to re a c h agreem ent in th e in d efin ite first n eg o tiatio n s was J a p a n ' s rep aratio n s. When T a k a g i H i r o i c h i w e n t t o D j a k a r t a i n J u l y 1 9 5 7 » s u c c e e d i n g W a j im a E i j i, p o sitio n s t i l l was n o t sim u ltan eo u sly th ree p o sitio n six years of on i t s war th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t's certain. Japan appeared to have h e ld c o n trad icto ry view s w h ic h, n o t === [PDF page 105] === 96 su rp risin g ly, le d to c o n fu s io n and i r r i t a t i o n on b o t h s i d e s. One was t h a t J a p a n s h o u l d p a y r e p a r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of its e co n o m ic c a p a c i t y, w h ic h stemmed fro m t h e in A rticle 14 o f t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o a p p a re n tly had f o r g o tte n t h a t the treaty stip u la tio n Peace T re a ty. Japan In d o n e s ia had r e f u s e d to r a t i f y in p a rt because of A rtic le The s e c o n d v i e w was t h a t J a p a n d i d n o t n e e d t o pay w a r r e p a r a t i o n s t o I n d o n esia at a ll. E v e n P r i m e M i n i s t e r Y o s h i d a, who h a d r e s p o n d e d affirm ativ ely to In d o n e s ia 's demand f o r r e p a r a t i o n s S a n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e, was n o t t o t a l l y th is id ea. The t h i r d was t h a t t h e I n d o n e s i a s h o u ld be i n p r o p o r t i o n t o o th er n a tio n s. Tokyo. the P h i l i p p in e s, p aid t h o s e am ounts g i v e n T h is i d e a h a d b e e n c o n t r i b u t e d by I t a g a k i P r o f e s s o r o f E conom ics opposed to amount o f r e p a r a t i o n s Y o ich i, a t the at H ito tsu b a sh i U n iv ersity He h a d s u g g e s t e d a l s o Ind o n esia, th at the r a t i o B u r m a, a n d I n d o c h i n a be 4: 3: 2: 1. L a t e r i n 1957 t h i s ratio f o r th e a n d Burma. P h ilip p in es, Ind o n esia, r e a s o n f o r t h e r a t i o was m e r e l y t o s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n $200 m i l l i o n o f payment was c h a n g e d t o fit But t h e I n d o n e s ia 's o rig in al claim a n d $5 5 0 m i l l i o n. T h i s d i s a g r e e m e n t was c o m p o u n d e d by t w o o t h e r i s s u e s. One was I n d o n e s i a ' s d e s i r e by m e a n s o f r e p a r a t i o n s, s h o u l d b e made p a r t to cancel i t s tra d e debt to Japan an i s s u e w hich J a p a n d i d n o t f e e l of i ts paym ents. The o t h e r i s s u e d i s c o u r a g e d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s was I n d o n e s i a ' s tic a l in sta b ility. which c o n tin u al p o li I n t h e p e r i o d b e tw e e n 1951 and 1 956, Ja p an had had only t h r e e c a b i n e t s, h e a d e d by Y o s h i d a, === [PDF page 106] === 97 H atoyaraa, a nd l a h l b a s h l, L ib eral, D em ocratic, a ll or la te r, But I n d o n e s i a had had f i v e W ilopo, o f whom b e l o n g e d t o the same th e L ib eral-D em o cratic P a rty. c a b i n e t s, h e a d e d by Sukim an, A l l, H arah ap, and A ll a g a in. Sukiman and H a rah a p b e l o n g e d t o t h e Masjumi P a r t y, W ilo p o a n d A l l t o t h e c o n f l i c t s b e tw e e n t h e two p a r t i e s h a d p e r s i s t e d th is l a s t phase of I n d o n e s ia 's f r o m 1949 t o 1957. lead ersh ip In a d d it i o n, the tio n, I n d o n e s ia n governm ent had Ja p a n e se governm ent; econom ic p o v e r t y, co n flicts, failu re and c i v i l i a n - m i l i t a r y o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e new c o n s t i t u and p ro lo n g ed g e n e ra l e l e c t i o n s, among o t h e r s. seems t h a t J a p a n to o k a d v a n ta g e d iffic u ltie s, d e la y e d, the f o r the thro u g h o u t "lib eral-d em o crac.v " p e rio d had o t h e r problem s f o r e ig n t o th e reg io n a l secessio n, PNI, and of I n d o n e s ia 's l o n g e r t h e p a y m e n t o f r e p a r a t i o n s was e a s i e r i t would be f o r J a p a n, e s p e c i a l l y as i t s own econom y n e e d e d t i m e t o h e a l. F urtherm ore, of In d o n e s ia 's n a tu r a l re so u rc e s l e s s e n e d a s J a p a n b e c a m e m o re d e p e n d e n t on t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s the a t t r a c t i o n an an e x p o r t m a r k e t. In 1951, 52 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s e x p o r t s w e n t t o A s i a b u t i n 1956 decreased to the p ro 4 l 'p e r c e n t. p o rtio n of Ja p a n 's e x p o rts per cent D uring t h i s same p e r i o d g o in g to I n d o n e s i a went from 9.4 3 p e r c e n t, w hereas I n c r e a s e d from I 6 p e r c e n t to its e x p o r t s t o N o rth A m erica 26 p e r c e n t (see a ls o T ables I - 1 and 1 - 3 ). Id eo lo g ical d ifferen ces a tio n s. A lthough J a p a n 's n e u tra list a ls o prolonged th e n e g o ti p ro -A m erican p o s tu r e and I n d o n e s i a 's p o s t u r e m ight n o t have b e e n d i s c u s s e d d i r e c t l y === [PDF page 107] === 98 an u n d e rly in g cause sid es th at of d isag reem en t, i t t h e y c o u l d n o t be p o l i t i c a l d i d h a v e common e c o n o m i c g o a l s. was e v i d e n t to both f r i e n d s — even i f th e y F o r e x a m p le, t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e o f 1 9 5 5 was d o m i n a t e d b y t h e d e v e l o p i n g, c o u n tries, such as I n d i a, c om ed t h e em ergence o f th e P e o p l e 's n e u tra list Burma, an d I n d o n e s i a, w h ic h w e l R e p u b lic o f C hina. Sukarno and th e A li C abinet w anted to use t h i s enhance In d o n e s ia 's i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n b u t r e c e i v e d no support fo r th is reso lu tio n from J a p a n. When t h e condem ning c o l o n i a l i s m, Japan, b illio n "peacefu l co existen ce" " c o lo n ia lis m " w ith W estern c o l o n i a l i s m. on t h e o t h e r h a n d, " a l l ty p es C onference d e b ated a I n d o n e s ia, alo n g w ith Communist C h in a and I n d i a, J o i n e d t h e g r o u p, w hich e q u a te d conference to sponsored a r e s o l u t i o n of c o l o n i a l i s m. E v e n in rep a ratio n s w hile d e m a n d i n g $17 from J a p a n, n e i t h e r P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o n o r Prim e M i n i s t e r A li r e f e r r e d t o J a p a n i n t h e i r addresses opening a t t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e. The o n l y a g r e e m e n t s r e a c h e d by J a p a n ' s and b u s in e s s leaders d uring t h is p o litica l s i x - y e a r p e r i o d were t o recognize th e im portance to see the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e tic a lly non-C om m unist I n d o n e s i a w ith t h e h e l p of In d o n e s ia 's n a t u r a l re s o u rc e s tech n o lo g y and c a p i t a l. rep aratio n s t o I n d o n e s i a were a c c e p t a b l e w hich t h e y c alle d b u sin ess condem ning lead ers To t h e s e of Japanese war o n l y on t h e s e A ll Japanese in v o lv e d in th e n e g o tia tio n s M a t s u n a g a, Ayukawa, T a k a s a k i, and p o l i Japanese le a d e rs, "econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n. " and in clu d in g a n d I s h i h a r a, who w i l l b e term s, === [PDF page 108] === 99 trea te d in the fo llo w in g c h a p te r, proposed t h e i r term s o f paym ent w i t h i n t h e econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n p ro g ra m s, the fu tu re o f I n d o n e s ia 's D espite th e s e of the n e g o tia tio n s re g a rd e d the e co n om y t o rep aratio n s d ip lo m atic is s u e, In th e n o t only in th e form o f " s e r v i c e s economy, req u ests. o f the r e p a r a tio n s com prom ises. in the d e terio ratin g demands t o made t w o l a r g e stip u la ted ten o r w ith In d o n e s ia as a m ajor and i n view o f i t s se ttlem en t i n 19 5 7 t h e The new K i s h i G o v e r n m e n t settlem en t Ind o n esia had so fte n e d i t s ty in g J a p a n 's. many c o m p l i c a t i o n s, im proved. thus issu e, Japan One was t o p a y t h e r e p a r a t i o n s Japanese p eo p le" Sa n F r a n c i s c o P e a c e T r e a t y b u t a l s o i n the form o f c a p i t a l g o o d s. o f the The o t h e r was t o can cel I n d o n e s ia 's t r a d e d e b t t o J a p a n by means o f t h e rep aratio n s. larg est e stim a tio n of Japanese c o n c e s s i o n was t o rep aratio n s from $17.5 b i l l i o n save I n d o n e s ia 's low er i t s face, $223 m i l l i o n. I n d o n e s ia 's Then, to I n d o n e s i a and J a p a n a d d ed $400 m i l l i o n "econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n " t o make J a p a n ' s payment a p p e a r to be $800 m i l l i o n. The f i n a l to Japan th an to a g r e e m e n t, i n a n y c a s e, was more f a v o r a b l e In d o n esia. An a n n u a l p a y m e n t o f $20 m i l l i o n in s e r v ic e s and c a p i t a l goods c o n s t i t u t e d of J a p a n 's t o t a l ex p o rts cent of J a p a n 's exp o rts only 0.7 p e r c e n t 1 95 7 a l t h o u g h i t In d onesia (see came t o 30 p e r T able 1 - 3 ). O bviously J a p a n 's payment o f r e p a r a t i o n s t o in te rfere e x p o r t s, w hich w ere m a in ly i n d u s t r i a l w ith i t s goods such as food, t e x t i l e s, Indonesia did not and c l o t h i n g, w h ile i n r e a l i t y. === [PDF page 109] === 100 t h e R e p a r a ti o n s A greem ent v i r t u a l l y forced Indonesia to Japanese goods. the p ro p o rtio n ex p o rts to As T a b l e 1 - 3 s h o w s, I n d o n e s ia 's 20.8 p e r c e n t i n 1962, and to from 26.8 1966. The r e p a r a t i o n s I n d o n e s ia 's a fter of J a p a n 's t o t a l im p o rts g ra d u a lly in c re a s e d 1 3. 6 p e r c e n t i n ^1 9 5 8, t o per cen t in use claim s talk s, w hich began i n a g a i n s t J a p a n 's war dam ages, 1954 i n t o t h e e co n o m ic a i d t a l k s argued t h a t i t s trad e r e p a r a t i o n s problem. debt ment a l s o b e g a n t o In e a r ly O uter I s l a n d s, In te rn a l p o litic a l p o sitio n. th e govern in A sia, p restig e K ishi th e r e f o re F in ally, the D ie t, the and i n c r e a s e a c c e p te d S u k a rn o 's b e c a u se t h e Sum atra r e b e l l i o n b r o k e o u t when t h e r e p a r a t i o n s The K i s h i I n d o n e s i a a n d saw S u k a r n o a s To e n h a n c e h i s p r o p o s a l i n November 1 9 5 7. b ein g d e li b e r a t e d o f the f e e l t h a t th e r e p a r a t i o n s m ight be u sed lead er. J a p a n 's p o s itio n Ind o n esia 1 9 5 7, w hen r e g i o n a l s e c e s s i o n C abinet a ls o w ished fo r a s t a b l e an a c c e p ta b le i n w hich developed s h o u ld be d i s c u s s e d as p a r t i s t m ovem ents h a d d e v e l o p e d i n t h e to stren g th en i t s 1951 w i t h agreem ent b i l l was K ishi le a d e rs h ip pushed fund to through i t s passage in o r d e r to use th e r e p a r a t i o n s p r o p up t h e Sukarno regim e. === [PDF page 110] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER II ^ I n d ia, N a t i o n a l i s t C hina, th e U nited S t a t e s, G reat B r i t a i n, F ra n c e, and th e N e th e rla n d s renounced t h e i r r i g h t s t o J a p a n e s e r e p a r a t i o n s by 1 9 5 1. Japan concluded n e g o tia t i o n s w i t h Burma i n 1 9 5 4, w i t h t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 5 6, w i t h I n d o n e s i a i n 1958, and w ith S o u th V ietnam i n 1959. L aos an d Cambodia r e n o u n c e d t h e i r r i g h t s i n 1 959. The l o n g e s t n e g o t i a t i o n s to o k p l a c e b e tw ee n J a p a n and S o u th K o re a, w hich ended on ly in 1965. " I n d o n e s ia - P o l i t i c a l D evelopm ents s in c e 1 9 5 0," C u r r e n t N o t e s on I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s, XXIV ( F e b r u a r y. 3l b i d. ^"T ext o f I n d o n e s ia n N otes t o U.S." (W ash in g to n, August 6, 1951), i n J a p a n, F o re ig n M i n i s t r y, P u b lic I n f o r m ation D iv is io n, C o l le c t i o n o f O f f i c i a l F o re ig n S ta te m e n ts on J a p a n e s e P e a c e T r e a t y. I I Ï ( n. d. ). 7 9. T h is p a r a g r a p h b a s e d on A l i S a s t r o a m i d j o J o, p r i v a t e in te r v ie w in D ja k a r ta, F e b ru ary 28, 1972. The t e x t o f S u b a r d j o ' s s p e e c h a p p e a r s i n U. S., D epartm ent o f S t a t e, O ffic e o f P u b lic A f f a i r s, C onference f o r t h e C o n c l u s i on a n d S i g n a t u r e o f t h e T r e a t y o f ^ e a c e w i t h.San F r a n c i s c o, C a l i f o r n i a, S e o t e r. o s r 1951; R ecord of P r o c e e d i n g s, D epartm ent o f S t a t e Fubn. I t is r e p r i n t e d as " I n d o n e s ia 's C o n tr ib u tio n to W orld P e a c e, " i n I n d o n e s i a n R e v ie w. I ( O c to b e r - D e c e m b e r. I Q 'il^. 3 59 - 6 2. The t e x t o f Y o s h i d a ' s s p e e c h a p p e a r s i n C o n f e r e n c e f o r th e C o n c lu sio n, pp. 277-81. R ep rin ted in Indonesian R e v iew, pp. 363- 6 5. From S u b a r d j o ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e. V/hen t h e German Mark s u f f e r e d s u d d e n d e v a l u a t i o n i n 1 9 2 3, C h a r l e s G. D a w e s, U n i t e d S t a t e s V i c e P r e s i d e n t, 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 2 9 a n d a member o f t h e A l l i e d C o m m i t t e e on German r e p a r a t i o n s, p r o p o s e d a r e v i s e d German r e p a r a t i o n s p l a n i n 1 9 2 4, t o m e e t t h e new c o n d i t i o n s. L a t e r Owen D. Y o u n g, an A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s m a n, p r o p o s e d a n o t h e r r e v i s e d p l a n i n 19 2 9 wh en t h e w o r l d d e p r e s s i o n began. 101 === [PDF page 111] === 102 1972. ^ S u b ard jo, p riv ate in terv iew in D ja k a rta, January 12, ^ ^ I n 1 9 5 0 t h e N a t s i r C a b i n e t c o n d u c t e d a s u r v e y on I n d o n e s i a n l o s s e s a n d d a m a g e s c a u s e d by t h e J a p a n e s e a g g r e s s i o n, t h e r e s u l t o f w h i c h g a v e a n e s t i m a t e o f some $ 1 7. 5 b illio n. T h is r e p o r t, e n t i t l e d " O u t l i n e o f R e p a r a t i o n s Claim o f In d o n esia a g a in s t Japan" i s c l a s s i f i e d, J a p a n, E conom ic P l a n n i n g A gency, K e i z a i y o r a n 1 9 7 0. 12 J a p a n, F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y, A sian A f f a i r s B u re a u, e d., I n d o n e s h i a Kyow ak o ku b e n r a n ( T o k y o, N i h o n K o k u s a i M o n d a i K enkynjo, 19b4 ), p. 9^. 13 "^Wajima E i J i, p riv ate in terv iew i n Tokyo, A p r i l 25, 1972. 14 A li, in terv iew and A sah i n en k an 1 9 5 3. p. 15 J o h n M. A l l i s o n, p r i v a t e New Y o r k, A p r i l 5, 1 9 6 9. c o n v ersa tio n in 107. Ith aca, Anonymous h i g h - r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l i n t h e A m e r i c a n E m bassy, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w in D j a k a r t a, D ecem ber, 1971. A sahi nenkan 1954. p. 145. 18 A sahi nenkan 1 9 5 4. p. 145. From A u g u st 1952 t h e two g o v e r n m e n ts a g r e e d t o e x c h a n g e c o n s u l - g e n e r a l s. Thus Ja p an e s t a b l i s h e d i t s C o n su la te -G e n e ra l i n D ja k a rta and a c o n s u la te in S u rab ay a, r e p l a c i n g th e e r s tw h ile O verseas O ffic e s ( Z aig ai Jlm u sho ). 19 J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Waga g a i k o n o k i n k y o, n o. 1 ( 1 9 5 7 ), p. 34; and A sah i n e n k a n 1 9 5 5. p. 240. 20 The a g r e e m e n t p r o v i d e d t h a t J a p a n w o u l d p r o v i d e $ 6. 5 m i l l i o n o v e r f o u r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h some 60 v e s s e l s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o be r e f l o a t e d. Indonesia f e l t th a t th e over a l l t e r m s o f p a y m e n t s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d f i r s t. S e e Waga g a i k o no k i n k y o. n o. 1, p. 3 4; a n d A s a h i n e n k a n 1 9 5 5. p. ' 2 4 2. 21 V / a ji m a, i n t e r v i e w. He w a s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s " M i n i s t e r W ajim a," b e c a u se th e p o s i t i o n o f a M i n i s t e r t o I n d i a w h i c h was v a c a n t a t t h a t t i m e was a p p l i e d t o h i m f o r s a l a r y r e a s o n s b u t he n e v e r went t o I n d i a. 22 Law rence O ls o n, J a p a n i n P o s tw a r A sia (London: P a l l M a l l P r e s s f o r t h e C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s, 1 9 7 0 ), P. 31 « 23 A sahi S h ln b u n. F e b ru ary 1, 1953. === [PDF page 112] === 10 3 24 K obayashi K azu h ik o, A Jia o k a k e ru o to k o Kokusai K a ih a tsu J a n a ru Sha, 1 9 7 2 ), p. I b l, A sahi nenkan 1955. p. 242. Asahi nenkan 1956. p. 242. (Tokyo: 27 I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, RUU P e r s e t u d j u a n P e r d J a n d J i a n Perdam aian dan P e r s e t u d j u a n Pampasan a n t a r a R e p u o lik I n d o n e s i a dan D jep an g (December lb." 1 9 5 7 ). P. 5. T his document c o n t a i n s a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s from 1951 t o D ecem ber 8, 1957, 28 "^°A s a h i n e n k a n 1 9 5 7. p p. 2 4 4 - 4 5. 245. 245. 31 J a p a n # F o re ig n M i n i s t r y, A sian A f f a i r s B u re a u, e d., I n d o n e s h i a Kyow akoku b e n r a n. p. 9 2. 32 I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, RUU P e r s e t u d. l u a n. p. 6. 33lbid. 3^I b i d. 35ibid. 3®I b i d. ^^A s a h i n e n k an 1 9 5 8. p. 2 1 0. The N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l, w h i c h e x i s t e d f r o m J u l y 1 9 5 7 t o J u l y 1 9 5 9, was c o m p o s e d o f 45 m e m b e r s, i n c l u d i n g r e g i o n a l and m i l i t a r y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s as w e ll as p a r t y l e a d e r s. The C o u n c i l was a n o n - p a r t i s a n a d v i s o r t o t h e C a b i n e t. 39 R oesIan A b d u lg a n i, p r i v a t e i n te r v ie w in D j a k a r t a, F e b ru a ry 28, 1972. A ccording to him, th e C o u n cil had a m o n th ly, c l o s e d s e s s i o n, t h e m in u te s o f w hich a r e s t i l l c la ssified. A b d u l g a n i ’ s a r t i c l e " I n d o n e s i a ' s N a t i o n a l Coun c i l, t h e F i r s t Y e a r, " F a r E a s t e r n S u r v e y. XXVII ( J u l y, 1 9 5 8 ), 9 7 - 1 0 4, m e n tio n s b r i e f l y t h a t t h e r e p a r a t i o n s w ere one o f t h e item s t h a t th e N a tio n a l C o uncil d is c u s s e d in i t s f i r s t y e a r (p. 101). 40 B e f o r e h e t o o k up h i s p o s t i n D j a k a r t a, h e m e t w ith s e v e ra l p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s. F orm er Prim e M i n i s t e r A s h id a H i t o s h i t o l d h i m t h a t J a p a n was n o t y e t i n a n e c o n o m i c a l l y s t r o n g e n o u g h p o s i t i o n t o pay r e p a r a t i o n s t o I n d o n e s i a. A n o th e r fo r m e r Prim e M i n i s t e r, Y o sh id a S h i g e r u, r e m a rk e d t o === [PDF page 113] === 104 hlm; " I f I n d o n e s i a w is h e s t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h J a p a n i n b u i l d i n g a new A s i a, J a p a n i s w i l l i n g t o a d d $200 t o $300 m i l l i o n m o r e to th e n e t r e p a r a t i o n s fu n d, b u t i f I n d o n e s ia does n o t w ish to c o o p e r a t e, Ja p an s h o u ld n o t pay a s i n g l e penny i n t o th e re p a ra tio n s fu n d." T akasaki T atsunosuke, c h ie f Japanese d e l e g a t e t o t h e A f r o - A s ia n C o n fe re n c e o f Bandung i n 1955, s u g g e s te d u s in g th e r e p a r a t i o n s program s as p a r t o f a b r o a d e r J a p a n e s e econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n p o l i c y to w a rd I n d o n e s i a. See T ak a g i H i r o i c h i, " I n d o n e s h i a t o Nihon no k e i z a i k y o r y o k u," K o k u s a i J i h y g. n o. 79 ( N o v e m b e r, 1 9 7 1 ), 4 8 - 4 9. 41 T akagi H i r o i c h i. p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n Tokyo. A p r il 21, 1972. 42 T ak ag i, in terv iew and h i s a rticle, 50. K o b a y a s h i A ta r u f i r s t became i n v o l v e d i n I n d o n e s i a a t a m eetin g w ith S u b a rd jo in J u ly 1957. H o w e v e r, i t was a s e a r l y a s 1951 t h a t he f i r s t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t ' s t u d y on r e p a r a t i o n s. That y e a r, a t the r e q u e s t o f Prim e M i n i s t e r Y o s h i d a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r O k a z a k i o r g a n i z e d u n d e r h i s m i n i s t r y th e A sian Problem s R e se a rc h C o u n c il (A j l a Mondai C h o s a k a l ). w hich c o n s i s t e d o f t e n b u s i n e s s l e a d e r s in c lu d in g K obayashi. See K o b a y a s h i, pp. 176- 7 7. 44 S h i r a h a t a T om oyoshi, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n Tokyo. May 9, 1 9 7 2. 45 S h irah ata, in terv iew. 46 S h ir a h a ta Jo in e d the K obayashi p a r ty in D ja k a r ta. Both S h i r a h a t a and K o b a y a s h i w ere t o work t o g e t h e r a g a i n l a t e r in th a t y e ar. 47 T okagi, in te r v ie w. He r e c a l l e d t h a t A l l i s o n h e lp e d t o con v in ce Kobayashi o f th e need to t a l k about the r e p a r a t i o n s w ith th e I n d o n e s ia n gov ernm en t. 48 T ak ag i, i n te r v ie w. 49 F or a d is c u s s io n o f th e p o l i t i c a l developm ents in 1957- 1959, c o n f e r D a n i e l L ev, T r a n s i t i o n t o G uided Dem ocracy. ( I t h a c a, N. Y.: C o r n e l l M o de rn I n d o n e s i a P r o j e c t. C o r n e l l U n iv e rs ity, 1966). 50 T h i s p a r a g r a p h b a s e d on T a k a g i, i n t e r v i e w. ^^M izuno S o h e i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n T okyo, A p r i l 2 4, 1 9 7 2 # M i z u n o, s o n o f Ya.nia.shlta. T a r o ^ was s e c r e t a r y f o r K o b a y a s h i and a c c o m p a n ie d him t o I n d o n e s i a. The t h r e e l a t e r had a s u c c e s s f u l o i l b u s i n e s s i n th e M iddle E a s t. ^^T akagi, in te rv ie w. === [PDF page 114] === 105 53 A n ta r a. November 1 9, 1 9 5 7. 54 Indonesian O b serv er. December 3, 1 9 5 7. 55 P o h a n was w i t h t h e K e n p e l t a i ( J a p a n e s e m i l i t a r y p o l i c e ) d u r in g th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a ti o n, and N is h ijim a f i r s t m e t h i m a t t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e War when b o t h w e r e a r r e s t e d p o l i c e, Pohan as a c o l l a b o r a t o r w ith th e J a p a n e s e S in c e th e end o f th e war he f r e q u e n t l y had v i s i t e d a p a n a s an i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c e r. I n 1 9 57 h e was w o r k i n g as a p u b lic p r o s e c u to r in the In d o n esian c o n su la te in S ingapore. 56 The B u f f a l o C o u n c i l, f o r m e d on D e c e m b e r 2 0, 1 9 5 6, f u n c tio n e d as th e l o c a l governm ent o f C e n tr a l S u m atra, a s s e r t i n g i t s in d e p e n d e n c e from t h e c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t i n 57 S h irah ata, 58, 58 S h irah ata, 59 on T a k a g i, in terv iew. in terv iew. I n d o n e s i a n O b s e r v e r. November 2 9, In fo rm a tio n in the in terv iew. 1957. fo llo w in g paragraph Glp e w a r t a Kem lu. I l l, n o s. 1 1 /1 2 62 A n t a r a. November 3 0, 1 9 5 7. (1957), based 826. I b i d.. December 3, 1957. 64 65 S h irah ata, in te rv iew. S h irah ata, in terv iew. See a l s o " N i h o n n o g a i k o. j ' ^ l s h i j ima S h i g e t a d a s h i, " S a n k e i S h l n b u n. A p ril 8, 1958. I t s h o u l d be ad d ed t h a t i n t h e s e b e h i n d - t h e s c e n e n e g o t i a t i o n s, t h e r e was a n o t h e r a s s i s t a n t, M o r i t a t a h a d w o r k e d i n t h e M i t s u i T r a d i n g Company i n p r e w a r y e a r s, a n d whe n t h e War b r o k e o u t, was February In terv iew ® S hirahata, In D ja k a rta. in te rv iew. P e w a r t a Kemiu , III, 11/12 ( 1957), 826. === [PDF page 115] === 106 68 The n e t r e p a r a t i o n s f i g u r e c h a n g e d f r o m $230 m i l l i o n t o $2 2 5 m i l l i o n a n d a g a i n t o $ 2 2 3 m i l l i o n. The f i g u r e c h a n g e d as t h e am ount o f t r a d e d e b t d i d, s i n c e t h e two f i g u r e s s h o u l d a d d t o $400 m i l l i o n. A s a h i S h l n b u n. M arch 4, 1 9 5 8; a n d M a r c h 1 4, 1 9 5 8. S e e a l s o I n d o n e s i a, H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, (Dewan P e rw ak ilan R a k ja t). R is a la h S em entara. s e s s io n I. m eetings 3 9 -4 4, 1958. 70 A s a h i S h l n b u n. M a rch 8, 1 95 8 a n d S h i r a h a t a, in terv iew. 71 view. A s a h i S h l n b u n. M arch 8, 1 9 5 8 a n d S h i r a h a t a, in te r 72 The f u l l t e x t s o f t h e T r e a t y o f P e a c e a n d t h e R e p a r a t i o n s Agreem ent b e tw ee n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a a p n e a r i n Con t e m p o r a r y J a p a n. XXV ( A p r i l 1 9 5 8 ), 3 0 4 - 0 9; a n d in* I n d o n e s i a, D e p a r t m e n t o f I n f o r m a t i o n. The T r e a t y o f P e a c e and t h e R e p a r a t i o n s Agreem ent c o n c lu d e d betw een I n d o n e s i a and Japan ( S p e c ia l R elease no. 2. 195b). 73 ' “' P r o f e s s o r e m e r i t u s I t a g a k i Y o i c h i, p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n i n Tokyo, A p r i l 13, 1972. A f t e r he h a d t a l k e d w i t h W a j im a i n 1 9 5 3, I t a g a k i w r o t e a n a r t i c l e on t h e same s u b j e c t in Y om iuri S h l n b u n. J a n u a r y 15, 1954. R ep rin ted in h is A j i a t o n o t a i w a (Tokyo; S h in Kigen S h a, 1 9 6 8 ), p p. 4 4 -4 8. 74 A sahi S h ln b u n. A p r il 22, 1955. 75 A li S a stro a m id J o jo, p r i v a t e in te r v ie w in D ja k a r ta, 5, 1971. 76 The t e x t s o f t h e i r a d d r e s s e s a p p e a r i n I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, A s i a - A f r i c a S peaks from Bandung ( D j a k a r t a n. p., 19 55 [ 7 ] ), p p. 1 9 - 2 9; a n d p p. 3 1 - 3 9, r e s p e c t i v e l y. L ik ew ise, l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to J a p a n ’s r o le in th e conference i s g i v e n i n a c l a s s i c s t u d y by G e o r g e M. K a n i n. The A s i a Afh?ican C o n f e r e n c e, B a n d u n g. I n d o n e s i a. A p r i l 1 9 ^ T f t h a c a. N.Y.: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 ^ 5 5 ). January === [PDF page 116] === CHAPTER III THE JAPANESE-INDONESIAN PEACE LOBBY, 1 9 5 I - 1 9 5 7 The r e p a r a t i o n s n e g o t i a t i o n s Decem ber 1957 w ere n o t l i m i t e d governm ent o f f i c i a l s. from S e p te m b e r 1951 t o to I n d o n e s ia n and Ja p a n e se Many p r i v a t e b o t h c o u n t r i e s became i n v o l v e d, citizen s and gro u p s from t h e most n o t i c e a b l e o f w hich were th e form er o f f i c e r s and c i v i l i a n s M ilitary A d m in istratio n (G u n s e ik a n b u ) and th e N a v y 's D j a k a r t a L ia sio n O ffice ( K aigun B u k a n fu ), i n In d o n esian acq u ain tan ces p a rticip a te d d u rin g th a t the n e g o tia tio n s term th e These n e g o t i a t o r s Peace Lobby, as resp ectiv e governm ents c o o p e ra tio n w ith t h e i r p erio d. form ed what t h i s t h e i r p o s i t i o n was t o co operation and b u r e a u c r a t ic lead ers for w riter w ill urge t h e i r th is chapter a lso among t h e p o l i t i c a l, in d u stria l, of Japan. These in f o r m a l n e g o t i a t o r s, w a r t i m e m em b ers o f t h e though to h asten t h e i r peace s e ttle m e n t. w i l l d is c lo s e the tw o t y p e s they were c h a n n e le d i n t o show ing th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e P eace Lobby, e sse n tia lly U sually beh in d th e sc e n e s, o c ca sio n ally t h e i r inform al e f f o r ts mal p o s i t i o n s. o f t h e J a p a n e s e A rm y 's o f p eo p le. o r l o b b y i s t s, w ere One t y p e was c o m p r i s e d o f J a p a n e s e Army a n d Navy who h a d b e e n sy m p a th e tic to I n d o n e s ia 's early stru g g le a n d who l a t e r h a d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i r 107 f o r ind ep en d en ce affectio n fo r Indonesia === [PDF page 117] === 108 by e s t a b l i s h i n g th e Ja p an -In d o n e sia A sso c ia tio n in 1947. These l o b b y i s t s had m a in ta in e d c o n t a c t w ith t h e i r w artim e I n d o n e s i a n f r i e n d s, m o s t o f whom now w e r e p r o m i n e n t in th e so c ie ty o f an i n d e p e n d e n t I n d o n e s i a. th ese in clu d ed the e a r ly lo b b y ists th e im provem ent o f I n d o n e s i a 's fig u res The g o a l s payment o f war r e p a r a t i o n s, im age o f J a p a n and t h e for m a t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l b ond b e tw e e n t h e two p e o p l e s. The o t h e r ty p e o f l o b b y i s t s were th o s e Japanese i n d u s t r i a l i s t s or en tre p r e n e u r s who r e c o g n i z e d t h e o p p o rtu n ity to and tec h n o lo g y In d o n e s ia 's ro les lo b b y ists c ap ital Most o f and d u r in g t h e war i n n atu ral resources. o f both th e peace J a p a n 's n a tu ra l resources. them h ad h a d w ide e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e d ev elo p in g A s ia 's tie In t h is ch ap ter th e and t h e i r p rew ar and w ar tim e a c q u a in t a n c e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d. Peace L o b b y is ts and th e Legacy o f th e P acific War One o f t h e P e a c e L o b b y ' s first g o a l s was t o t r y change th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t's p o licy ag ain st early ment o f t h e w ar r e p a r a t i o n s. Many o f t h e se ttle l o b b y i s t s w ere m e m b e r s o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h was a n n o y e d esp ecially by t h e J a p a n e s e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y ' s p o sitio n th at J a p a n d i d n o t h ave t o pay c o m p e n s a tio n f o r war damages b e c a u s e had not fought w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t's p o s i t i o n, In d o n esian s. the A s s o c ia tio n 's b l a m e d a f o r m e r Army o f f i c e r, M oichiro, In c r i t i c i z i n g leaders the in d ire ctly M a j o r - G e n e r a l Yamamoto C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e S i x t e e n t h Army a n d e x o f f i c i o C hief of th e M ilita r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f J a v a from e a r l y to August o f t h a t y e a r. ^ He h a d e x a m i n e d I n d o n e s i a ' s 1945 o fficial === [PDF page 118] === 109 "O u tlin e o f R ep aratio n s C laim o f I n d o n e s i a a g a i n s t J a p a n," w hich had been p r e s e n t e d t o t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e rn m e n t by t h e DJuanda M iss io n i n December 1951, and had a s s e r t e d th at d a m a g e c a u s e d b y a c t u a l f i g h t i n g was m i n i m a l; the Japanese o ccu p atio n had been b e n e f i c i a l; th at th a t the the Indonesians h a d c o n f i s c a t e d m o st o f t h e J a p a n e s e A rm y's f o u r - y e a r s u p p l y o f food, clo th in g, 160,000 w o rk e rs fe lt th at g rea tly and am m unition; a n d t h a t n o m o re t h a n (rom usha) had been s e n t o u ts id e I n d o n e s ia 's ex aggerated. claim o f lo s in g of Java. 4 m i l l i o n r o m u s h a was Yamamoto a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h o s e Indo n e s i a n w o r k e r s who h a d b e e n l o s t h a d m o s t l y b e e n v o l u n t e e r s. The f a m i l i e s o f the f o r c e, i n any c a s e, v o lu n te ers and th o se a l r e a d y were b e i n g g iv e n c o m p e n s a tio n.^ T h e s e a r g u m e n t s W a jim a a n d o t h e r l e a d e r s n e s ia 's stressed f e w r e c r u i t e d by used a g a in s t Indo c la im o f $1 7.5 b i l l i o n. The m em b e r s o f t h e Ja p an -In d o n e sia A sso ciatio n t h a t the Japanese o c c u p a tio n and th e had o b s tru c te d r a t h e r than a s s is te d Army o f J a v a I n d o n e s ia 's achievem ent o f i n d e p e n d e n c e, by p r o h i b i t i n g in d e p e n d e n c e songs and a n a tio n al impede t h e r i s e ist flag, sen tim en ts a n d by t r y i n g t o the im m ediate p o stw a r d a y s. t h e y p r a i s e d t h e J a p a n e s e N a v y 's a t t e m p t t h e A rm y 's r e l u c t a n c e. o f th ese th at o p e ra tio n s. In e f f e c t, to prom ote i n d e p e n dence and c r i t i c i z e d c o n v ictio n s of n a tio n al I t was o n a c c o u n t t h e P e a c e L obby b e g a n i t s inform al === [PDF page 119] === 110 N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a a n d Ahmad S u b a r d j o Two o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e s in th e P e a c e L obby were N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a and h i s old f rie n d S ubardjo. They first in the n e g o tia tio n s i n May became i n v o l v e d i n d i r e c t l y 1 95 2 w hen S u b a r d j o came t o T okyo t o s o l i c i t N is h ijim a 's h e lp. N i s h i j i m a had gone t o B a t a v i a i n tw e n ty - s e v e n and had worked i n sto re i n B an dung.3 stu d ied 1937 a t th e age o f a la rg e Japanese departm ent W hile a t t h e C hiyoda D e p a rtm e n t S t o r e, he I n d o n e s i a n and Dutch and s o o n d e v e lo p e d an i n t e r e s t in J a v a 's in d e p e n d e n c e m ovem ents. was i n t h i s co n n ectio n t h a t h e h a d come t o know S u b a r d j o. Ahmad S u b a r d j o D j o y o a d i s u r y o, b o r n i n 1 8 9 7, s t u d i e d law a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y been a c tiv e in stu d en t p o l it i c s a s Mohammed H a t t a, M aram is. In th e N e th e r la n d s he had w ith o th e r In d o n esian s C hairm an o f t h e ( Perhim punan I n d o n e s i a ), i n T he H a g u e. R etu rn in g to 1 9 4 1, t h e D utch p o l i c e com rades, the Ja p an e se A u stralia. C o n su lates When t h e War b e g a n i n D e c e m b e r arrested N is h ijim a and h i s a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h n a t i o n a l i s t movement l e a d e r s to g eth er out underground a c t i v i t i e s t h e D utch i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n B a ta v ia and S u r a b a y a.^ a stu d e n t organ in d e p e n d e n c e m ovem ents. B e f o r e t h e W ar, N i s h i j i m a a n d h i s w ith S u b a rd jo and M aram is, c a r r i e d Indo I n d o n e s i a, many o f t h e m em b ers i n c l u d i n g S u b a r d j o j o i n e d t h e ag ain st such Iwa K u s u m a s u m a n tr i, and A l e x a n d e r A n d r i e s I n 1919 S u b a r d j o s e r v e d a s n esian A sso ciatio n iza tio n o f L eiden. group f o r and s e n t them I n 1 9 4 2 whe n t h e y w e r e r e t u r n e d t o Japan, === [PDF page 120] === Ill N i s h i j i m a w ent b a ck t o J a v a t o work f o r I n d o n e s i a ' s in d ep en d en ce. I n M arch 1942 t h e J a p a n e s e B orneo, M oluccas, C eleb es, I m p e r i a l Navy c o n t r o l l e d a n d W e s t New G u i n e a, w i t h i t s q u arters in M acassar lia iso n o ffice T adashi, as a l i n k w i t h t h e D j a k a r t a h e a d q u a r t e r s t e e n t h Army. ^ ( l a t e r in Surabaya). e stab lish ed lia iso n o ffice r e q u e s t o f one o f h i s w hich N i s h i j i m a i n p r e w a r B a t a v i a a n d who was a g r e a t s u p p o r t e r o f I n d o n e s ia n indep end en ce.® the l i a i s o n o ffice S ubardjo, and D jo jo p r a jto n o, S ud iro, W i k a n a, E. t o g e t h e r w i t h whom t h e y form ed "Navy G r o u p. I n O c t o b e r 1 9 44 t h e In d o n e s ia 's Ifhile a t N i s h i j i m a and Y oshizum i became r e a c q u a i n te d w ith t h e i r old f r i e n d s the s o - c a lle d o f th e S ix c o l l e a g u e s, Y oshizum i T a r a e g o r o, who h a d b e e n a j o u r n a l i s t H airru d d in, i n D j a k a r t a, h e a d e d b y V i c e - A d m i r a l Ma eda I t was t h i s jo in e d a t the head Navy L i a i s o n O ffice i n d e p e n d e n c e by c r e a t i n g a s c h o o l, n e s i a M erdeka where s e v e n t y y o u t h s prepared fo r Asrama I n d o from e i g h t e e n t o tw e n ty y e a r s o l d were t r a i n e d for p o sitio n s in th e g o v ern m en t o f an independent In d o n e sia. T h i s s c h o o l was h e a d e d by W ik a n a a n d S u b a r d j o a n d was m a n a g e d by N i s h i m i m a a n d Y o s h i z u m i. y o u th s d e b a te d v a rio u s problem s o ften in v ite d Sukarno, H a tta, and S j a h r i r t o lec tu re.® facin g th e ir S ubardjo, c o u n tr y and a n d Iwa K u s u m a s u m a n tr i, The Navy L i a i s o n O f f i c e ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t In d o n e s ia 's 1945 j u s t a f t e r independence J a p a n 's took p la c e surrender.^ The co n trib u tio n f r o m A u g u s t 15 t o Upon t h i s occasion. 17, === [PDF page 121] === 112 r a d i c a l y o u t h g r o u p s l e d by C h a i r u l S a l e h, M alik, and W ikana demanded t h a t S u k a r n i, Adam S ukarno and H a t ta Im m e d ia te ly p ro c la im ind ep en d en ce. When t h e y r e f u s e d, n a p p e d t h e m on t h e n i g h t o f August 15, t a k i n g D ja k a rta to the suburb o f R engasdenklok, to the youths k id them from try to persuade them t o d e c l a r e in d e p e n d e n c e a t o n c e. S e v e r a l Navy o f f i c e r s, N ish ijim a, Y oshizum i, and S a i to S hizuo a n d Army o f f i c e r s 1966), Independence, d e sp ite C h a i r u l S a le h and t h e t h e J a p a n e s e A rm y 's o p p o s i t i o n. g r o u p who h a d a b d u c t e d S u k a r n o a n d M a ed a 's o f f i c i a l resid en ce T h e r e, w i t h M a e d a 's g u a r a n t e e assem bled as th e C om m ittee" t o d i s c u s s of safety, th e on t h e th irty tex t of th e P roclam ation stron g ly -w o rd ed sta te m e n t: f r o m two When t h e y "A ll e x i s t in g governm ental o rg an s s h a l l b e s e i z e d by t h e p e o p l e th e c o n tr o l th em," S ukarno, H a tta, f o r e i g n e r s who s t i l l S u b a r d j o, Maeda, Y o s h iz u m i, N i s h i j i m a, a com prom ise: "M atters and o t h e r m a t t e r s, in th e fin ally from and M iyoshi a r r i v e d concerning th e t r a n s f e r o f pow er, w i l l be e x e c u t e d i n an o r d e r l y m anner and sh o rte st p o ssib le E arly "In d o n esia n Independence P re p a ra to ry t h e m o r n in g o f A u g u st 17 u n t i l dawn. co u ld n o t agree u r g i n g, W i k a n a, Adam M a l i k, H a t t a a g r e e d t o r e t u r n them t o o 'c lo c k in Indonesia h e lp e d p rom ulgate th e P ro c la m a tio n o f N i s h i j i m a ' 8 and S u b a r d j o 's p eo p le M iyoshi T o s h l k i c h i r o (who l a t e r b e c a m e A m b a s s a d o r t o fro m 1964 t o D jak arta. i n c l u d i n g V i c e - A d m ir a l Maeda, tim e. t h a t m o r n i n g, when t h e was d r a f t e d, tex t o f th e P roclam ation Sukarno and C h a ir u l S aleh ask ed N is h ijim a === [PDF page 122] === 113 and Y oshizum i t o p r i n t t h e L ia iso n O ffic e 's and so i t q uickly P r o c l a m a t i o n w i t h t h e Navy p r i n t i n g m ach in e. was p r i n t e d Maeda a p p r o v e d t h i s request on o f f i c i a l J a p a n e s e Navy p a p e r, a n d was c i r c u l a t e d b y J a p a n e s e Navy a u t o m o b i l e s. Adam M a l i k, who h a d b e e n w o r k i n g i n t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t ne w s a g e n c y, D om ei. u sed t h e n e s ia 's o ffice d e claratio n Independence telety p e t o d i s p a t c h t h e news o f I n d o o f Me r d e k a. A t te n o 'c lo c k c e r e m o n y was c o n d u c t e d i n a m odest f r o n t o f S u k a rn o 's resid en ce. A fte r J a p a n 's the A llies years s u r r e n d e r N i s h i j i m a was a r r e s t e d as a war c r i m i n a l s u s p e c t. la te r in 1948 w i t h t h e last He w a s r e l e a s e d t h r e e group o f s u s p e c t s and r e t u r n e d t o h i s home i n Gunma P r e f e c t u r e. S u b a rd jo 's V isit A fte r th e 1951, th e T o k y o, May 195 2 failu re two g o v e r n m e n t s in D jak arta. When t h i s of the D juan d a M is s io n i n December a g r e e d t o m e e t a g a i n i n May 1 9 5 2 was f o u n d i n f e a s i b l e, S ubardjo v i s i t e d T o ky o f o r t h e w e e k o f May 2 2, 1 9 5 2, n o l o n g e r a s I n d o n e s i a F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r b u t a s an a d v i s o r t o F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r W ilo p o. Upon h i s a r r i v a l S ubardjo c o n t a c t e d N i s h i j i m a who i n t u r n i n t r o d u c e d him t o M a tsu n a g a Yasuzaemon and o t h e r b u s i n e s s m e n. ^ ^ A fte r S ubardjo l e f t f o r home, N i s h i j i m a c i r c u l a t e d t i c a l and b u s in e s s lead ers form er F o re ig n M i n i s t e r 's among p o l i T okyo a n o t e e x p l a i n i n g t h e v i e w s on t h e r e p a r a t i o n s issu e, com m ercial r e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s, h i s m e e ti n g w i t h M atsunaga, im po rtance and th e o f the s p i r i t u a l bond betw een === [PDF page 123] === 114 the two p e o p l e s, 15 N is h ijim a th e n began to p r e s s f o r an early peace s e ttle m e n t. The R o l e o f J a p a n ' s B u s i n e s s m e n; M atsunaga Yasuzaemon, Ayukawa G i s u k e, I s h i h a r a H i r o i c h i r o, Kudo H i r o k i, K ubota Y u ta k a, and I w a ta Y oshio A lthough th e not yet se ttle d J a p a n e s e and I n d o n e s i a n g o v ern m en ts had on a r e p a r a t i o n s ag reem en t, th e s e Jap an ese b u sin essm en p la n n e d huge p r o j e c t s redeem J a p a n 's I n d o n e s i a w hich w ould p a s t c o n d u c t and draw t h e co u n tries A lth o u g h most o f t h e s e p l a n s n e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e d, im p act o f th e s e in d u stria lists M atsunaga Yasuzaemon c lo ser. the subsequent on I n d o n e s i a was i n d e e d r e a l. (1875-1971), P re sid e n t of th e J a p a n C h a m b e r o f Commerce a n d I n d u s t r y, C hairm an o f t h e ress and a s a l i e n t for In d u stria l in the D evelopm ent P l a n s, ra tio n a liz a tio n o f th e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e M a n c h u r i a n Heavy I n d u s t r y Company i n 19 3 7 - 1 9 4 2 a n d o f t h e 1956, and I s h i h a r a H i r o i c h i r o fig u re a d m in istratio n of e le c tr ic i n p r e w a r, w a r t i m e, a n d p o s t w a r J a p a n, Ayukawa G i s u k e 1967), Cong (l880- D evelopm ent I m p e r i a l O i l Company i n (1890-1971), power P resid en t 1954o f the S o u t h S e a s I 4 i n i n g Company a n d o f t h e Ish ih ara In d u s tria l pany were c a l l e d in m id -1 9 5 0 's, because the "In d o n esia t r i o " Com o f t h e i r keen i n t e r e s t in p o stw ar I n d o n e s i a 's n a t u r a l r e s o u r ces.^® M a t s u n a g a was c l o s e l y I n d o n e s ia 's h y d r o e le c tr ic tan ce o f N ish ijim a) tu r a l ex p ert, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h two e x p e r t s p o ten tial. Kudo H i r o k i (an a c q u a in and K ubota Y u ta k a, and w ith an a g r i c u l Iw ata Y oshio. in v o lv ed in e s ta b lis h in g and N o rth Korea w h ile D uring th e 1 9 3 0 ' s Kudo h a d b e e n ch em ical i n d u s t r i e s in M anchuria K ubota Y utaka had b u i l t a l a r g e === [PDF page 124] === 115 h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r dam o n N o r t h K o r e a ' s Kudo a n d K u b o t a h a d w o r k e d u n d e r t h e Amur R i v e r. same m a n, N o g u c h i J u n, a n d d u r i n g t h e War b o t h h a d t a k e n a n i n t e r e s t I n d o n e s ia 's in d u stries Both and had v i s i t e d in d ev elo p in g Indonesia se v e ra l tim es. A f t e r W o r l d War I I In stitu te, Kudo b e c a m e h e a d o f t h e N o g u c h i w hich s t u d i e d and p u b l i s h e d v a r i o u s p l a n s fo r the com prehensive i n d u s t r i a l developm ent o f p o stw a r J a p a n. p u b licatio n s a tten tio n caught the These o f Ayukawa G i s u k e w h o, b e c a u s e he h a d been P r e s i d e n t o f t h e M a n c h u r ia n Heavy I n d u s t r y D e v e l o p m e n t Company b e f o r e t h e w a r, w a s now i n Sugarao P r is o n as a war c r i m i n a l. Upon h i s Ayuka wa i n v i t e d Kudo t o j o i n h i s release in August 194?, company. Kudo a l s o b e c a m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h M atsu n ag a and c o n v in c e d him o f I n d o n e s i a ' s p o ten tial f o r i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t by m e a n s o f J a p a n e s e cap ita l. Kudo l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d N i s h i j i m a t o M a t s u n a g a a n d Ayukawa. K u b o t a Y u t a k a, who a l o n g w i t h Kudo H i r o k i h a d i n i tia ted J a p a n 's one o f J a p a n ' s postw ar i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e s t s first a n d now i s w i t h en g in e erin g c o n su lta n ts t h e N i p p o n K ô e i C ompany. in d ev elo p in g In d o n esia, was D ev o ted t o b u i l d i n g p u b l i c works c o u n t r i e s, he i s referred " Ja p a n 's peace c o r p s w o r k e r " a n d t h e man "who g a m b l e s o n d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s. " B e fo re t h e w ar he h e l p e d t o form th e K orean E l e c t r i c Power Company a n d t h e K o r e a n - M a n c h u r i a n Amur R i v e r H y d r o e l e c t r i c C o m p a n y, w h i c h h a d d r a w n up e x t e n s i v e th e developm ent p la n s Korean and M an ch u rian r e g i o n s. I n th e late for === [PDF page 125] === 116 when J a p a n s h i f t e d i t s became i n t e r e s t e d e x p a n sio n ist p o licy s o u th w a rd, K ubota i n b u i l d i n g dams i n I n d o n e s i a, using the a b u n d a n t w a t e r from N o r t h e a s t S u m a t r a ' s Lake Toba a n d t h e Asahan R i v e r, used a ls o The e l e c t r i c to re fin e power from t h e s e dams c o u l d be alum inum fro m t h e b a u x i t e b r o u g h t i n nearby B in tan I s la n d. The D u t c h E a s t I n d i e s had re g a rd e d the re g io n as a p o t e n t i a l s i t e from governm ent lo n g for in d u stria l d e v e lo p m e n t b u t n e v e r h ad done a n y t h i n g a b o u t i t. Soon a f t e r t h e J a p a n e s e Army o c c u p i e d S u m a t r a i n M arch 1942 K u b o t a was s e n t in June to h e a d th e S u m atran W ater R e s o u rc e s D evelopm ent 20 Survey M issio n, E n s u i n g f r o m t h i s w e r e some p r o j e c t s w h i c h were o n ly p a r t i a l l y com pleted a t th e 1946 K u b o t a a n d h i s colleag u es I w a ta Y oshio had b u i l t end o f th e War. o r g a n i z e d t h e N ippon K o e i. rubber e s ta te s i n M alaya and i n S u m a t r a b e f o r e t h e War a n d h a d t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h o u t S o u t h 21 e a s t A sia. B ecause o f h i s w ide know ledge o f th e r e g i o n he was c o m m i s s i o n e d d u r i n g t h e w a r t o do n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s veys in In d o n esia, esp ecially i n S um atra. s u r r e n d e r I w a t a became i n t e r e s t e d tio n s A fte r J a p a n 's i n re n e w in g econom ic r e l a b e tw e e n J a p a n and S o u t h e a s t A s ia i n t h e b e l i e f p riv ate th at b u s i n e s s w o u ld he t h e i r r e a l d e t e r m i n a n t r a t h e r th e g o v e rn m e n t's trad e p o lic y. sur His e m p h a s is th an on p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t a n d c o m m e r c i a l l o a n s was s h a r e d by t h e J a p a n e s e governm ent i n the e a r ly 1950's and became t h e b a s i s of its o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n on r e p a r a t i o n s. Ish ih a ra H iro ich iro (1890-1971), P re sid e n t o f the I s h i h a r a I n d u s t r i a l Com pany, was a n a d v e n t u r o u s in d u stria list === [PDF page 126] === Ill 118 and a great influence on Japanese-Indcneeian business rela he stressed the favorable psychological effect of an early tions, In 1520 he had begun iron-ore-mining operations in reparations settlement, Malaya in competition with the B ritish tin exploration on (5) Kubota and the Asahan Development Project, 1553-195^ Banka Island off the coast of South Sumatra, After the War Not having accomplished his wartime plans for building Ishihara was attracted by Central and North Sumatra's natural dams on the Asahan River, Kubota ïutaka finally in September resources with an eye to exploring for o il, refining aluminum, and generating electrical power, 22 1.;') went back to Indonesia. There he talked with Djuanda, Ishihara's younger then Chairman of the National Planning Board, about develop brother, Takada Sisaburo, Vice-Director of the Ishihara ing the Asahan region, Djuanda, also an engineer by training, Industrial Company, was a member of the Japanese delegation to the Asia-Africa Bandung Conference in 1555. As the only non-government member of the delegation of th irteen, this might indicate the extent of Ishihara's influence and involvement in Indonesian matters, 21 (l|) Nishijima's V isit to Djakarta, March 1553 shared many of Kubota's views and they become close friends, Djuanda wanted the project at Asahan to produce fe rtiliz e rs instead of aluminum, as Indonesia had a greater need to stimulate agricultural production, Kubota thus returned to Djakarta in early 1954 with a plan for the con struction of an aluminum refinery and fe rtiliz e r factories in While a member of the Japan-Indonesia Association the Asahan area, Djuanda approved the plan and promised to Nishijima was also head of the Sanraei Trading Company wnich present it at a meeting of the c a b i n e t, I n the meantime traded with Indonesia, In connection with his company Kubota met with Prime Minister loshida to urge the Japanese Nishijima returned to Indonesia in larch 1553 for the firs t government to adopt this project and give it financial support, time since the war. During his stay he renewed his old pre if possible through the reparations fund, as Japan did not war and wartime friendships and on March 28, was even able to talk with President Sukarno, He explained Japan's views yet feel ready to provide technical aid to foreign countries, on the reparations issue and recommended Shirahata Toraoyoshi, expand Japan's trade and that they should be used together then the Consul at Surabaya, as a competent diplomat. As with Japan's advanced technology,^® seen already, Shirahata la te r played a significant role in the negotiations, Kubota argued that the reparations payments should be used to Although the reparations talks between Japan and Indonesia were not progressing well at that time, the Indo Ihe real purpose of Nishijima's v isit was to re nesian government nevertheless suggested that the Asahan establish contact with old acquaintances and upon his return. projects be started with $50 million from the projected === [PDF page 127] === 119 rep aratio n s fund. s u n k e n I n d o n e s i a n s h i p s by m e a n s o f t h e salvage though th e m ined. E a r l i e r i n Decem ber 1953 J a p a n h a d a g r e e d fin a l rep aratio n s But i t refused fund even amount h a d n o t y e t been d e t e r to e n d o rs e t h e Asahan p r o j e c t s. T his d isa p p o in te d the I n d o n e s i a n s, who d e c i d e d n o t t o for assistan ce th e Asahan p r o j e c t s. K u b o t a ’ s a lm o st p assio n ate in te rest in Asahan th u s th e R ep aratio n s M a ts u n a g a 's D is p a tc h o f th e F e b r u a r y - M a r c h 1954 did not bear f r u i t before A g r e e m e n t was c o n c l u d e d i n M atsunaga, a f t e r m e e t i n g S u b a r d j o i n May 1 9 5 2, b e g a n y e a r he had p e r s o n a l l y (A Jia K e iz a i C h o sa k a i). head i t s a g ric u ltu ra l a ffa irs B esides n esia expert" lead the Iw ata, In the p re v io u s f i n a n c e d t h e A s i a n Economic R e s e a r c h C ouncil sio n. 1958. Iw a ta M ission t o I n d o n e s ia, c o n c e rn h i m s e l f w ith A sian p ro b le m s. he a sk e d I w a ta t o ask Jap an r e q u e s t i n g I w a ta Y oshio t o sectio n, and i n F e b r u a r y Indonesian In d u s trie s 1954 Survey M is th e M ission c o n ta in e d a n o th e r "Indo from th e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n, M iyoshi T o sh ik ich iro. M iyoshi T o s h i k ic h i r o o f f i c e r in J a p a n 's C onsu late in known S u k a r n o a n d H a t t a istra to r and d u r i n g t h e se rv e d as a p o l i t i c a l S u r a b a y a i n 1926 a n d h a d f r o m 192 7 t o to B a ta v ia as V ic e -C o n su l i n 1941, first L a t e r h e moved 1940, t o M acassar as Consul in o c c u p a t i o n h e was C h i e f C i v i l Admin ( S h i s e i c h o k a n ) o f t h e S i x t e e n t h A r m y 's M i l i t a r y A d m in istratio n of Java in D ja k arta. S h ig e ta d a both p a r t i c i p a t e d in the M iy o sh i and N i s h i j i m a dram a s u r r o u n d i n g === [PDF page 128] === 120 I n d o n e s ia 's p ro c la m a tio n o f Independence i n August 1945. W ith h i s e x t e n s i v e k n o w le d g e o f t h e c o u n t r y and f l u e n c y i n I n d o n e s i a n a s w e l l a s i n D u tc h, he J o i n e d th e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c ia tio n a f t e r th e w ar, B efore g o in g to sta tin g se rv in g as i t s In d o n esia, m anaging d i r e c t o r. I w a t a d r e w up a p l a n th e p ro p o s e d amount o f J a p a n 's r e p a r a t i o n s tal in v e stm e n t and t h e i r im p le m e n ta tio n. not c irc u la ted p u b lic ly, and c a p i A lthough t h i s was was c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y b y D j u a n d a, t h e n D i r e c t o r o f I n d o n e s i a ' s Econom ic P l a n n i n g B o a rd. D juanda w anted t o In d o n e s ia 's in co rp o rate proposal in to F i v e - Y e a r Econom ic D ev elo p m en t P la n b u t w ithout g iv in g c r e d it to tic a l much o f t h e rep ercu ssio n s), Iw ata f o r 1 9 5 6 - 196 O (fearin g in te rn a l p o li and so he a sk e d Iw a ta t o keep h i s proposal c o n fid e n tia l.^ ^ Iw ata had proposed t h a t o f $5 00 m i l l i o n - $ 2 5 0 t o $200 t o $300 m i l l i o n f o r I n d o n e s ia 's s u g g e s t e d f o r m i n g a b i —n a t i o n a l fo r th ese p r o je c ts. was n e v e r f o r m e d, used in in re p a ra tio n s $250 m i l l i o n i n J o i n t p r o j e c t s. various p ro je c ts funds J a p a n 's t o t a l payment c o n s i s t the list la te r n eg o tiatio n s. H is p r o p o s a l l i s t e d econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t^ ^ A lthough t h e b i - n a t i o n a l com m ittee of p ro jec ts The l i s t p r o p o s e d b y I w a t a was con sisted as ric e p r o d u c tio n and f i s h e r i e s and t o l i g h t such as fac to rie s p ro jec ts o f some s i x t y prim ary i n d u s t r i e s f o r cem ent, r u b b e r, p a p e r, T h is became t h e b a s i s a ttach ed and com m ittee t o p r e s i d e o v e r th e i t e m s, most o f w h ich were r e l a t e d m atches. and of th e list such in d u strie s sugar, soap, of rep aratio n s t o t h e R e p a r a t i o n s Agreement o f I 9 5 8. and === [PDF page 129] === 121 A nother o f I w a ta ’s p roposed p r o j e c t s stru c tio n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c power s t a t i o n s was t h e con i n th e Asahan v a l l e y, u s i n g w a t e r fro m Lake Toba i n N o r t h e r n S u m a t r a, p r o j e c t was c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y n ever undertaken because o f i t s posed a survey T his i d e a T his by K u b o t a Y u t a k a b u t was high co st. of n a tu ra l reso u rces, Iw ata a ls o p ro in clu d in g o i l Sum atra, l a t e r was a d o p t e d by I s h i h a r a H i r o ^ c h i r o a n d Kobayashi A ta ru, the l a t t e r h a v in g form ed th e O i l D e v e l o p m e n t C o o p e r a t i o n Company i n o f I w a t a ' s p r o j e c t s was t h e N orth Sum atra I960. co n stru ctio n S t i l l an o th er o f an e i g h t - s t o r y I n d o n e s i a H a l l " i n T okyo t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d a s a n o f f i c e th o s e d o in g b u s in e s s w ith In d o n e s ia and as a h o s t e l fo r stu d en ts and o t h e r v i s i t o r s m ateria lize d in from I n d o n e s ia. 1962 u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s for and h o t e l T his id e a o f the T o n ich i T radgc i n g Company. A lthougli i t n e v e r had any o f f i c e space, In d o n esia H all ( Wisma I n d o n e s i a ) a c c o m m o d a t e d some 500 s t u d e n t s and e v e n became a p o l i t i c a l a ctiv itie s cen ter the (P ersatu an P elan d Jar Indonesian S tu d en ts Indonesia or P P I). u n o fficially rela tio n s, A sso ciatio n I w a ta Y oshio u n d e r M a t s u n a g a 's for tu te lag e c o n t r i b u t e d much t o p o s t w a r J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n a l t h o u g h h i s work d i d n o t lead to th e im m ediate s e ttle m e n t of the r e p a r a tio n s n e g o tia tio n s. Adam M a l i k ' s V i s i t t o Tokyo, 1954 When N i s h i j i m a v i s i t e d D j a k a r t a i n the u n f a v o r a b l e image o f J a p a n and f e l t N i s h i j im a and h i s p re w a r c o l l e a g u e, D jak arta o f f ic e, 1953 he s e n s e d a n eed to Im prove i t. A n d o, who h e a d e d D o m e i ' s t a l k e d to F ujiyam a A i i c h i r o, P resid en t === [PDF page 130] === 122 th e S ociety f o r Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n i n A s ia and P r e s id e n t o f the J a p a n C ha m b e r o f Commerce a n d I n d u s t r y, a b o u t im p ro v in g I n d o n e s i a 's sponsor a v i s i t tic a l o f the because, co u n try. cri T his i d e a a p p e a le d t o F u jiy am a a ls o b ein g th e p r e s id e n t o f a larg e fu tu re bu sin ess tance image o f J a p a n and p e r s u a d e d him t o J a p a n by I n d o n e s i a n J o u r n a l i s t s t h a t had had a branch see (A J ia K y o k a i)^^ facto ry in Java sin ce o p p o rtu n ities o f good r e l a t i o n s h i p s 1 918,^7 he co u ld I n d o n e s i a and t h e im p o r w ith i n f l u e n t i a l I n 1 95 4 Adam M a l i k, s u g a r company Indonesians. a m em ber o f t h e w a r t i m e Domei s t a f f and a r a d i c a l y o u th l e a d e r a t d e claratio n o f independence, the as w e ll as tim e o f I n d o n e s i a 's c h ie f of th e Indonesian g o v e r n m e n t news a g e n c y, A n t a r a; R o s i h a n Anwar f r o m Pedom an of d em o cratic-so cialist lean in g s; n e s i a Raya a l s o M ochtar L ubis from In d o o f a d e m o c r a t i c - s o c i a l i s t b e n t; Mrs. f r o m S u l u h I n d o n e s i a, i n f l u e n c e d by t h e P N I; S u j o t o H arian R a k j a t. r e p r e s e n ti n g I n d o n e s ia 's to Japan. t h a t M alik form ed a f a v o r a b l e th is trip o f Ja p a n and began to a s s i s t, A ccording t o a fter opin io n I n d o n e s ia 's observed th at 1954 I n d o n e s i a n n e w s p a p e r s became more c h a r i t a b l e J a p a n. T h i s in tu r n enhanced J a p a n 's A s i a - A f r i c a n Bandung C o n f e re n c e. later clo se tou ch w ith N is h ijim a, exchanged i n f o r m a tio n and id e a s L ater in p o sitio n (PK I); N ish ijim a though i n d i r e c t l y, peace s e ttle m e n t w ith J a p a n. M a l i k from C o m m u nist P a r t y and o t h e r s were i n v i t e d was a f t e r Supeni in th e tow ard 1 95 5 T h e r e a f t e r Adam M a l i k k e p t and th e tw o f r e q u e n t l y on t h e r e p a r a t i o n s 1957 A n t a r a ' s P r e s i d e n t i n v i t e d issu es. I n d o n e s ia a group === [PDF page 131] === 123 of Japanese J o u r n a lis ts, among whom w a s T a n i g u c h i G ô r ô, p rew ar J o u r n a l i s t i n B a ta v ia ^ ^ and a w artim e member. Thus M a l i k b e g a n t o r e - e s t a b l i s h Domei s t a f f c o n ta c t w ith h is o l d a c q u a i n t a n c e s and t h a t y e a r he became A n t a r a ' s T okyo B ureau C h ief, N is h i j im a and t h e M atsunaga-Ayukawa M is s io n. J u n e - J u l y 1956 I n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 5 when W ajim a E i j i was i n D j a k a r t a, N ish ijim a p rep a red a J o in t note B atav ia, w ith h i s co lleag u es from now m em b ers o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n: Ish ii T aro, S ato N obuhide, note t h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t a m i s s i o n h e a d e d by a n i m p o r t a n t a n d in flu e n tia l and S h i b a ta Y a i c h i r o. ^ ^ f i g u r e w i t h one o r two a s s i s t a n t s I n d o n e s i a t o work o u t a p o l i t i c a l so lu tio n. In t h i s be s e n t t o They s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e m i s s i o n be s e n t b e f o r e t h e A s i a - A f r i c a n Bandung C o n f e r e n c e a n d t h a t W ajim a b e r e p l a c e d. A lthough in f a c t he was n o t r e p l a c e d u n t i l A p r i l 1 9 5 7, t h e sug g estio n to send a h i g h - l e v e l m i s s i o n t o I n d o n e s i a was a c t e d u p o n i n 1 9 5 6 a n d N i s h i j i m a was a member o f i t. In e a rly in re p a ra tio n s 19 5 6 when I n d o n e s i a was c l a i m i n g $1 b i l l i o n a n d J a p a n was t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f betw een $200 m i l l i o n a n d $550 m i l l i o n, Ja p a n 's decided to in n arro w in g t h i s take the i n i t i a t i v e bu sin ess lead ers g a p. i n A p r i l 1956 t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Ch am ber o f Commerce h e l d a m e e t i n g i n D j a k a r t a, p r o v i d i n g an o p p o r t u n i t y ess leaders se lec te d, t o go t o Indonesia. i n c l u d i n g Kano H i s a o, fo r Japanese b u sin A d e leg atio n of fifte e n l a t e r G o v ern o r o f Chiba was === [PDF page 132] === 124 P refectu re, and S ato K ilc h ir o, T r a d i n g C o m pany. P r e s id e n t o f the M itsu i Taking a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s m e e tin g, M atsunaga a n d Ayukawa f o u n d N i s h i j i m a a p l a c e i n t h e Japanese d e le g a tio n and i n s t r u c t e d him t o p r o c u r e a n i n v i t a t i o n to In d o n esia f o r them. th at Since I n d o n e s i a h a d no i n f l u e n t i a l b u s i n e s s N is h ijim a c o u ld a p p ro a c h, he w ent i n s t e a d t o cal p arty lead ers by J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s the p o l i t i the only group t h a t co u ld sp o n so r a v i s i t lead ers. N a h d l a t u l Ulama P a r t y ' s N ish ijim a approached th e a d v iso r, was M i n i s t e r o f V e t e r a n A f f a i r s, o f t h e NU, D J a m a l u d d i n M a l i k. D a c h l a n I b r a h i m, who and g a in e d h i s D achlan th e n o b t a i n e d th e n e c e s s a r y on May 9, lead ers funds su p p o rt. from a n o t h e r l e a d e r N ish ijim a re tu rn e d to Jap an 1956. The M a t s u n a g a - A y u k a w a M i s s i o n t h u s was o r g a n i z e d and v i s i t e d I n d o n e s i a from June 19 t o J u l y 1956. A lth o u g h t h e m i s s i o n a c t u a l l y was n o t s e n t by t h e g overnm ent, th e p o rt, governm ent Japanese did le n d i t s a s s i s t a n c e and sup a n d M a t s u n a g a was g i v e n t h e t i t l e o f an A d v iso r t o th e Japanese F oreign M in istry. I n c l u d e d i n th e m i s s i o n were Yaraada K a t s u n o r i f r o m t h e Shikoku E l e c t r i c H i r o k i from t h e f o r I n d u s t r i a l D evelopm ent P l a n s, Congress S a s a k i S a t o r u from th e son, K in jiro, rep aratio n s, B esides d is c u s s in g m i s s i o n o b v i o u s l y was i n t e r e s t e d about h y d ro e le c tric I m p e r i a l O i l C o m pany, Ayukawa G i s u k e ' s and N i s h i j im a S h ig e ta d a. th e P o w e r Company, Kudo in ta lk in g power and o i l e x p l o r a t i o n in I n d o n e s ia. d i d n o t s u c c e e d i n n a rro w in g th e gap betw een I n d o n e s i a 's and J a p a n 's rep aratio n s t e r r a s, n o r was i t a b le to agree === [PDF page 133] === 125 i n d u s t r i a l developm ent p la n s. d is a g re e d w ith each o th e r a p la n f o r the Ayukawa a n d M a t s u n a g a o f t e n b u t t h e y d i d manage t o A s a h a n R i v e r d e v e l o p m e n t a l t h o u g h t h e p l a n was never re a liz e d. 45 Ayukawa t r i e d t o from I n d o n e s i a b u t l e a r n e d t o h i s im p o rtan t con cessions and E u ro p e a n s. obtain o il a lre a d y had been given to the A m ericans 46 p rev io u s y e a r In d o n esia had h e ld th e n a tio n 's e l e c t i o n s w hich p ro d u c e d f o u r m ajo r p a r t i e s: Indonesian N a tio n a lis t and th e concessions d isap p o in tm en t th a t a l l N i s h i j i m a h a d a n o t h e r p r o j e c t i n m ind. the fo rm u late P arty In th e first general t h e M asjum i, ( P N I ), t h e N a h d l a t u l Ulama, I n d o n e s i a n Communist P a r t y In d o n e s ia 's n e w l y e l e c t e d p a r l i a m e n t a l r e a d y was i n J e o p a r d y, in te rn a l Even th e f i g h t i n g was h i n d e r i n g i t s p ro d u ctiv ity. I n d o n e s i a n Army was n u r t u r i n g d o u b t s about i t s Aw are o f t h e g r o w i n g p o l i t i c a l p o w e r o f t h e tary, N ish ijim a s e c r e tly v isite d D ep u ty -C h ief o f S t a f f o f the Japanese the efficacy. Indonesian m ili C olonel Z u l k i f l i L u b is, th en I n d o n e s i a n Army, whom many e x p e c t e d t o become t h e lea d er of In donesia. 48 N ish ijim a e x p la in e d the purpose o f t h e M atsunaga-A yukaw a M is s i o n, hoping to e l i c i t from t h i s c o n te n d e r and c r i t i c support o f S u k a rn o 's u n p r o d u c t i v e econom ic p o l i c y. ever, C o lo n e l L ubis s h o r t l y i n August C o m m u n is t l e a n i n g s and C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n, how t h e r e a f t e r r e s i g n e d h i s p o s t and 19 56 b e c a m e t h e m i l i t a r y L a t e r, he became a f o r m i d a b l e S um atra R e b e l li o n. p o ten tial p resid en tia l commander o f N o r t h S u m a tr a. c ritic o f Sukarno and l e d th e === [PDF page 134] === 126 The M a t s u n a g a - A y u k a w a M i s s i o n r e t u r n e d t o J a p a n on July 1956. A yukawa h a d l o s t i n t e r e s t Kudo d i e d w i t h i n tw o w e e k s. have a cc o m p lish e d n o th in g, activ e ro le I n d o n e s i a and Thus t h e m i s s i o n a p p e a r e d t o and o n ly M atsu n ag a r e t a i n e d in In d o n esian a f f a i r s. S u b a rd jo 's Second T rip to '.y i n Tokyo, J u ly hearin g th is 1957^^ 1 9 5 7 f o r m e r F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S u b a r d j o was a p p o in te d as I n d o n e s i a ’ s Am bassador t o and t h e y S w itzerlan d. Upon N i s h i j i m a a g a i n m o b iliz e d M atsunaga and o t h e r s, in v ite d S ubardjo to Japan to d is c u s s th e r e p a r a tio n s paym ent, S u b a rd jo 's i n Ja p a n and th e n p e rs u a d e d F in a n c e M i n i s t e r stay Ik e d a H ayato to sparse M atsunaga a g re e d t o the term s g iv e him enough A m erican d o l l a r s supply to p u rch ase S u b a r d jo 's M atsunaga, b e f i t t i n g h i s and b u s i n e s s c irc le s, Japan I n d u s t r i a l people to t a l k A iich iro, Takasaki Kaya O k i n o r i; of h ead q u arters Among t h o s e Ayukawa G i s u k e, T atsunosuke, Ichim ada H is a to, and f i n a l l y in the stay c a l l e d i n were Ish ih ara H iro ich iro, Fujiyam a and K obayashi A ta ru; p o l i I k e d a H a y a to, M iki T ak eo, Takagi H i r o i c h i, T o m oy oshi, and Arakawa M a s a ji D uring S u b a r d jo 's tic k e t. em inence i n b o th p o l i t i c a l s e t up a s o r t to S ubardjo. lead ers lead ers airp lan e from J a p a n 's C lu b b u i l d i n g i n T okyo t o w h i c h h e summoned bu siness tic a l f i n a n c e Dr. and S h irah ata from t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y. in Japan, N ish ijim a to o k him a l s o s e e fo r m e r Prim e M i n i s t e r Y o sh id a S h i g e r u i n S u b a r d j o r e t u r n e d on J u l y O iso. 20 a n d r e p o r t e d t o D j u a n d a and P r e s i d e n t Sukarno th e p o s i t i o n s of th e Japanese lead ers === [PDF page 135] === 127 on r e p a r a t i o n s. to ta l T h i s t i m e I n d o n e s i a a n d J a p a n a g r e e d on a amount o f n e a r l y upon a l l o c a t i n g o n ly rest for $1 b i l l i o n. $ 20 0 m i l l i o n "econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n, " c e lla tio n s o f I n d o n e s ia 's c l a i m e d $3 0 0 m i l l i o n trad e How ever, J a p a n i n s i s t e d fo r rep aratio n s b a s e d on l o a n s and th e and t h e can d e b ts w hereas In d o n e s ia in r e p a r a tio n s. S u b a rd jo 's v isit T ok y o a p p a r e n t l y h e l p e d t o p r o d u c e t h e so -called D juanda mem orandum o f J u l y C h ap ter I I. 1957, m entioned in S u b a rd jo w rote t o N i s h i j i m a i n A ugust 1957 t h a t I n d o n e s ia n governm ent s t i l l tio n s issu e problem s p u p i l s. H e should not very th a n k f u l t r e a t the f o r M a ts u n a g a 's a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e tw o rep aratio n s a n d t h a t w hen t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s were s e t t l e d P r e s i d e n t would l i k e hopefu lly u n selfish t o pay a v i s i t w hile to Japan as a g e s tu r e M a t s u n a g a was s t i l l O b v i o u s l y M a ts u n a g a was g r e a t l y In d o n e s ia 's n eg o tiatio n s in a s s i s t i n g the i n good a p p r e c i a t e d by lead ers. I s h i h a r a, S h im izu H i t o s h i, and Shim onaka Y a sa b u ro i n D j a k a r t a, S e p t e m b e r 1957 When W a j i m a ' s Japanese governm ent successor, i n August s e ttle m e n t w ith In d o n e s ia, ists a lso effo rts rep aratio n s of frien d sh ip, "as i f he were a s c h o o l He a d d e d t h a t D j u a n d a a n d S u k a r n o w e r e the (10) co u ld n o t approach th e r e p a r a them a n u m b er o f t i m e s stre et-b arg a in in g. h e alth. the w i t h an o pen m ind and t h a t h e h a d t o e x p l a i n t h e tea ch e r facin g h is co u n tries Takagi H ir o ic h i, 1957 t o h a s t e n i t s many o f t h e s h u t t l e d b e tw e e n t h e two c a p i t a l s. urged the peace in fo rm a l peace lobby Among t h e m w e r e === [PDF page 136] === 128 Shim izu H i t o s h i, h u rried v is its Ish ih ara, to In d o n esia j u s t b efore a r r i v e d on S e p t e m b e r 2 2, fin al a n d S h i m o n a k a Y a s a b u r o, who made 1957. the K obayashi p a r ty A l l o f them f e l t th at s e t t l e m e n t was n e a r a n d h o p e d t h a t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e rn s, w hether p r iv a te or p u b lic, w ould be r e f l e c t e d Shim izu H i t o s h i h a d b een an a r d e n t s u p p o r t e r o f PanA sianism d u r in g th e w ar and had worked i n S i x t e e n t h A rm y's p r o p a g a n d a te a m. Since In d o n e s ia fo r the the Jap an ese in v a s i o n i n M a rch 1 9 4 2 h e h a d b e e n s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d I n d o n e s i a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e m ovem ents and h o p e d t h a t could h e lp In d o n e s ia a c h ie v e tn is the Japanese g o al. Upon h i s o ccu p atio n arriv al I n d o n e s i a i n 1942 S h im iz u o r g a n i z e d a p r o p a g a n d a te a m, e x p la in in g J a p a n 's p o l i c i e s and aim s o f l i b e r a t i o n I n d o n e s i a w hich he h a d l e a r n e d d u r i n g h i s W ith in a m onth he h a d c r e a t e d t h e " T r i p l e - A M o v em en t," named slo g an, "N ippon th e L e a d e r o f A s i a, tecto r o f A sia, Nippon th e S h i m i z u made c l o s e d uring the the voyage to J a v a. for its L ight N ippon t h e P r o o f A sia."^ ^ c o n ta ct w ith In d o n esian lead ers o c c u p a t i o n p e r i o d and m a i n t a i n e d them th r o u g h o u t the postw ar y e a rs. V/hen S u k a r n o a n d H a t t a l e d t h e p o p u l a r m o v em en ts. P u t e r a a n d Djawa H ô k ô k a i. t h e y p u t S h i m i z u, M iyoshi, and S a i t o S h iz u o 1 9 6 6 ) on t h e i r ad v iso ry (Am bassador t o committee.Shimizu a group o f I n d o n e s ia n a c t i v i s t s agan d a work. Due t o M enteng S t r e e t, the In donesia, a ls o o rganized t o h e l p him w i t h h i s lo catio n of h is t h e g r o u p was c a l l e d the 1964o ffice prop o n No. 39, " M e n t e n g 39 G r o u p, " === [PDF page 137] === 129 or the "Sendenbu (Propaganda S e c tio n ) Mohammad Y a m i n, C haerul S a le h, "Im prudent" s u p p o rt ag ain st Ju ly 1945. A ll o f h is ta n t p o sitio n s and S u k a r n i. fo r I n d o n e s ia 's t h e A rm y ’ s p o l i c y, a fter G roup." In cluded Because o f h i s i n d e p e n d e n c e, w h i c h was S h i m i z u was o u s t e d f r o m J a v a i n In d o n e s ia n c o l l e a g u e s assum ed im p o r 1945. Yamin b e c a m e M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e 1 9 5 1; S a l e h became M i n i s t e r o f V e t e r a n s A f f a i r s a n d S u k a r n i, w i t h Adam M a l i k, p arty, M urba, i n 1957; organized the r a d ic a l p o l i t i c a l 1948. A fter jo in in g the Ja p a n -In d o n e sia A sso c ia tio n, S him izu form ed th e J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n C u l t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n 1950. 54 In the e a r ly Shim izu r e c a l l s S ukarni, on t h e phase of th e r e p a r a tio n s t h a t h e was c o n t a c t e d by Y a m in, S a l e h, a n d Adam M a l i k a n d w a s a s k e d a b o u t J a p a n ' s p o s i t i o n s rep aratio n s issu e. A f t e r 19 55 S h i m i z u h a d v i s i t e d and, on S e p t e m b e r 1 1, in h is talk s, cap a citie s In d o n esia fre q u e n tly 1 9 5 7, h e m et w i t h P r e s i d e n t Sukarno a s a m em ber o f t h e e x e c u t i v e b o a r d o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n and Chairm an o f t h e J a p a n e s e In d o n esian C u ltu ra l A s s o c ia tio n, to d is c u s s the 55 p r o b l e m. S u k a r n o i n d i c a t e d t h a t he w ished to rep aratio n s m ajor p o in ts and s t a t e d th at Ja p a n s h o u ld pay a t n e s ia 's ever, d u rin g K o b a y a sh i's $170 m i l l i o n least trad e im m inent v i s i t se ttle $450 m i l l i o n a n d t n a t the Indo d e b t c o u ld be s o l v e d l a t e r. How S u k a r n o s u b s e q u e n t l y d i d n o t m eet w i t h K o b a y a s h i and did n ot r e p e a t th e s e f ig u r e s w hile He a l s o e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e t o v isit K o b a y a s h i was i n D j a k a r t a. Japan fo r fo u r days in === [PDF page 138] === 130 N o v e m b e r b u t d i d n o t come u n t i l t h e fo llo w in g Ja n u ary, S h im iz u 's t h u s was l i m i t e d. ro le in th e n e g o tia tio n s I n S e p te m b e r 1957 I s h i h a r a a l s o w ent t o d is c u s s w ith P re s id e n t tio n s and p r i v a t e S u k a r n o wa ys i n w h i c h J a p a n ' s c a p i t a l w ould b e n e f i t E a r l ie r in February 1956, h is C om pany, a n d t h e D a iw a B a n k, In d o n e s ia 's company, th e Ish ih ara I s h ih a r a 's v isit t i m e n o t f a v o r e d b y many J a p a n e s e. A iich iro, S h irah ata, for Ish ih ara re p re se n tin g Japanese arriv e repara economy. In d u strial bank in D jak arta, t o I n d o n e s i a was t h i s F o re ig n M in is te r F ujiyam a and N is h ijim a a l l to see the to g e th e r w ith S u m atran -b ased I n d o n e s ia n b u s in e s s m e n, had form ed a p r i v a t e t h e Bank P e r d a n i a, Ind o n esia c o u l d f i n d no r e a s o n I n d o n e s i a n P r e s i d e n t when K o b a y a s h i, g o v e r n m e n t a n d b u s i n e s s, was a b o u t t o In d o n esia w ith o f f i c i a l cred en tials from J a p a n ' s Prim e M i n i s t e r, Shim onaka Y asab u ro and h i s secretary Kaneko T o m o k a z u, a l s o a m em ber o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n, made a t r i p t o I n d o n e s i a, t o o, d u r i n g t h e w e e k o f S e p t e m b e r 2 5, 57 1957. Shim onaka Y asab u ro ( I 878- 196I ), P r e s i d e n t o f H e ib o n s h a, a l a r g e p u b l i s h i n g company, Indonesian a f f a i r s became i n v o l v e d i n 19 32 whe n h e m e t Mohammed H a t t a who h a d s l i p p e d away t o J a p a n t o stru g g le first so licit a g a i n s t Dutch c o l o n i a l i s m. subsequent su p p o rt o f I n d o n e s ia 's su p p o rt fo r I n d o n e s ia 's A lth o u g h S h im o n a k a 's i n d e p e n d e n c e movement p r o v e d i n e f f e c t u a l a g a i n s t t h e Dutch p o l i c e, a f t e r m eeting H a tta, Shim onaka e s t a b l i s h e d t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n and became i t s P re s id e n t w ith H a tta as V ic e - P r e s id e n t. In 1954 === [PDF page 139] === 131 the tw o h a d m e t t h e v i s i t i n g M a l i k, who h a d b e e n i n v i t e d and A n d o 's s u g g e s t i o n. P resident o f A n t a r a. Adam t o T o k yo b y F u j i y a m a a t N i s h i j i m a ' s In t h e i r talk s w i t h Adam M a l i k t h e y concerned th em selv es w ith th e d e la y ed n e g o ti a t i o n s peace se ttle m e n t. w ith H a tta, A lthough th e they did d isc u ss acq u ain tan ces on t h e two v i s i t o r s c o u ld n o t meet the r e p a r a tio n s is s u e w ith such as A rudji K artaw in ata, S p e a k e r o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s; Mohammad N u r, M i n i s t e r o f S o c i a l W e l f a r e; and S a n u si H a r d J a d in a ta, M i n i s t e r o f Home A f f a i r s. D uring S h im o n a k a '3 v i s i t t o I n d o n e s i a i n S eptem ber 1957, h e, Ish ih ara, a n d K o b a y a s h i a l l m et a t resid en ce. The d i s c u s s i o n t h e r e C onsul-G eneral T a k a g i' s ended w ith t h e i r support t h e K o b ay ash i p r o p o s a l and w ith t h e i r a g re e m e n t t o u rg e Prim e M in is te r K ish i and F o re ig n M in is te r Fujiyam a a ls o to support (11) Omar T u s i n ' s V isit to Tokyo, O c to b e r 1957^^ When Mohammed H a t t a w e n t t o T ok y o i n O c t o b e r 195 7 f o r the su b seq u en tly unsuccessful rep aratio n s h e t o o k w i t h h i m Omar T u s i n, econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t. n eg o tiatio n s, on e o f I n d o n e s i a ' s ex p erts Omar T u s i n a l s o was h e a d o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n C h a m b e r o f I n d u s t r y, was a g o o d f r i e n d o f D ju a n d a, and e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t, he h a d b e e n e d u c a t e d i n J a p a n. en ro lled in T o k y o 's M i l i t a r y a f t e r t h e War h a d t r a n s f e r r e d D j u a n d a a n d was a c t i v e He h a d Academy i n N o v e m b e r 19 4 4 b u t W ased a U n i v e r s i t y ' s m ent o f E n g i n e e r i n g from w hich he g r a d u a t e d i n R etu rn in g to In d o n e s ia, D epart 1951. Omar T u s i n h a d b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h as an e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s u lta n t and as === [PDF page 140] === 132 m em ber o f t h e M asJ ural p a r t y. In Ja n u a ry a s k e d by t h e B u f f a l o C o u n c i l ( Dewan B a n t e n g ) t o d r a w up a plan 195 7 Omar T u s i n was f o r t h e e x t e n s i v e econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f S u m a tr a, b u t because o f h is a s s o c ia t io n w ith th e B uffalo s e c e s s i o n i s t m o v e m e n t, h e was a r r e s t e d F e b r u a r y and A ugust 1957• C ouncil and i t s and d e t a i n e d betw een Soon a f t e r h i s release h e was a s k e d t o accompany H a t t a t o Tokyo. Omar T u s i n d e s c r i b e d h i s p l a n f o r t h e o f Sum atra t o areas th is of in te n siv e w r i t e r in 1972. developm ent S um atran c o a s t — Palem bang, and s e a r o u t e s He h a d p r o j e c t e d s e v e r a l ("pocket a re a s") alo n g th e P a d a n g, Medan, e t c. — w i t h l a n d c o n n e c t i n g them. B o t h Omar T u s i n a n d H a t t a had em phasized th e need f o r such p r o j e c t s p a r t to av o id p o s s ib le developm ent o u tsid e C om m u n is t d i s t u r b a n c e s Java, in Jav a, and had s u g g e s te d f in a n c in g th e s e developm ents w ith th e r e p a r a tio n s fund and Ja p a n e se but did serve to in tro d u c e in te rn a l ten sio n s (12) to th e T h e i r i d e a s were n o t a d o p te d the re le v a n c e rep aratio n s o f I n d o n e s ia 's talk s. N is h ijim a and th e Kobayashi M ission to N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r 19 57 The o f th e c re d it. D jak arta, r o l e s t h a t N i s h i j i m a a n d S h i r a h a t a a s members K o b a y a s h i M i s s i o n a n d Adam M a l i k p l a y e d b e h i n d t h e scenes of th e f i n a l phase o f the r e p a r a tio n s n eg o tiatio n s from N o v e m b e r 25 t h r o u g h D e c e m b e r 8, 1 9 5 7 h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n C h ap ter I I. again in the im portance th is ch ap ter, c o n tex t of the o f N is h ijim a 's th e ir ro les s h o u ld be view ed Peace Lobby, e m p h a siz in g th e clo se r e la tio n s h ip w i t h Adam M a l i k === [PDF page 141] === 133 to th e f i n a l b reakthrough i n th e s ta te m e n t over the i n c l u s i o n o f the "n o n -d iscrim in ato ry trea tm e n t" ■ An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e T his a c c o u n t o f th e 1957 s u g g e s t s th at the M atsunaga, S u b a rd jo, here lo b b ied c e n tra l fig u res a n d Adam M a l i k. o r th e F oreign M in istry in g the Japanese cab in et were e f f e c t i v e of th e ir resp ectiv e its th ese tro u b les, lo b b y ists, d e c i s i o n on t h e p articu larly b e liev in g t h a t th e Ja p a n e se and th e N ish ijim a, frien d sh ip, In d o n e sia n s had a s p i r i N is h ijim a and M atsunaga s e r v e d as a l i n k b etw een the p ro -In d o n e s ia n Ja p a n e se, Indon esian le a d e rs. iatio n s Dur in c lu d in g su ccessiv e a n d Adam M a k i k, m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r the co u n tries. I n d o n e s ia and d u rin g th e In d o n e s ia n S ubardjo, t u a l bond. p rim arily th e Prim e M i n i s t e r t h e P r e s i d e n t, various p o l i t i c a l changes, in tro d u ced co n cern s b u t w ith r e l a t i v e g o v e rn m e n t's d e la y in war d e b t payment t o g o v e rn m e n t's were N i s h i j i m a, The o t h e r s The c e n t r a l f i g u r e s th e y were c l o s e P e a c e Lobby P e a c e L obby f r o m 1 9 5 1 t h r o u g h for th e ir resp ectiv e ly m inor r e s u l t s. because cla u se. the Japanese In th e in d u stria lists, and f i n a l phase o f th e n e g o t M a tsu n a g a recom mended s e n d i n g K o b a y a s h i t o D j a k a r t a as an o f f i c i a l envoy. both fo rm ally Thus K o b a y a s h i a n d S h i r a h a t a f u n c t i o n e d a n d p u b l i c l y w h i l e N i s h i j i m a a n d Adam M a l i k fu n ctio n ed in fo rm ally and p r i v a t e l y. A ll a c h ie v e d t h e i r g o a l s b e c a u s e th e y were i n f l u e n t i a l i n b o th g o v e rn m e n ts. Indeed, ro les they of lo b b y ist o ften f u n c t i o n e d somewhere b e tw e e n th e and d e c is io n - m a k e r. S u b a r d j o c e a s e d t o be a n o f f i c i a l n e g o t i a t o r i n A p r i l 1 9 5 2 when h e r e s i g n e d a s === [PDF page 142] === 134 F oreign M in is te r, th e t i t l e y e t on s u b s e q u e n t t r i p s o f A dvisor t o t o Tokyo h e h e l d th e F o reig n M in is te r. N ish ijim a was a n e x e c u t i v e m em ber o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n, a p riv ate o rg a n iz a tio n, but in th e h eld th e t i t l e o f a R esearch O f f ic e r o f the F o reig n M in is try. Adam M a l i k was t h e p r e s i d e n t th e f i n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s he o f a news a g e n c y s p o n s o r e d by I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t, a n d M a t s u n a g a was h e a d o f t h e C ongress f o r I n d u s t r i a l D evelopm ent P la n s and o f th e E le ctric Power I n s t i t u t e, He a l s o h e l d t h e title o f A dvisor the F oreign M in istry. The a c t i v i t i e s o f the P e a c e L o b by i n t h e r e p a r a t i o n s n eg o tiatio n s seem t o c a l l i n t o the Japanese and I n d o n e s i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t r i e s, C en tral rev eals t h a t the i n f l u e n t i a l q u e stio n th e lead ers com petence o f but in and a c t u a l d e c i s i o n m a k e r s a r e t o be f o u n d o u t s i d e the A l t h o u g h S u k a r n o was P r e s i d e n t o f I n d o n e s i a, he d i d n o t in terv en e in the r e p a r a tio n s issu e form al n e g o tia tio n s u n til fact a f te r Ju ly team s. 1957. When g o v e r n m e n t a l l e a d e r s c o u l d n o t a g r e e among t h e m s e l v e s on t h e r e p a r a t i o n s th e n e g o tia to r s ' lim ited. ex p erts" not F oreign M in is tr ie s. i n t h e J a p a n e s e and I n d o n e s i a n The i m p a c t o f t h e s e form al s e ttle m e n t i s co n tacts f u n c t i o n s were B ut m o s t o f t h e m a j o r p r o p o s a l s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h th e p riv a te on t h e issu es, ev id en t. betw een th e J a p a n e s e and t h e f u l n o t only in fo rm al n e g o tia tio n s The p r e w a r a n d w a r t i m e Indonesians to th e peace s e ttle m e n t b u t a ls o to Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e l a t i o n s. proved u se fu tu re === [PDF page 143] === FOOTNOTES; CHAPTER III ^The o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o was a d m i n i s t e r e d by d i f f e r e n t m i l i t a r y g r o u p s: J a v e by t h e S i x t e e n t h Array ( H q.: D j a k a r t a ); S u m a t r a by t h e T w e n t y - f i f t h Army ( H q.: P a d a n g ); B o r n e o (now K a l i m i n a n t a n ), C e l e b e s (now S u l a w e s i ), M o l u c c a s, a n d West New G u n i e a b y t h e S e c o n d S o u th e r n F l e e t (Hq.: _ M a c a s s a r, l a t e r S u r a b a y a ). For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s, se e K i s h i K o i c h i, e t a l., I n d o n e s i a n i o k e r u Nihon G ^ s e i no kenkyu (Tokyo: K in o k u n iy a S h o te n, 1 9 5 9 ), p p. 109bb. B a s e d on c l a s s i f i e d m a t e r i a l ( m i m e o g r a p h e d ) p r e p a r e d by t h e A s i a n A f f a i r s B u r e a u o f t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, 1 9 5 4, He w a s e x p e l l e d f r o m T okyo I m p e r i a l U n i v e r s i t y on a c c o u n t o f h i s s u p p o s e d m e m b e rs h ip i n t h e J a p a n Communist P arty. F o r f u r t h e r b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n, s e e "S u g a o no Indoneshia" ( 1 ), M a in ic h i S h in b u n. N ovem ber_l6, 1969; and M a su d a A t a u. I n d o n e s h i a g e n d a i s h i ( T o k y o: Chûô K ô r o n S h a. 1 9 7 1 ), p. 1 4 7: -------------------- ---------------^M asuda, p p. 1 3 9, 1 45, 147. -^Maeda, b o r n i n 189 8. s e r v e d a s a Navy a t t a c h e i n The H a g ue i n 1 9 3 9, a n d i n 1940 J o i n e d t h e J a p a n e s e d e l e g a t i o n fo r tra d e ta lk s w ith th e N eth erlan d s I n d ie s. See i b i d.. -------p. 145. ^ P o r t h e l i f e s t o r y o f Y oshizum i ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 4 8 ), s e e I b i d., p p. 1 3 8, l 4? l Kiyom a K a zu o [ p s e u d o n y m f o r N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a ], " A J i a r o n i n d e n, Y o s h iz u m i T a m e g o r o," S h i s o no K a g a k u. S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 4, 5 9 - 6 8; a n d T o gaw a S a c h i o, ‘'S h ow a k a i j i n t a n, s h i s h i Y oshizum i T am eg o ro." B e s s a t s u B ungei S h u n ju. Septem ber I 963, 192-210. M asuda, p. 1 6 8; a n d "Sugao no I n d o n e s h i a " (2) M a i n i c h i S h i n b u n, November I 8, 1969. S u d i r o became G o v e rn o r o f S u l a w e s i i n 1 9 5 1 a n d M ayor o f D j a k a r t a i n 1 9 5 3. W ikana, H a i r r u d i n, a n d D J o j o p r a j t o n o w e r e members o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y ( P K I ). M asuda, p. 168. B a s e d on K i s h i, p p. 4 9 2 -5 0 6; and M asuda, pp. 169- 8 3. ^*^The E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e f r o m B e n e d i c t R. A n d e r s o n, Some A s p e c t s o f I n d o n e s i a n P o l i t i c s u n d e r t h e 135 === [PDF page 144] === 136 J a p a n e s e O c c u p a t i o n; 1 9 4 4 -1 9 4 5 ( I t h a c a. N.Y.: Modern In d o n e s ia i^ ro je c t, C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity, 1961), pp. 84-85. ^^Adam M a l i k, R i w a j a t d a n P e r d. l u a n g a n S e k i t a r P r o k l a m a s l K e m e r d e k a a n I n d o n e s i a. 17 A u g u s t u s 19 4 5 CD.1 a k a r t a: w i d j a y a, l 9 Y o;, p. 5 12 "S u g a o no I n d o n e s h a i " November 1 8, 1 9 6 9. M ainichi Shinbun. ^ % a i n i c h i S h i n b u n. May 2 9, 1 9 5 2. 14 N ish ijim a S h ig etad a, p r iv a te in te rv ie w in D ja k a rta, F e b ru a ry 10, 1972; and S u b a r d jo, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w in D j a k a r t a, J a n u a ry 1 2, 1972. 15 N ish ijim a: N ish ijim a S h ig e ta d a, S ubarujo g a ish o y o j l n e no y o b o s h o ( t y p e d, no d a t e ). [ s i c ] k i k o k ugo P o s s e s s e d by ^ ^ F o r f u r t h e r b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n, s e e N ihon K e i z a i S h i n b u n S h a, e d., W a t a k u s h i n o r i r e k i s h o (36 v o l s.; T o k y o: N i h o n K e i z a i S h i n b u n É h a, 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 6 9 ), XXI, 2 8 5 - 3 5 9; 265- 3 5 8; and X X II, 7 - 7 0, r e s p e c t i v e l y. 17 M a t s u n a g a _ Y a s u z a e m o n, " I s a i, Ayuka wa s a n, " Ayukawa G i s u k e s e n s e i t s u i s o r o k u. c o m p i l e d by t h e Ayukawa M e m o ir s P u b l i s h i n g C o m m i t t e e ( T o k y o: Ayukawa M e m o ir s P u b l i s h i n g Com m itte e, 1968), p. 363. 18 N ish ijim a, in te rv ie w. 19 Sha, Daiyamondo S h a, N ippon Koei (T o k v o: 1971), p. 18. D a iv a m o n d a ^ °I b i d. p. 19. 21 d e t a i l s o f I w a ta 's c a r e e r, see K obayashi K azuhiko^ A Jia o k a k e r u o to k o (Tokyo: K okusai K a i h a t s u p riv ate , Itasak a in terv iew 23^ I s a o, M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r o f Bank P e r d a n i a, in D ja k a r ta, J u ly 10, 1970. Japanese d e le g a te s, see In d o n e s ia, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, A s i a - A f r i c a Speaks from Bandung ( D l a k a r t a; n. p., n, d, ), p. 2 3 2, 24 From N i s h i j i m a ' s l e t t e r t o P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o, 13, 1957. A copy o f t h i s l e t t e r i s p o s s e s s e d by N i s h i j i m a, 25 _ _ N a g a t s u k a T o s h i k a z u, K u b o t a Y u t a k a 1966 D e n k i J o h o S h a, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 3 6 7. ------------------------- — — ^^I b i d.. p. 3 0 5. fTokvn; === [PDF page 145] === 137 319. 325- 2 6. 361. ^^M asudi, p. 123. 31 J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Gaimusho s h o k u i n r o k u 1 9 4 0. p. 23; and 1941, p. 2 7. For d e ta il s of h is e x p erien ces during t h e w a r, s e e M iy o sh i T o s h i k i c h i r o, "Jawa s e n r y o g u n s e i k a i k o r o k u, " K o k u s a i M o n d a i. A p r i l 1965 t o J a n u a r y 1 9 6 7. 32 See h i s s tu d y r e p o r t, In d o n e s h ia n i t a i s u r u b a is h o 410 h d a i ( m i m e o g r a p h e d, J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n, n. d. ) w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s t o 19 56 a n d I n d o n e s i a ' s v iew s on t h e r e p a r a t i o n s. ^^K obayashi, p. 183. 34; 3^I b i d.. p p. 1 8 1, 185- 8 9. 35, See C h a p te rs IV a n d V. The S o c i e t y was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 19 5 4 a s a q u a s i g o v e rn m e n ta l agency u n d e r th e F o r e ig n M in is tr y to im plem ent J a p a n ' s econom ic and t e c h n i c a l a i d t o f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s. a b s o r b e d M a t s u n a g a ' s A s i a n Econom ic R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l an d o th e r r e l a t e d A sian stu d y g ro u p s. L a t e r i n 196I t h e S o c ie ty was r e n a m e d a s t h e O v e r s e a s T e c h n i c a l C o o p e r a t i o n A g e n c y 37 M asuda, p. 1 2 1. I n 1941 he became V i c e - C h a ir m a n o f t h e S o u t h S e a s A s s o c i a t i o n ( Nan y o K. v o k a l ), a n d C h a i r m a n o f, t h e S o u t h e r n [ A s l a n ] E c o n o m i c A f f a i r s S o c i e t y (N a n p o K o n d a n k a i ). I n 1 9 42 h e was a p p o i n t e d a s a c o u n s e l o r t o t h e M n i s t r y o f t h e Navy a n d t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h o u t S o u t h e a s t A sia. See F u jiy a m a A i i c h i r S, " F u jiy a m a A i i c h i r o, " W a ta k u s h i no r i r e k i s h o. e d. by Nihon K e i z a i S h in b u n Sha (T okyo: N ihon K e i z a i S h in b u n S h a, 1 9 5 7 ), IV, 3 5 9 -6 1. N ish ijim a, in te rv ie w. 39 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r Adam M a l i k, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D ja k a rta, February 24, 1972. M asuda, p. 145. ........................ J o i n t n o t e i s e n t i t l e d, T a i I n d o n e s h i a b a i s h o k a i k e t s u s o k u s h i n no tam e n i ( t y p e d, J a n u a r y 2 4, 1940 S a t b w e n t t o B a t a v i a a s D i r e c t o r o f t h e B a t a v i a u i r i c e o f t h e E c o n o m i c B u r e a u o f t h e T okyo M u n i c i p a l G o v e r n m ent. W orking c l o s e l y w i t h t h e J a p a n e s e C o n s u l a t e - G e n e r a l i n B a t a v i a a n d t h e N a v y, h e was i n v o l v e d i n a n t i - D u t c h === [PDF page 146] === 138 I n t e l l i g e n c e a c t i v i t i e s a n d d r e w up a p l a n t o r e s c u e t h e n a t i o n a l i s t l e a d e r s H a t t a and T ham rin from D utch s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d s e n d t h e m t o J a p a n b u t i t was u n s u c c e s s f u l, I s h i i was an a c t i v e b u s i n e s s m e n i n B a t a v i a. B oth he and S a to J o i n e d N ls n ijim a and S u b a rd jo in t h e i r a n ti- D u tc h u n d erg ro u nd a c t i v Ï It* o ‘M a s u d a. p p. 1 4 5 - 4 7. S h i b a t a was t h e Commander o f th e Second S o u th ern F l e e t. 42 43 44 T h is p a r a g r a p h b a s e d on N i s h i j i m a, Aaahi S h in b u n. June 20, M atsunaga, "Isa i, in te rv ie w. 1956. Ayukawa s a n, " p p. 364-65. 45 As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y, I w a t a Y o s h i o o f t h e A s i a n Econom ic R e s e a r c h C o u n c il a n d K ubo ta Y u ta k a o f N ippo n Koei a l s o t r i e d t o d e v e lo p t h e Asahan R i v e r. 46 T a k a g i H i r o i c h i, " I n d o n e s h i a t o N i h o n no k e i z a i k y o r y o k u, " K o k u s a i J i h y o. n o. 79 ( N o v e m b e r, 1 9 7 1 ), 4 8. 47 1955 g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s a l l o c a t e d 57 s e a t s f o r t h e P N I, 57 f o r t h e M a s j u m i, 45 f o r t h e NU, a n d 39 f o r PKI o u t o f a t o t a l o f 257 s e a t s. 48 N ish ijim a, in te rv ie w. L u b i s was c o n s i d e r e d a s one o f t h e b e s t o f f i c e r s o f t h e J a p a n e s e - t r a i n e d v o l u n t a r y arm y ( PETA ), 49 U nleas o th e r w is e m e n tio n e d, b a s e d on N i s h i j i m a, i n t e r v i e w. 50 51 August 14, From S u b a r d j o ' s in fo rm atio n here p h o to g rap h ical reco rd s. F ro m S u b a r d j o ' s l e t t e r t o N i s h i j i m a, 1957. P o s s e s s e d by N i s h i j i m a. d ated ^ 5 3 - 6 6, and [Ja k a ta n i i^osnio. Ko S u k a r u n o D a i t o r y o t o w atakushi ( 1 ), I n d o n e s h i a B u n p:a k u. n o. 3 ( 1 9 7 2 ), 6 1 - 6 8. 53 .. £ H i Ê £ â, I s a n a c r o n y m f o r P u s a t Tenasca R a k i a t. th e C e n te r o f Popu l a r T 6 r c 2, w hlcn e x i s t e d f r o m M a rch 1 9 4 3 t o J a n u a r y « 1 9 4 4 whe n i t was r e p l a c e d by a n o t h e r m a s s - b a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n, DJaw a H ô k ô k a i. o r t h e J a v a o p u lar S ervice A sso c ia tio n. B o tn w ere s u p e r v i s e d by t h e Japanese o ccu p atio n a u th o r ity. See K i s h i, p p. 341- 5 2, 383- 9 5. 54 S h im iz u, H i t o s h i, p r i v a t e I n t e r v i e w i n Tokyo. A p ril 25, 1972. 55 M ain ic h i S h in b u n. Septem ber I 3, 1957. === [PDF page 147] === 139 57 ^ I s p a r a g r a p h i s b a s e d on Shim onaka Y a s a b u ro B io g ra p h y P u b l i s h i n g C om m ittee, Shim onaka Y a s a b u r o i i t e n i n ° t h e ‘s i v f ^ o \ h ^ A * 1 9 6 5 ), p p. 1 Ü- 2 2. k a n e k o was a" c i v i l i a n of youth a f f a i r s, h e lp in g Shim izu H i t o s h i w ith h i s p ro p aganda work. I n May 1 94 5 t h e v ^” ^ f S r a t e a l l t h e y o u t h g r o u p s o f J a v a and c o n d u c t e d a h u g h d e m o n s t r a t i o n i n B a n d u n g, West J a v a, t o c a l l f o r t h e r i s e of n a t i o n a l i s t sen tim en t. Se e M a s u d a, p. 1 6 5, P e b r u a r y ^ 9 ^ ^ 1 9 7 2?*^ T usin, p r iv a te in terv iew in D jak arta, === [PDF page 148] === CHAPTER IV THE REPARATIONS PAYMENT AND ITS EFFECTS, 1 9 5 8-1 96 5 J a p a n 's rep aratio n s In d o n esia, am ounting t o $223*08 m i l l i o n, w e re t o be p a i d o v e r a p e r i o d o f t w e l v e y e a r s in th e form o f s e r v i c e s and c a p i t a l g o o d s. b o t h b u s i n e s s m e n and p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s who sa w g r e a t b e n e f i t s in th e o f how t h e by whom i t was u s e d a r e rep aratio n s se n sitiv e e n ta ile d m an ip u latio n o f the w i l l be e x p lo r e d l a t e r, the b a sis u s e d up by a b o u t I 9 6 5. stra te s because alleg ed ly upon I n d o n e s i a ' s these q u estio n s ch ap ter provides an o v e r a l l p i c th at nal p o litic a l and l e f t th e f u n d was a c t u a l l y The c h a p t e r w i l l show t h e m a j o r i t e m s f u n d was s p e n t. rep aratio n s a l s o demon f u n d h a d a more l i m i t e d e f f e c t econ o m y t h a n h a d b e e n e x p e c t e d o r i g i n a l l y S u k a rn o 's p r e s t i g e, th at W h il e a n d a r g u e s t h a t many o f t h e p r o j e c t s m oreover, they fund and in v o lv e m e n t t h e r e i n sta tistic s f o r w hich t h e t h a t the The was u s e d a n d fro m 1958 t o 1970 a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s o f Japanese and p r o j e c t s th is p ro ject. fund a c t u a l l y the p a r t o f le a d e rs o f both c o u n tr ie s. o f th e paym ents tw o c o u n t r i e s, in b ein g in v o lv e d in t h i s q u estio n s tu re T his a t t r a c t e d were o f l i t t l e I n d o n e s ia n 's tro u b les p la n n e d to enhance use t o th e in efficien t d elay ed th e and, governm ent and i n t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f many p r o j e c t s many o t h e r s u n f i n i s h e d o r i n o p e r a b l e. 140 co u n try, === [PDF page 149] === An O v e r a l l P i c t u r e o f th e Payment and P rogram s S c h e d u l e d, A p p r o v e d, a n d D i s b u r s e d Am ou nts o f P a y m e n t Under th e R e p a r a t i o n s Agreem ent J a p a n a g r e e d t o $20 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y d u r i n g t h e d u rin g the last first elev en y ears and t w e lf th y e a r. d if f e r e d co n sid erab ly from t h i s d i d e n d on A p r i l 1 4, 1970, e x a c tly Agreem ent to o k e f f e c t on A p r i l 1 5, 1 9 5 8,^ R eceiving r e p a r a tio n s schedule Each y e a r t h e J a p a n e s e and $ 3.08 The a c t u a l p a y m e n t s alth o u g h th e tw elv e y e a rs paym ents a f t e r the was a new e x p e r i e n c e n e s i a and o r g a n iz in g paym ent sc h e d u le s pay fo r Indo and p r o j e c t s to o k tim e. and I n d o n e s ia n governm ents w ere su p posed t o make p l a n s f o r the ty p e s of p ro jects out w ith th e annual f u n d o f $20 m i l l i o n, to be c a r r i e d but during th e first y e a r t h e y w e r e n o t f o r m u l a t e d u n t i l M a rch 1 8, 1 9 5 9, ^ o n l y t w o weeks b e f o r e t h e end o f th e m onths. fis c a l year, E v e n d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d y e a r t h e p l a n n i n g was n o t a s e f f i c i e n t as m ight have b e e n h o p e d.^ o b stacle. je c ts a d elay o f e le v e n P la n s were n o t the only E v e n a f t e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d a g r e e d on t h e p r o and paym ents and c o n t r a c t s w ere c o n c l u d e d, t h e i r actu al a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t e n was d e l a y e d. The a n n u a l p a y m e n t s s c h e d u l e d paym ents ($20 m i l l i o n f o r t h e a n d $ 3*0 8 m i l l i o n f o r t h e paym ents. tw e lfth year) T a b l e IV—1 i n d i c a t e s cum u lativ e breakdow ns. payment f o r th e th a t y e a r 's c a n b e v i e w e d on tw o l e v e l s: t h e As t h i s fo u rth y e ar, first elev en y e ars and th e y e a r l y approved th e s e in b o th y e a r ly and tab le show s, the approved $ 39*52 m i l l i o n, w en t f a r o v e r sch ed u led p a y m e n ts w h i le th e appro v ed payment f o r === [PDF page 150] === 142 t^ O N r - f in OJ 05 ITN 01 CTN CTN OVI o o o o o o o o (\i cr VO C O W ON CTN CVI 43c 03 O fn H K CO 3 OÜ Cd 73 OVJ •H o a LTN 7033X3P Si o LTN C3N VO 01 CTN CM on OVI CTN VO VO 43" VO r ^ VO VO VO VO On o 00 03 CO C^ CTN 03 03 QM) 0)03 Cd 03 C s 73 S 03 o Sn-3-VO 03 h t£l 03 -H VO cd 03 03 03 -p ^ Sn S-, S 73 03 03 03 03 rH tH % 03 03 5M 3 73 O C3 O 03 03 03 73 E Sh r H Q 7 3 C.73 3 r-, 73 03 E 03 03 03 03 C cd E Cd 03 03 73 a o c O E 03 CO cd to c Sh CO P ^ Cd 73 73 O cd to O CO 3 cd P P O Ü Q 03 44 03 03 O 03 73 Sh 73 J 3 73 73 03 Sh Cd 03 03 P h cd O C CO 03 C P SH cd Sh ECd CO E 03 Sh ON 03 03 03 E r-l S-h Io 73 ^ 0310 rH CO cd hH 03 03 Q. JO E 73 O 03 o CL o Cd 03 c 03 03 73 03 03 03 cd cd 4-5 t H 03 rH C 0) Em Q Cd Cd 03 •H Cd 03 • 5 t. 73 C 3 C O ■H t û 3 ^ *H Q - rH 0) O 03 ^ rH Sh 03 ^ 73 o c s-Cd c a Cd O m.3m- < CM CO 73 03 P IfN CO 03 CO CO 03 CU •*CO 4J 03 CNJ 03 E Q % Q 03 D 03 rH 03 03 03 OO 03 P-* Ph 03 O 7 3 Cd H 4-5 W CO 03 U U U 73 JK =cc) 03 #H 03? 03 P CO C3N GO l O LA 03 03 03 O 73 C + 5 C 73 U O O 03 O O «H fcO "H b 0 4 -5 O 4J 73 C -rl 0; w >. CO Z k cn 03 co 03.1 C Do Ü O O 3 CO E r-H "O cO cn 73 73 c c CO 03 4H 3 CO C 03 OiO CO 4-> 73 CO Q 03 tù c ^ 03 === [PDF page 151] === 143 the fifth year f e ll alth o u g h th e sh o rt of th e s c h e d u le d paym ent am ount, cum ulated d is b u rs e d amount n e v e r e x c e e d e d th e s c h e d u l e d am ount. rep aratio n s tio n The I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t u s e d t h e fund f o r l a r g e p r o j e c t s, o f the y early a llo ca ted obvious t o Japan t h a t f u n d s a n d by 1963 i t In d o n e s ia 's became f o r e i g n ex ch an g e d e b t s w ould h a v e t o be c o v e r e d by t h e r e p a r a t i o n s ernm ent r e p o r t p o in te d o u t in consum ing a m a jo r p o r fund. A Ja p a n e se gov 1964 t h a t t h e fu n d s were r u n n ing o u t,^ The l a r g e s t p r o b l e m i n t h e r e p a r a t i o n s p a y m e n t s came a f t e r D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 5 w hen I n d o n e s i a b e g a n r e g u l a r l y th ese p aym ents t o se ttle loans. A g r e e m e n t was p u t i n t o e f f e c t, developm ent p r o j e c t s sep arate Soon a f t e r t h e R ep aratio n s I n d o n e s i a d e c i d e d o n some t o b e c a r r i e d o u t by J a p a n e s e from th e r e p a r a t i o n s to use fund. loans, On O c t o b e r 1 6, 1959 a f t e r about a y e a r o f n e g o t i a t i o n s F o re ig n M in is te r s Fujiyam a A i i c h i r o a n d S u b a n d r i o d r e w up t h e s e lo a n s and a g re e d t h a t t h e y w o u ld be r e p a i d i n A m erican d o l l a r s. I f In d o n e s ia co uld n o t r e p a y th e m, t h e y w ould be d e d u c t e d from t h e r e p a r a t i o n s. These l o a n s w e r e made t o 1963» to ta lin g I n d o n e s i a f o u r t i m e s b e tw e e n 1959 a n d $8 1.7 m i l l i o n, o r $94.76 m i l l i o n w ith i n t e r e s t. S u c h r e p a r a t i o n s —s e c u r e d l o a n s t e c h n i c a l l y w e r e s e p a r a t e the re p a r a tio n s paym ents, b u t from the program s th em se lv e s o f te n sup p lem en ted each o t h e r f i n a n c i a l l y. Repayment o f t h e s e b e g a n i n A u g u st 1961 and c o n t i n u e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d loans u n til N ovem ber I 9 6 5, when t h e a t t e m p t e d c o u p o f O c t o b e r 1965 d i m i n is h e d I n d o n e s ia 's alread y scanty fo re ig n currency h o ld in g s === [PDF page 152] === 144 and p re v e n te d f u r t h e r paym ents. b a d t o be u s e d t o T able IV -1. Then t h e r e p a r a t i o n s cover th ese o u tstan d in g lo an s, fund a s show n i n C o n s e q u e n tly, m ost o f th e re m a in in g r e p a r a t i o n s program s were t e r m i n a t e d o r s u s p e n d e d. The R e p a r a t i o n s Program s The R e p a r a t i o n s A g r e e m e n t o f 1 9 5 8 c o n t a i n e d a l i s t of six categ o ries rep aratio n s o f program s and p r o j e c t s fu n d s w ould be u s e d. f o r w hich th e These w ere: and c o m m u n icatio n s, power d e v elo p m e n t, tra n sp o rta tio n i n d u s t r i a l develop m ent, a g r i c u l t u r a l and f i s h e r i e s d ev elo p m en t, m in in g and serv ices. These em braced n e a r l y a ll in d u stries tio n a l l is t set fo rth s i x t y - s i x more s p e c i f i c and an a d d i categ o ries be c o n s id e r e d f o r r e p a r a t i o n s funding. ic a l su p p lies, Koran ( I s l a m i c S c r i p t u r e ), p rin tin g o f the a s tr o n o m ic a l equipm ent. trie s, h o tels, T h e s e i n c l u d e d med E x c e p t i o n s w e r e some s e r v i c e and indus and d e p a r tm e n t s t o r e s, w hich l a t e r w ere m arked f o r l o a n s s e c u r e d by t h e r e p a r a t i o n s D uring the e n t i r e tw e n ty - s ix m ajor p r o j e c t s fund. tw e lv e -y ea r p e rio d, a to ta l w ere a p p r o v e d and f i n a n c e d by t h e rep aratio n s fu n d, a lth o u g h n o t a l l o f th e s e had been com pleted by t h e last sc h e d u le d payment i n je c ts to taled $77.63 m i l l i o n, A ll tw e n ty -s ix pro o r 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l rep aratio n s fund o f $223.08 m i l l i o n. Among t h e m w e r e a n irrig a tio n flo o d c o n tro l p r o je c t in East Java; p a p e rm ills N o rth S u m atra, South K a lim a n ta n, and South S u la w e s i; fac to rie s i n Bandung and D j a k a r t a; in East Java, The m o s t e x p e n s i v e tex tile and w a te r-p o w e r system s p r o j e c t was a dam c o s t i n g === [PDF page 153] === 145 $ 1 9, 2 3 7 * 0 0 0, w h i c h was b u i l t in K aran k ates on t h e u p p e r p a r t o f th e B ran tas R iv er in East Ja v a. The e n t i r e b r o k e n down i n t o stru c tu re rep aratio n s fiv e p ro jec ts fund i s categ o ries. receiv ed shown i n As t h e t a b l e 21 p e r c e n t o f t h e T ab le IV-2 show s, i n f r a fu n d, heavy in d u stries 33 p e r c e n t, lig h t in d u stries in d u strie s 17 p e r c e n t, sind c o n s u m e r g o o d s 4 p e r c e n t. A nother 4 p e r cen t o f th e train in g f u n d was u s e d f o r f e l l o w s h i p s con nected w ith th e s e p r o j e c t s the R e p a ra tio n s M ission expenses When t h e rep aratio n s San F r a n c i s c o Peace demand t h a t o f the co m p en satio n. as th e t a b l e The r e s u l t of th e th a t th e 4 p e r c e n t w a s made i n One o f t h e Peace T reaty w o u ld be p a i d L a te r Japan conceded to c a p i t a l goods a ls o d em o n strates, d ev iatio n Tokyo. the r e p a r a tio n s a cc o u n te d f o r only 6 p e r cent o f th e sid erab le and to o f th e Jap an ese p eo ple i n p ro d u c tio n, s a lv a g in g and o t h e r w ork." only and f i r s t w e re d e c i d e d upon a t t h e 14 t h a t form o f " s e r v i c e s n e s ia 's C onference in 1951, th e stip u la te d in A rtic le the serv ice f o r I n d o n e s ia n s, and th e re m a in in g 6 p e r c en t o f th e fund went to s e r v i c e s 15 p e r c e n t, from t h e p ro jec ts Indo should c o n s t i t u t e a c t u a l paym ents w as, o rig in a l "serv ices" t o t a l paym ent and t h a t consum er g o o d s, i n d i c a t i n g in itia l con co n cep t. was a n e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t r a i n i n g program f o r I n d o n e s ia n y o u th.^ A p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 s t u d e n t s w ere t o be s e n t t o Japan each y e a r b eg in n in g in i 960, fo r fiv e of u n iv ersity to seven y ears part e d u catio n, a n d some 250 y o u n g I n d o n e s i a n s w e r e t o go t o J a p a n f o r up t o tw o a n d h a l f === [PDF page 154] === 146 TABLE IV -2 DISTRIBUTION OF REPARATIONS FUND AND REP ARATIONS-SECURED LOANS BY CATEGORIES Major Categories Reparations Payment (in millions of) III. Rep.-s e c u r e d loans Payment (in mi llions Capital Goods 153.83 69 48.70 59 45.98 21 12.85 16 Infrastructure projects Brantas and Riam Kanan River development 30.31 14 Bridge 9.39 6.25 Docks 6.28 6.60 33 27.35 33 Heavy Industry projects 1.4.19 Machinery and ships 74.19 33 27.35 33 Light Industry projects 33.66 15 8.50 10 Paper mills 17.94 8.50 10 Plywood plants 6.64 Weaving and spinning plants 9.08 Consumer Goods 2.33 Service Industries 36.89 11 33.00 40 Hotel construction 20.78 22.00 27 Department 10.33 11.00 13 Office buildings 5.78 stores Fellowships 8.56 Reparations Mission expenses and miscellaneous services l4.4iJ TOTAL $ 2 2 3.07^ 100? $ 81.70 99%b this column are rounded, this total does not amount to $223.oa million, which should be the official total amount of payment. The total does not add up to 100?, rounded. Source: as figures of this c ol umn are Based on Japan, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Bureau of Trade Promotion, Keizai kyoryoku no een1o to mondaiten. 1 9 7 0. pp. 308- O9 I === [PDF page 155] === 147 years o f o c c u p a tio n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g firm s and governm ent o f f i c e s. t o be s e n t i n f i v e y e a r s in p riv ate A l t o g e t h e r 500 s t u d e n t s w e r e a n d 1 75 0 t r a i n e e s in seven y e a rs. Under i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r a c t s s e v e r a l d o z e n more I n d o n e s i a n s w ere t o be g iv e n t e c h n i c a l train in g p lan ts b e in g c o n s tr u c te d as r e p a r a t i o n s and o th e r f a c i l i t i e s p ro jec ts. receiv e In a l l, 2,5 0 0 I n d o n e s i a n s were t o some k i n d o f t e c h n i c a l o r e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g th e R eparatio n s an e stim ate d i n o r d e r t o manage t h e under A greem ent. R ep a ra tio n s- S e cured Loans R e f e r e n c e a l r e a d y h a s b e e n made t o I n d o n e s i a ' s W ith t h e s e h o tels In d o n e sia undertook ten p r o je c ts: in D jak arta, P la b u h an R atu and B a li; a departm ent s t o r e Surabaya; a b ridge o v er the rep aratio n s Some o f t h e s e p ro jec ts; a p o rt dock in p r o j e c t s w ere com bined w i t h fo r in stan ce, c e r ta in elem en ts by $ 4.5 m i l l i o n fro m t h e the b a s ic secured lo an s. rep aratio n s fund. and h o t e l s w ith fu n d and $7.51 m i l l i o n p ro jects. A fu ll financed The M u s i R i v e r $4.28 m i l l i o n from r e p a r a t i o n s to g eth er 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e was d e v o t e d t o m a c h i n e s a n d s h i p s (27 p e r c e n t ). lo a n s o f $28.05 T able IV -2 exam ines t h e s e p r o j e c t s w ith the re p a ra tio n s lo an s p r o je c ts c o n stru ctio n o f t h e s e h o t e l s were b r i d g e p r o j e c t was a r r a n g e d s i m i l a r l y, from th e r e p a r a t i o n s a paper a n d 16 s h i p s a n d 10 c o a s t a l t h e h o t e l s was c o v e r e d b y r e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d m illio n but Jo g jak arta, M u si R i v e r i n P a l e m b a n g; m i l l i n B an juw angi, E a s t J a v a; p a t r o l b o a t s, 7" four larg e (West J a v a ), in D jak arta; lo an s. (33 p e r c e n t) === [PDF page 156] === 148 E conom ic E f f e c t s o f th e R e p a r a tio n s Program s P a y m e n t o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s was s c h e d u l e d s o a s n o t to upset th e J a p a n e s e economy. The P e a c e Ja p a n and I n d o n e s i a r e c o g n i z e d i n resources of Japan are not s u f f ic ie n t, a v i a b l e economy, m eet i t s A rticle 4 th at "the to m ain tain t o make c o m p l e t e r e p a r a t i o n f o r a l l d am age a n d s u f f e r i n g c o u n tries its T re a ty betw een the f o r th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia and o t h e r c a u s e d by J a p a n d u r i n g t h e w a r a n d a t t h e sa m e t i m e o th er o b lig a tio n s." The b i - n a t i o n a l R e p a r a t i o n s Agreement th e n p r o v i d e d i n i t s A rticle 2 th at the re p a ra tio n s " s h a l l b e c a r r i e d o u t i n s u c h a m a n n e r a s may. n o t p r e j u d i c e th e norm al tr a d e betw een Jap an and t h e R e p u b lic of In d o n esia, n o r im pose a d d i t i o n a l e x ch a n g e b u rd e n upon J a p a n. " Through out the p e rio d s o f n e g o t i a t i o n a n d p a y m e n t, J a p a n made p o s i tiv e u n d e rs ta n d in g and used th e r e p a r a t i o n s use o f t h i s prom ote t h e i r e x p o r t s. th is T his a l r e a d y h a s b e en m e n tio n e d and s e c t i o n w i l l e x a m i n e m ore c l o s e l y of the re p a r a tio n s th e econom ic e f f e c t on J a p a n a s w e l l a s on I n d o n e s i a. The t o t a l a m o u n t o f J a p a n e s e r e p a r a t i o n s to the f o u r S o u th e a s t A sian n a ti o n s ip p in e s, Burma, and S outh V ietnam, o f In d o n e sia, th e came t o T h i s was t o b e p a i d f r o m 1955 t h r o u g h y e a r l y paym ents o f a p p ro x im a te ly t o be p a id P h il $1,152 m i l l i o n. ® 1976, m aking a v e r a g e $52 m i l l i o n. The h e a v i e s t y e a r s w e r e t o b e I 9 60 a n d 1 9 6 2, w h e n, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e sch edu le, $75 m i l l i o n was t o b e p a i d a n n u a l l y. The m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s was t o b e p a i d b y t h e e n d o f 1 9 6 8, a f t e r w h ic h t h e a n n u a l comm itm ent w o u ld d r o p t o less === [PDF page 157] === 149 than $45 m i l l i o n, 9 These f i g u r e s a r e b a s e d on p a y m e n t s c h e d u l e s, b u t th e a c t u a l payment f i g u r e s I n d o n e s ia 's prolonged p r e p a r a tio n s. one o f t h e h e av y y e a r s, m illio n but the th e d iffered For exam ple, in i 960, s c h e d u l e s p a y m e n t was t o be a c t u a l p a y m e n t was o n l y l a t t e r a m o u n t was 1, 2 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n ' s th at year, o r $4.1 m i l l i o n. t o t a l ex p o rts Thus t h e r e p a r a t i o n s prove harm ful to J a p a n 's expo rts com pete w i t h i t s e lsew h ere. $75 $49.1 m i l l i o n, T his exports due t o d id not to In d o n e sia, nor d id they A c c o rd in g t o a J a p a n e s e governm ent s u r v e y, some o f t h e p r o d u c t s p r o v i d e d by t h e r e p a r a t i o n s h a d t o be f i n a n c e d fo reig n currency. and f r e i g h t e r s, R ailro ad s, e le c tr ic g en erato rs, tru ck s, f o r e x a m p le, r e q u i r e d s t e e l w hich J a p a n c o u l d m a n u f a c t u r e o n ly by i m p o r t i n g i r o n o re and o t h e r raw m ateria ls. As a n o t h e r e x a m p l e, 3 0.7 p e r c e n t o f th e r a i l r o a d co n stru ctio n costs cargo v e s s e ls depended upon f o r e ig n and 1 5.4 p e r c e n t o f th e e x p e n se s currency. for D espite R e p a r a tio n s A g re e m e n t's p r o v i s i o n a g a i n s t r e p a r a t i o n s the pay m ents t h a t m ig h t im pose a n " a d d i t i o n a l f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e b u r den upon J a p a n," Japan had to s a c r i f i c e an n u ally a c ertain amount o f f o r e i g n ex ch a n g e b e c a u s e o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s same s u r v e y, was f o u n d t h a t I960, some $7. 5 m i l l i o n, re q u ire d fo reig n stitu te d o r 1 5.3 p e r c e n t o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s 12 currency. How ever, t h i s $ 7.5 m i l l i o n only 0.4 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n 's fo re ig n currency h old i n g s o f $1,824 m i l l i o n f o r t h a t y e a r. ^ ^ p ercentage of t o t a l export v alu es con In term s o f b o th th e and o f f o r e i g n c u rr e n c y === [PDF page 158] === 150 reserves, the reparations Imposed little burden upon Japan. 151 From the Japanese standpoint the supply of reparations materials made positive demands on Japan's domestic produc tion, providing that they did not conflict with the normal flow of exports to the claimant c o u n t r y, a s the Japanese government supplied Japanese businesses with a ll the neces TABLE IV -3 RIS' sary funds, In other words, the reparations payments stim 10 niD oiiu a P A i r s e e p a r a t i o ’i s, i t s e m t s IT S EXPORTS 0 - H EA ÏÏ M A I M G O O D S, I 95S - I 37O ulated domestic production in Japan which i t otherwise might fleoaration s not have had and augmented Japan's exports to Indonesia. u n m illio n Table IV-3 compares the reparations payments to the to ta l 01; S n o r t s t o In d on esia lln m illio n s of) 10 _ E xA o ir V t sCV o*fi C a o i t a l CO l i s (in m illio n s of T ear values of exports to Indonesia and exports of capital goods to Indonesia. Ihe value of Japanese exports increased during 1958 to tal exports to Indonesia but, on the average, reparations payments for the whole period were only about one-tenth of this proportion became more or less established, Since the average yearly payment of reparations was I 18.56 m illion, 49.06 791 20,19 15.88 18 73.02 82 38.85 15.03 12 110,82 68 32,19 1961 33.92 18 154.77 82 87.37 1962 18.21 14 116.31 86 79.81 1963 17.3 6 15 99.07 85 6^93 1964 15.1 8 11 122.09 89 74.7 6 11 207.19 ' 89 125.02 16 118.62 84 57.43 155.15 88 8L93 90 9L 88 26,66 1965 its to ta l exports. After 1963, with the exception of 1956, 21; I960 the period of 1956-1910. In 1959 the reparations payment was equal to approximately one-fifth of the value of Japan's 12.91 1966 23.70 1967 20.34 12 1968 10 1969 5.61 97 174.37 1970 100 219.30 18,56 Ill 891 81.01 larger than the 1958 payment of $12.91 m illion, i t is obvious, that Japan's exports were increasing, A verage: As Table IV-2 demonstrates, the reparations were N otes: Sources; shows the percentage composition of Japan's trade in commod itie s with Indonesia, exports to Indonesia were dominated by light-manufactured (consumer) goods and heavy-manufactured (capital) goods. I t can be seen that there was a larger F ig u r e s f o r C o l i m (A ) a r e t h o s e f o r f i s c a l y e a r s; e, g, th e fig u r e fo r 1988 co v ers A p r il 1988 throu gh la r c h 1989, paid primarily in capital goods. As seen in Table I-A which C o h iin (A ); f r o n T a b l e I V - 1, C olu m n (B ); from T a b le I - ]. C olu m n (C ): 1958; T s û s h ô h. a t u s h o 1 9 9 9. m l, I J, p p, j l i o - l i i. Tsush: h a n s h o 1 9 6 2, vol. I I, T sish o' h a k u s h o 1 9 7 1, vol. I I, p p, 3I1I - I 13, I962-I9M T s u;!;; h a x u s b o 1 %, v o l. I I, 5 o, 3 1 1 - 1 2, 1965-1967 T s u s n o h a x u s n c I l o a, v o l. I I, p p. 3 2 0 - 2 2, 1968-1970 === [PDF page 159] === 152 percen tag e 1961 t o o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s f r o m 1 95 6 t o i 960 t h a n 1970, and t h a t i n p r o p o r t i o n to p ercentage average th is from change, th e o f h e a v y - m a n u f a c tu r e d goods i n c r e a s e d from an o f 3 4.1 p e r c e n t f r o m 1 9 5 6 t o i 960 t o a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2.5 p e r c e n t fro m 1961 t o 1970. T his i n d i c a t e s v a l u e o f e x p o r t e d c a p i t a l g o o d s was n o t a f f e c t e d th at the ad v ersely by t h e r e p a r a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r was i m p r o v e d by t h e m. A lthough th e r e p a r a t i o n s little e f f e c t on J a p a n ' s e f f e c t on I n d o n e s i a ' s as a whole h ad r e l a t i v e l y e c o n o m y, t h e y h a d a much g r e a t e r economy. In d o n e s ia 's E ig h t-Y ear E c o n o m i c P l a n o f 1 9 6 I - 1 9 6 8 was b a s e d on a l o a n o f o n e b i l l i o n d o llars from a b r o a d, a sum o f $125 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y. T h u s J a p a n ' s p a y m e n t s o f $20 m i l l i o n e a c h y e a r f o r e i g h t y e a r s a c c o u n t e d f o r 16 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a ' s b u d g e t o f 1961- 1 9 6 8, m aking i t a id t o t a l developm ent an im p o r ta n t s o u rc e o f f o r e i g n fo r In donesia. T able I V - 4 com pares J a p a n 's rep aratio n s to Ind on esia, I n d o n e s ia 's t o t a l Im p o rts, and i t s fo r e ig n exchange r e s e r v e s fro m 1958 t o 1970. show s, In d o n e s ia 's And i t exchange re s e rv e s d e te r io r a te d amount f b r t h e p e r i o d a f te r i 960. from 1958 t o fo reig n The a v e r a g e 1 96 2 was some $206 m i l l i o n. J a p a n s s c h e d u l e d p a y m e n t o f $20 m i l l i o n was t n e n e q u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a ' s because In d o n e s ia 's rep aratio n s reserves. f o re ig n exchange d e b ts A fte r 1963, in creased, the b e ca m e a n e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f a i d f o r Ind o n esia, S im ilarly, o f m aterials T a b l e IV—4 s h o w s t h a t J a p a n ' s p r o v i s i o n through r e p a r a tio n s c o n s t i t u t e d an a v e ra g e === [PDF page 160] === 153 TABLE I V - 4 COMPARI SONS AMONG JAPAN'S REPARATIONS, INDONESIA'S TOTAL IMPORTS, AND INDONESIA'S FOREIGN EXCHANGE RESERVES, 1958- 1 9 7 0. Reparations (In millions of) Total Indonesian Imports (in millions of) 1958 12.91 513 212 1959 15.88 458 300 i960 15.03 574 301 1961 33.92 794 122 1962 18.21 647 94 19.3 1963 17.36 521 -16 1964 15.48 680 -49 1965 26.68 695 -73 1966 23.70 527 -77 1967 20. 34 649 -78 1968 17.56 716 -74 1969 5.61 697 -66 1970 893 10.56 642 Average: Notes: Column Sources: (C) includes Column 100 Indonesian foreign exchange reserves (in millions of) -g-x 100 -52 41.85 Column from Table IV-1. Column 1958- 1 9 6 0, _ Indoneshla Kvowakoku benran (1964, p. 104; 1961- 1 9 6 9: from Table 1-2 Column Indonesian Financial Statistics, August 1972. p. 150. 1958-1959: Indoneshla ~Kyowakoku benran (1964), p. 9 2. I9 6 O-I9 6 9: Japan, Overseas Technical Coooeration Agency, Kalgai keizai kycrvoku b e n r a n ' 1971. p. 101.' 1970: from the Economic Section, Jaoanese Embassy, Djakarta, January 1972. === [PDF page 161] === 154 3 p e r cent o f I n d o n e s ia 's I m p o r ts, m eaning t h a t got th a t p ro p o rtio n of m ateria ls its Indonesia from Jap an w i t h o u t s p e n d in g own f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e. A P relim in ary Assessm ent o f R e p a ra tio n s On t h e w h o l e, t h e r e p a r a t i o n s n eg ativ e asp ects Many p r o j e c t s due l a r g e l y than p o s itiv e did not re c e iv e to I n d o n e s ia 's p r o j e c t s h a v e h a d more s e e n o n ly i n econom ic t e r m s. enough fu n d s t o be c o m p le te d, in fla tio n. s u s p e n d e d a f t e r D e c e m b e r 1 96 5 d u e t o A ll the O ther p r o j e c t s in su fficien t 26 m a j o r r e p a r a t i o n s ten re p a ra tio n s-se c u re d A u g u s t i 9 60 a n d A u g u s t were funds. p r o j e c t s m entioned e a r l i e r w ere c o n t r a c t e d betw een F e b ru a ry 1 9 6 5, and a l l P ro jects 1 95 9 a n d O c t o b e r loans p r o je c ts b etw een A ccording t o an a sse ssm e n t made i n A p r i l 1 9 6 8 b y t h e J a p a n e s e M i n i s t r y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y ( M I T I 11 o f t h e s e been com pleted. Of t h e 36 p r o j e c t s h a v e n o t 25 w h i c h w e r e c o m p l e t e d, se v e n were fo u n d t o be r u n n i n g i n e f f i c i e n t l y. Only 1 8, h a l f o f a l l m ajo r p r o j e c t s, were i n s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n d itio n. F oreign M in is tr y 's 1 96 8 a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e rep aratio n s annual rep o rt for p r o j e c t s had had l i t t l e effect the The J a p a n e s e on I n d o n e s i a ' s e c o n o m y. 17' Among t h o s e e ffic ie n tly p ro jec ts a bridg e across S u m a t r a w h i c h was f i n i s h e d The b r i d g e city b o th com pleted and ru n n in g l o c a t e d i n Palem bang, t h e B efore th is South i n May 196 5 a t a c o s t o f $ 1 1, 7 8 2, 0 0 0, i n th e p r o v i n c e, w hich i s reserves. t h e Musi R i v e r i n c a p i t a l and l a r g e s t a l s o an a r e a o f r i c h b r i d g e was b u i l t, sam pan o il (sm all === [PDF page 162] === 155 wooden b o a t s ) th e trip were u sed t o c r o s s u su ally The b r i d g e the 300- m e t e r - w i d e r i v e r, t a k i n g one h o u r i n c l u d i n g w a i t i n g t i m e. shortened t h is te n m inutes on f o o t o r t h r e e by car. A nother s u c c e s s f u l p r o j e c t i s t h e Neyama w a t e r c o n t r o l tu n n el c o n stru cted in E ast Java, flo o d in g in th e the low lands o f B ra n ta s R iv e r, flow o f w a te r i n t o th e n el to d iv e rt In o r d e r to I n d ia n Ocean, th is w ater f i r s t co n tro l the tu n n e l d i v e r t s The i d e a o f a t u n was c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g t h e D u t c h p e r i o d a n d was i m p l e m e n t e d d u r i n g t h e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a tio n, But i t was n o t b u i l t e f f i c i e n t l y and soon went o u t o f o p e r a t i o n w hen t h e t u n n e l b e c a m e c l o g g e d. rep aratio n s p ro jec ts, c o n tra c te d in c o n stru ctio n The new t u n n e l, 1000 m e t e r s in d ia m e te r, can d i s p l a c e per second, lo ca lity, co n trib u tin g g re a tly 'S in c e its of flo o d s, p ro fit r e g io n 's in the len g th a cost and 7 5 00 c u o i c m e t e r s o f w a t e r to flo o d c o n tro l in c o m p l e t i o n some 3000 h e c t a r e s have been f r e e first o f a new t u n n e l was 1959 a n d was c o m p l e t e d i n A p r i l 19Ô1 a t m eters the As o n e o f t h e re su ltin g in a th e o f land 2 m illio n d o lla r a g r ic u ltu r a l p roduction in th e first y ear.^® C om prehensive d e v elo p m e n t p r o j e c t s th e B ra n ta s R iv er in E ast Ja v a and th e Kanan) i n S o u th K a lim a n ta n w ere t h e p ro jec ts under the r e p a r a tio n s These p r o j e c t s je c ts," co n tracted in in the Kanan R i v e r areas ( o r R iam la rg e s t c o n stru ctio n a n d became s y m b o lic o f th e m. 1963 were c a l l e d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e names o f t h e the th ree r iv e r s "3K p r o b eg in n in g === [PDF page 163] === 156 w ith The f i r s t o f th e B rantas R iver; was t h e K a r a n k a t e s R i v e r, trib u tary th e second the (o r K ali K onto), a branch o f the B ran tas R iver. The K a r a n k a t e s k ilo w atts and th e t h i r d the Kanan P r o j e c t was d e s i g n e d t o g enerate 100,000 of e le c tr ic ity K ali- 4,500 k i l o w a t t s w ith a 6 0 - m e t e r - h i g h dam, and th e of e le c tric ity used of e le c tric ity K a n an P r o j e c t t o gen erate w i t h a 5 8 - m e t e r - h i g h dam. t w o dams a l s o w e r e d e s i g n e d t o irrig a tio n, R iver; w i t h a 1 0 0 - m e t e r - h i g h da m, t h e konto P r o je c t to g e n e ra te k ilo w atts Konto R i v e r co n tro l flo o d in g, and t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n. The t h r e e $2 8, 3 5 2, 0 0 0 f r o m t h e r e p a r a t i o n s 30,000 The f i r s t to provide dam p r o j e c t s f u n d s b u t, when t h e y c o u l d n o t be f i n i s h e d f o r t h i s p r i c e, a d d i t i o n a l y e n c r e d i t s 20 w ere s u p p l i e d. The K a l i K o n t o P r o j e c t was c o m p l e t e d i n early 1970, th e K a ra n k a te s P r o je c t i n May 1 9 7 2, P r o j e c t was t o be c o m p l e t e d s o m e t i m e i n 1 9 7 2. e arly to evalu ate them. and th e Kanan still Once t h e dams b e g i n o p e r a t i o n, th eir w a t e r c o n t r o l w i l l e n a b l e g r e a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n and co n tro l in fectio u s d isease. ex p ected to s tim u la te T heir e l e c t r i c a l o u tput l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l developm ent. M anufacturing p la n ts am o ng t h e t o p p r i o r i t i e s and t e x t i l e o f the and p a p e r m i l l s were rep aratio n s program s. Out o f s e v e n t e e n m a jo r I n d o n e s i a n t e x t i l e m i l l s, e i g h t were b u i l t w ith Japanese a s s is ta n c e, and o f t h o s e, f o u r w ith r e p a r a tio n s funds. These f o u r p l a n t s Bandung, and D enpasar ( B a li ) d les, the o r 17 p e r c e n t c o n stitu ted M alang, some 6 8, 4 0 0 s p i n o f In d o n e s ia 's t o t a l D j a k a r t a and Bandung m i l l s c ap a city, lo cated in D ja k a rta, sp in d les. W hile o p e ra te d a t alm ost f u l l t h e Malang and D e n p a s a r m i l l s enco u n tered === [PDF page 164] === 157 d iffic u ltie s even w h ile th e y were b e in g b u i l t. A lthough th e y were begun i n A ugust I 9 6 1, th e y were n o t c o m p le te d u n t i l F e b r u a r y 1967 and A p r i l 1966 r e s p e c t i v e l y. from p o l i t i c a l d i s o r d e r s e n s u in g from th e G estapu I n c i d e n t 1 9 6 5, a n d many o f t h e p a r t s ing th e ir th eir Both s u f f e r e d f o r th e p l a n t s were s t o l e n, co m p letion even f u r t h e r. sp in d les operated a t When f i n i s h e d, 87 p e r c e n t c a p a c i t y a n d a t 60 p e r c e n t c a p a c i t y f o u r o f w hich were b u i l t w i t h r e p a r a t i o n s in S ia n ta r, 18 t o n s d aily how ever, i n M alang produce in In d o n e s ia, funds. These 85 t o n s o f p a p e r d a i l y b u t i n 1 9 6 8 t h e i r p r o g r e s s was i n t e r r u p t e d. b u ilt d elay in B a li. I n 1968 t h e r e w ere s e v e n p a p e r m i l l s s e v e n m i l l s were e x p e c te d t o The f i r s t p lan t, N orth S um atra i n A ugust 1962, p ro d u ce d under Japanese su p erv iso rs but a f t e r th ey left its d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n d r o p p e d t o 3 t o n s a n d i n e a r l y 196 9 22 sto p p e d co m p letely. I n e f f i c i e n t management and l a b o r, lack of p a rts, w ater are and s u b s t i t u t i o n liste d o f w e ll w ater fo r r i v e r among t h e r e a s o n s f o r th e drop in p r o d u c t i o n. A n o t h e r p a p e r m i l l, i n S o u t h K a l i m a n t a n, was t o h a v e b e e n fin ish ed i n 1961 b u t as o f e a r l y p letio n. D e la y s w ere b lam ed on i n a d e q u a t e p l a n n i n g, o f funds, and p o o r m a in te n a n c e o f t r a n s p o r t e d e q u ip m e n t. i n i t i a l rep aratio n s w ith o u t f u rth e r e rn m en t, funds o f O ther p r o j e c t s was f a r f r o m com from th e The com pletion is In d o n esian gov in doubt. in clu d ed fo u r larg e h o te ls D j a k a r t a, P u lab u h an R atu sh o rtage $1, 9 1 9, 0 0 0 w ere e x h a u s t e d and fin a n c ia l support the pap er m i l l 's 1969 s t i l l (W est J a v a ), J o g j a k a r t a, and B a l i. === [PDF page 165] === 158 The l 4 - s t o r y H o t e l I n d o n e s i a b u i l t o r i g i n a l l y was i n t e n d e d t o and t o u r i s t s in D jak arta in accomm odate f o r e i g n d i g n i t a r i e s a t t h a t y e a r ’ s A s i a n G a m es, h o t e l was a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e g u e s t s were r e q u i r e d 1962 U n t i l I 969 t h e o f f o r e ig n ex ch an g e, as a l l t o pay t h e i r b i l l s i n Am erican d o l l a r s. As t h e o n l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o t e l i n D j a k a r t a — a n d i n t h e n atio n u n til 1966— th e H o te l In d o n e s ia u s u a l ly fu ll and became t h e c e n t e r o f D j a k a r t a ' s m a jo r d i p cap acity lo m a tic and s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s. The H o t e l fo re been s u c c e s s f u l b u t th e o th e r t h r e e, h i g h q u a l i t y, h a v e r u n a t o n l y 20 t o since opening i n h o tels disco u rag e Ind o n esia has th e re although o f e q u a lly 30 p e r c e n t c a p a c i t y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o and from t h e s e n o t c o n v e n ie n t and th e and s e r v i c e s n e s ia 's 1966.23 o p erated a t to u rists. absence o f e n te rta in m e n t These f a c t o r s lo w s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g h a v e l i m i t e d t n e modern and e x p e n s i v e h o t e l s p lus Indo use o f th e s e to fo re ig n t o u r i s t s and r i c h In d o n esian s. O ther v i s i b l e and i m p r a c t i c a l p r o j e c t s were th e 1 4 - s t o r y S a r i n a h D e p a r t m e n t S t o r e a n d t h e 2 9 - s t o r y Wisma N usantara o f f i c e b u ild in g both m ain t h o r o u g h f a r e, l o c a t e d o n D j a k a r t a ' s new D J a la n T ham rin. O pening i n A ugust 1 9 6 6, th e S a rin a h D epartm ent S to re a t t r a c t e d o f the n a ti o n 's first reach of th e site e s c a la to r r a t h e r th an as th e n a ti o n 's f i r s t modern d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e. c h a n d i s e was h i g h, In d o n e sia n s as th e A lthough th e q u a l i t y t h e p r i c e s were t o o, average In d o n esian. p u ttin g The f i x e d - p r i c e o f m er beyond the system a d o p t e d by S a r i n a h was n o t f a m i l i a r t o D j a k a r t a s h o p p e r s. === [PDF page 166] === 159 and so i t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g th at s e t aside f o r a c a s in o and t h a t f l o o r s were b e i n g rem o d e le d i n t o as a d epartm ent s t o r e The f u t u r e tio n ab le. o f th e The f i r s t $ 5.8 m il l io n rem ain s 1969 t h e t o p 1972 t h e n e x t a h o tel. Wisma N u s a n t a r a i s c o n t r a c t was l e t n e s ia 's f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e, w o r k was h a l t e d A fter th a t, w ith th e huge s u p e r s t r u c t u r e c o m p l e t e d by O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2, f o r such a la rg e loss of Indo i n December 1 9 6 6. j u t t i n g nakedly In F e b ru ary a m issio n to C hairm an o f t h e the J u s t i f i c a t i o n p ro jec ts 1969 t h e encountered s i m il a r Japanese Foreign M in istry I n d o n e s i a h e a d e d by K i t a j i m a T a k e o, F a i r T rad e C om m ission u n d e r t h e re la te d p ro jec ts b u ild in g term s o f p r e s t i g e. The K i t a j i m a M i s s i o n f o u n d d e l a y s In d o n e s ia 's the and o b v i o u s l y e x p e n s iv e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g i n Many o t h e r r e p a r a t i o n s d iffic u ltie s. Even i f as sc h ed u le d, D j a k a r t a c a n be f o u n d o n l y i n the a b o r tiv e 1 9 7 1 a new c o n t r a c t was made w i t h M i t s u i a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n was r e s u m e d. sent ques t h e sky became s y m b o lic o f I n d o n e s i a ' s p o l i t i c a l and econom ic c o n d i t i o n s. eq u ally i n A ugust 1964 f o r O ctober I 965. in to upper S a r in a h ’s f u t u r e and c o n s t r u c t i o n w ent w e l l u n t i l b u ild in g 's th ree u n certain. coup in The o f f i c e f l o o r was and a t t r i b u t e d su p p lem en tary form er Prim e M i n i s t e r. i n many o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s th ese funds, p artly to shortages in a d e q u a te m aintanence and la c k o f equ ip m en t p a r t s, and t h e p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l o f 24 1965. The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e o f d e l a y, i n e f f i c i e n t m anagem ent, t h e K i t a j ima M i s s i o n f o u n d t o be due t o t h e === [PDF page 167] === 160 p o l i t i c a l im portance o f many p r o j e c t s r a t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s — m aking t h e i r p r a c t i c a l i t y th a n t o econom ic d o u b tfu l.^ 5 The s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r e x is te d only in J a p a n 's - o th e r c o u n tr y 's th is rep aratio n s s o r t o f program. s t u d e n t s were t o stu d y w hile rep aratio n s to In d o n esia. agreem ents w ith Japan in c lu d e d In the arrangem ent w ith In d o n e s ia, come t o J a p a n f o r f i v e t o seven y ears 500 1, 7 5 0 y o u t h s w e r e t o come f o r v o c a t i o n a l a n d t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g i n governm ent o f f i c e s and p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s 26 firm s. How ever, t h e a c t u a l program d e v i a t e d g r e a t l y from th is o rig in a l p lan. O n l y 378 s t u d e n t s a n d 474 t r a i n e e s co uld be accom m odated f i n a n c i a l l y,^ 7 as t h e a l l o c a t e d f u n d s were s p e n t on o t n e r i t e m s Indonesian Embassy i n such as th e expenses o f th e y o. In p a n t s was b a s e d o f t e n m erit. ad d itio n, in t h is o f pro m in en t f i g u r e s th ere. s e l e c t e d t o go t o J a p a n P a rtic u la rly iatio n lea d ersh ip (PPI) in Tokyo. h is S u k a r n o i s t group o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s A s soc - The P P I b e c a m e t h e i n T okyo s u p p o r t i n g S u k a r n o ' s W est I r i a n 1 96 2 a n d h i s form ed s t r o n g was t h e PNI (In d o n esian N a tio n a lis t P a r ty ) - o r ie n te d, w hich to o k o v e r th e freq u en tly program. Some I n d o n e s i a n s p o l i t i c a l groups of p a rtic i on p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n e d u c a t i o n a l The s o n s o r r e l a t i v e s found p la c e s the s e l e c t i o n "S u k arn o sit F ront" cam paigns i n 1960a n t i - M a l a y s i a cam paigns i n I 963-1965 a s w e l l as c o n c e p t s o f I4ANIP0L, USDEK, NASAKOM.^^ d e n t s were a c c u s e d o f i n d i r e c t of th e s tu - co m p licity in th e attem pted c o u p o f O c t o b e r I 965 a n d w e r e e x p a t r i a t e d, ^ ® === [PDF page 168] === A lthough t h i s success, its stu d en ts* fluency academ ic s u c c e s s i s in Japanese were n o t s u f f i c i e n t ees' e d u c a tio n a l program im p lie d p o l i t i c a l p o sitio n s d o u b tfu l. Many o f t h e and t h e i r academ ic p r e p a r a t i o n for th e ir c o u rse w o rk, and o f t e n th e I n d o n e s ia n governm ent o f f i c e s train and b u s in e s s firm s w ere i n f e r i o r t o th o s e g iv e n t o E u ro p ea n - and A m ericantrain ed p a rtic ip a n ts. m ents o f t h i s effect IVhether t h e lim ite d ed u catio n al achiev e program w i l l have a p o s i t i v e upon J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n r e l a t i o n s indeed th e f u tu r e ro les th at the g rad u a tes w i l l p la y, both in th is r e g a rd and in or a n eg ativ e u n c le ar, of th is as a re program Indonesian so c ie ty itse lf. C ertain ly i t o f the rep aratio n s t o o s o o n t o make a f i n a l a s s e s s m e n t program s. Some o f t h e m a j o r p r o j e c t s have been com pleted only r e c e n t l y an d t h e i r econom ic r e s u l t s have n o t y e t been d e te rm in e d. How ever, m ost o f t h e R ep aratio n s program s u n d er th e from t h e o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n. ev id en t th at Agreem ent d i g r e s s e d They a l s o w e r e u s e d t o p r o m o t e t r a d e w i t h J a p a n, w h i c h was s u c c e s s f u l i n s o f a r a s i t provided an e s s e n t i a l s o u r c e o f " f o r e i g n a i d " But a g a i n, many o f t h e p r o j e c t s thus the In d o n esia. th em selv es proved i n f e a s i b l e fu n d s were o f t e n w a s t e d. The q u e s t i o n s o rig in a te d th ese im p ractical p ro je c ts c lo ser a tte n tio n in the o f who a n d why a r e g i v e n fo llo w in g c h a p te r. and === [PDF page 169] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER IV b a ls ho, ^A s a h l S h l n b u n. A p r i l 1 7, 1 9 7 0. R e p a r a t i o n s P r o b l e m s S t u d y G r o u p, e d.. N i h o n no 1 96 3 ( T o k y o: S e k a i J a n a r u S h a, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 2 1 3. ®I b i d.. p. 2 1 4. J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y. Waga g a i k o n o k i n k v ô n o. 8 (1964), p. 250. A l i s t o f t h e s e 26 p r o j e c t s a p p e a r i n J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Econom ic A f f a i r s B u r e a u, e d., I n d o n e s h l a (Tokvo: N ihon K o k u s a i Mondai K e n k y ü jo, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 1: 1 5. Confer a ls o T able V -2. ®The 6 5 t h e n t r y i n t h e R e p a r a t i o n s A g r e e m e n t ' s l i s t o f p r o j e c t s c o n s id e r e d f o r th e r e p a r a t i o n s payment r e f e r r e d t o the " t r a i n i n g o f In d o n e s ia n t e c h n i c i a n s and c ra fts m e n in J a p a n and i n I n d o n e s i a. " On F e b r u a r y 1 0, i 960 t h e I n d o n e s ia n governm ent o f f i c i a l l y p ro p o sed a s t u d e n t and t r a i n e e pro gram and t h e J a p a n e s e governm ent a g re e d t o th e p r o p o s a l. The f i r s t g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s a r r i v e d i n i 9 6 0. See Nihon no b a i s h o. 1 9 6 3. p p. 1 3 0 - 3 2. For a g e n era l d e s c rip tio n of these I b i d., pp. 234- 3 8; and I n d o n e s h l a. p. I I 6. N ishon no b a i s h o. ^ I b i d.. pp. 30. 31. 1963. pp. ^® Ib id.. p. 32. 40. 16, Japan, M in istry J i s s h i Jôkyô (A p ril, 196ÏÏT7 162 20-21. p ro jec ts, see === [PDF page 170] === 163 17 12 J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Waga g a i k o n o k i n k. v o. ( 1 9 6 8 ), p. 338. 18 •D aiyam ondo S h a, N i p p o n K o e i ( T o k y o: Dai.vamondo S h a. 1 9 7 1 ), pp. 51-52. -------------^ ^ I b i d.. p p. 78- 7 9. 20 Under th e r e p a r a t i o n s program s th e K aran k ates P r o j e c t was c o n t r a c t e d f o r $ 1 9, 2 3 7, 0 0 0; t h e K a l i k o n t o P r o j e c t f o r $ 3, 4 4 1, 0 0 0; a n d t h e R iam K a n an P r o j e c t f o r $ 5, 6 6 4, 0 0 0. See J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, I n d o n e s h l a. p. 1 1 5. The e x a c t amount o f a d d i t i o n a l c r e d i t e x te n d e d to t h e s e p r o j e c t s i s n o t know n p u b l i c l y b u t t h e y w e r e f i n a n c e d by J a p a n e s e p r o j e c t a i d o f $10 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 68 a n d $20 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 6 9. See i b i d., pp. 118-19. -------21 J a p a n, Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n M i s s i o n f o r I n d o n e s i a, I n d o n e s h l a K e i z a i K yoryoku C hosadan c'nosa h o k o k u (Tokyo: f o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n B u r e a u, 1 9 6 9 ), p. 4 7. 55. 2^I b i d.. p. 65. 24 I b i d.. p. 74. F o r t h e su m m ary o f i t s e v a l u a t i o n s and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r J a p a n e s e econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n p o l i c i e s, see A sahi S h in b u n. O ctober 26, 1969. ^^Ib id.. p. 26 See n. 73. 5 of th is ch ap ter. 27 S a k a ta Z enzaburo, I n d o n e s h la; g e n jo to m ondaiten (T okyo: J a p a n F e d e r a t i o n o f E conom ic O r g a n i z a t i o n s L K e i d a n r e n ], 1968), p. 7 2; and G l j u ts u kyoryoku nenpo 1 96 9. pp. 289-93. 28 Anonymous f o r m e r r e c ip ie n t of a re p a ra tio n s fello w sh ip, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w in D j a k a r t a, J u l y 1970. 29 MANIPOL s t a n d s f o r P o l i t i c a l M a n i f e s t o ( M a n i f e s t o P o l i t i k ), w.nich i s t h e t i t l e o f S u k a r n o ' s 1 95 9 I n d e p e n d e n c e Day s p e e c h. I t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a b a s i c d ocum ent o f h i s regim e. E a r l y i n i 960 t h e s p e e c h was s a i d t o c o n s i s t o f f i v e i d e a s: t h e 1945 c o n s t i t u t i o n (U ); S o c i a l i s m a l a I n d o n e s i a ( S ); G u i d e d D e m o c r a c y ( D ); G u i d e d Economy ( E ); a n d I n d o n e s i a n P e r s o n a l i t y (K). H e n c e, t h e MANIPOL b e c a m e known a s USDEK. NASAKOM i s a n o t h e r a c r o n y m fo r th e com bination of th e n a tio n a list ( N a t i o n a l ) r e l i g i o u s ( A g a m a ), a n d C o m m u n is t ( K o m u n i s ) f o r c e s w hich r e p r e s e n t e d t h e dom inant s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e G u id e d Democracy p e r i o d a n d w h ich e x p r e s s e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s in m a jo r governm ent a g e n c ie s such as th e C ab in et and P a rlia m e n t. === [PDF page 171] === 164 30 Y om lurl S h in b u n. August 1966. === [PDF page 172] === 100 the Japanese government before beooming effective and CHAPTER V before the necessary funds could be transferred to the concerned supplier through the Indonesian government THE REPARATIONS LOBBIES, 1958-1965 1. P olitics of Reparations (Agreement, A rticle 4 [2]). To fa c ilita te these repara tions contracts, the Indonesian government in June 1956 established a Reparations Mission ( M Japan's payment of reparations of $225,08 m illion to Indonesia attracted both business and p o litic a l circles in the two countries, and stimulated lobbying a ctiv ities. The prominent Indonesians and Japanese who were included in these lobbies made contacts which were an important Pampasan Renublik. Indonesia or MI8PRI) in Tokyo, apart from the Indonesian Embassy (Agreement, A rticle 6). Ihe Indonesian government annually sent to the mission a l is t of procurement orders which the mission used to negotiate with the Japanese firms as the "sole and exclusive agent" (Agreement, A rticle 6 part of Sukarno's Guided Democracy Period (1958-1965) and which la te r were essential to the close ties between the The d etails surrounding the decision-making process two countries. of the reparations projects are not yet clear. In charge (1) Formal Payment Arrangements of the projects on the Indonesian side was the Reparations The system of payment of the reparations is des cribed in the Reparations Agreement of 1958 and its annexed documents. Essentially, i t was the method used in ordinary commercial contracts, in which the Indonesian government drew up contracts directly with "Japanese nationals or ju rid ical persons controlled by Japanese nationals" (Agreement, A rticle k [l]). In many cases the Indonesian government employed a system of bidding, in which i t put up for bidding by the Japanese those products or services i t needed. After Indonesia had settled upon satisfactory terms, a contract was drawn up which had to be verified by 165 Implementation Committee of the Indonesian government, established on September 20, 1958.^ The committee in cluded o fficials from the M inistries of Foreign A ffairs, Finance, Industry, Trade, Agriculture, and Shipping, and was chaired by the Chief Secretary of the Foreign Ministry and administered by the Ministry's Reparations Bureau. Each year the committee filed requests made by the member M inistries and formulated procurement orders. General guidelines for the projects also were supplied by the National Planning Counc: (Dewan Perantjang Ifasional), formed in August 1959, a..: la te r by its successor, the National Development Planning Board ( ^ Perentjanaan === [PDF page 173] === j-or P e m b a n R im a n N a s i o n a l o r BAPPENAS). rep aratio n s p ro je c ts In charge o f th e on t h e J a p a n e s e s i d e was t h e R e p a r a t i o n s I m p le m e n ta tio n C o o r d i n a t i n g C om m ittee, t e n M i n i s t r i e s and one a g e n c y, n am ely, F o reig n A f f a ir s, and F o r e s tr y, tio n, F in an ce, E d u catio n, c o n sistin g of the M in istrie s of W elfare, A g ric u ltu re I n t e r n a t i o n a l T rade and I n d u s t r y, P o sta l S erv ices, C o n stru ctio n, E conom ic P l a n n i n g A gen cy. and L abor, T ransporta-r and th e The c o m m i tt e e w as h e a d e d by t h e F o re ig n M i n i s t e r and th e r e p a r a t i o n s pay m ents w ere ad m in is te re d by th e F o reig n M in is tr y 's R e p a ra tio n s D iv isio n, w h ic h was s u c c e e d e d by t h e Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n B u r e a u. The h e a d o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e p a r a t i o n s M i s s i o n w ould hand o v e r t h e p ro c u re m e n t o r d e r s t o the Japanese c o m m itte e, w h ic h w ould s t u d y them a n d, w i t h t h e h e a d o f t h e In d o n esian M ission, w ould d e c id e upon t h e sc h e d u le " am ounting to "an n u al payment $20 m i l l i o n an d w o u ld s p e c i f y t h e p r o d u c t s and s e r v i c e s to be s u p p l i e d by J a p a n (A greem ent, A rticle The J a p a n e s e c o m m itte e d i d h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f v e t o i n g some o f t h e p r o p o s e d p r o c u r e m e n t o r d e r s o n t h e b a s i s t h a t th e y m ight i n t e r f e r e w ith th e norm al t r a d e betw een J a p a n and I n d o n e s ia, o r m ig h t im pose an a d d i t i o n a l fo re ig n exchange burden upon Japan A f te r ag reem en t, procurem ent o rd e rs D jak arta, them. (A greem ent, A r t i c l e 2 t h e m i s s i o n w o u ld p u t up t h e f o r b id d in g and send th e b id s to w here an i n s p e c t i o n team w ould s e l e c t one o f I f th e system o f b i d d in g c o u ld n o t be u se d, m i s s i o n w o u ld o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e th e c o s t and p r i c e s === [PDF page 174] === th e necessary m a te ria ls from o f f i c i a l J a p a n e s e docum ents and c o n s u l t a n t s, In d o n e s ia n i n s p e c t i o n team. fo r th e The team w ould t h e n d e c i d e w h e th e r t h e J a p a n e s e co m p an ies co u ld o f f e r a p p r o p r ia te p r i c e s, th e m ission s e le c te d su itab le o r in the case o f s e rv ic e s, e x p e r t s from t h e v i s a d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n Em bassy., t e a m h a d made i t s d ecisio n, A fter the in sp ectio n a c o n t r a c t t h e n was draw n u p.^ The c o n t r a c t t h e n w as e x a m in e d by t h e J a p a n e s e c o m m i t t e e t o see w hether i t reg u la tio n s fu lfille d th e n e c e s s a r y r e q u ir e m e n ts and agreed upon by th e two g o v e r n m e n t s. A fter b e in g v e r i f i e d by t h e J a p a n e s e governm ent o r i n t h i s case, by th e C h ie f o f th e R e p a r a tio n s D ivis io n o f t h e F o re ig n M in istry, th e c o n tra c t f i n a l ly th is, I n d o n e s i a n m i s s i o n w ould p r e p a r e th e became e f f e c t i v e. docum ents" w i t h " i n s p e c t i o n c e r t i f i c a t e s " to th e o r ig in a l p ro c u rin g agents th e ow ners. Upon t h e a r r i v a l A fter "sh ip pin g and se n d them so -called p ro je c t of th e p ro d u cts in In d o n esia, t h e J a p a n e s e g o v ern m en t w ould t r a n s f e r t h e n e c e s s a r y fu n d s t o t h e m i s s i o n w h ic h i n t u r n w ould p a y them t o ing firm s. At t h i s p o i n t, th e su pply the In d o n e sia n m is s io n and th e J a p a n e s e governm ent w ere f r e e d from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u n l e s s c l a i m s w e r e made b y t h e p r o j e c t o w n e r s. A c tu a l Payment A rra n g em en ts I n l a t e November 1957, a fte r K ish i’s tr ip I n d o n e s i a when t h e R e p a r a t i o n s A g re e m e n t w e n t i n t o effect, m an y o f I n d o n e s i a ' s M i n i s t r i e s b e g a n c o m p e t i n g f o r l a r g e a llo ca tio n s o f f u n d s f o r t h e i r own p r o j e c t s. One s o u r c e === [PDF page 175] === d isc lo ses th a t th e V eteran A f fa ir s $23 m i l l i o n In d u s tr ia l S ectio n o f th e M in istry of r e q u e s t e d from P rim e M i n i s t e r D juanda for its own p r o p o s e d p r o j e c t s, when t h e t o t a l s c h e d u l e d a m o u n t f o r t h e y e a r o f 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 5 9 w a s o n l y $2 0 m illio n.^ A ccording to t h i s same s o u r c e, sa m e M i n i s t r y w a s f o r c e d t o r e d u c e i t s m illio n a f te r learn in g su b m itted r e q u e s ts. six teen m in istries i n May 1 9 5 8 t h e r e q u e s t t o $4 t h a t o th e r m i n i s t r i e s a ls o had Even t h e n, to ta led t h e r e q u e s t s from a l l $ 1 1 3,9 2 7,0 0 0 a lm o st s i x a s m uch a s t h e s c h e d u l e d a m o u n t. On J u l y 2 9, tim es 1958 i n an i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l m e e tin g t h i s am ount was lo w e r e d t o But by t h i s t o b e d i v i d e d among o n l y s e v e n m i n i s t r i e s. tim e th e M in is try of S h ip p in g a lr e a d y had m ade a c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company f o r n in e s h ip s a t a c o s t o f $7.2 m i l l i o n. L a t e r i n M arch 1959 when t h e p a y m e n t s c h e d u l e an d t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o r d e r s f i n a l l y w ere p r e s e n t e d, subsequent n e g o tia tio n s w ith Japan b r o u g h t t h e t o t a l a m o u n t down f u r t h e r t o $ 1 4. 2 8 m i l l i o n, in c lu d in g th e b ig c o n tra c t w ith K in o sh ita, $ 7.0 8 m i l l i o n w hich l e f t o n ly f o r th e rem aining s i x M i n i s t r ie s o f A g ri cu ltu re, T rade, V eteran A ff a ir s, Energy, and T r a n s p o r ta tio n. U ndoubtedly t h i s in te rn al D efense, P u b l i c W o rk s a n d c o m p e titio n and th e d i s a g re e m e n t o v e r t h e amount and a l l o c a t i o n of th e re p a ratio n s fu n d s w ere m ajo r r e a s o n s f o r th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e rn m e n t's d elay in p r e s e n tin g th e f i r s t y e a r ’s procurem ent o rd e rs to the Japanese. T h is c o m p e titio n a ls o d e p riv e d th e R ep aratio n s === [PDF page 176] === M i s s i o n i n T o k y o o f much o f i t s effectiv en ess. The R e p a r a tio n s I m p le m e n t a t i o n Com m ittee i n D j a k a r t a a l s o l o s t m ost of its power to F o re ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio, D istrib u tio n S aleh, M in ister of L eim ena, M i n i s t e r o f B a s i c I n d u s t r i e s C h a i r u l and even to P r e s id e n t Sukarno. A f t e r 1963 t h e I n d o n e s i a n Em bassy i n Tokyo a d d e d an a t t a c h e r e p r e s e n t i n g, S a le h ’s M in is try o f B asic I n d u s t r i e s. I n 1971 t h i s w r i t e r was t o l d by one o f t h e s e f o r m e r a t t a c h e s t h a t S a l e h h ad s e n t h i s men ( " S a l e h m e n " ) sh are of th e re p a ra tio n s t o Tokyo t o o b tain a g re a te r funds f o r h i s M i n i s t r y ’s p r o j e c t s. Many o f t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t s u s i n g r e p a r a t i o n s funds seem t o h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d and n e g o t i a t e d by t h e s e I n d o 5 n esian le a d e rs. T he i n c r e a s e c o n t r o l b y S u k a r n o a n d o t h e r J a v a n e s e l e a d e r s o v e r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s may b e s e e n i n th e predom inance o f m ajor r e p a r a t i o n s p r o j e c t s t io n s - secu red lo an p r o je c ts reg io n al d is trib u tio n jec ts T a b l e V-1 g i v e s a o f tw e n ty -s ix m ajor r e p a r a t i o n s p ro and te n m ajor r e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d In term s o f c o s t, th e in Java. and r e p a r a lo an p r o j e c ts.^ t h e t a b l e r e v e a l s t h a t 60 p e r c e n t o f f o r m e r and 59 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a t t e r w e re s p e n t i n Ja v a and B a li. From 1 9 5 1 t o 1 9 5 7 S u m a t r a ’ s A s a h a n e l e c t r i c pow er and o i l p r o j e c t s w ere th e m a jo r c a n d i d a t e s f o r re p a ra tio n s funds. H ow ever, from 1958 t o 1970 o n ly 8 p e r cen t o f th e ex p en d itu res fo r re p a ra tio n s p r o je c ts s im ila r ly 8 p er cent o f the re p a ra tio n s-se c u re d p r o j e c t s w ere s p e n t i n Sum atra. p ro je c ts, and loan S u m atra had o n ly f i v e w hereas Jav a had tw e n ty -o n e. The o v e r b a l a n c e o f === [PDF page 177] === 171 TABLE V-1 REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF 26 MAJOR REPARATIONS PROJECTS AND 10 MAJOR REPARATIONS-SECURED LOANS PROJECTS IN NUMERICAL AND MONE T A R Y SIZE, 1958-1970 Regions Reparations N o. of ProJ ects Projects Cost in Millions of $ 14 $47.21 Sumatra Kalimantan Sulawesi Non-reglonal TOTAL Java^ Rep.-Secured Loan Projects N o. of Projects Cost in Millions of $ $48.10 6. 43 60% 6.25 9.06 12 13.01 17 2. 83 27.35 33 26 $77.63 101% 10 $81.70 100% 59 % Nusatenggara Molucca Ball included. Sources; Figures on reparations projects are from Jaoan, Foreign Ministry, Economie Affairs Bureau, I n d o n e s h i a. pp. 115-16; and figures on reparations-secured loan projects from Jaoan, Foreign Ministry, Economic Cooperation Bureau, Indoneshia Keizai Kvorvoku Chosadan chosa h o k o k u, p. 40. === [PDF page 178] === p ro jec ts i n J a v a may b e a t t r i b u t e d p a r t l y e a s i e r com m unications and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n th a n in th e O uter I s la n d s. There i s to the r e l a t i v e l y system s th e r e little do ubt, how ever, t h a t i f D j u a n d a, who d i e d i n 1 9 6 3, h a d l i v e d l o n g e r a n d h a d m a in ta in e d h i s pow er, P resid en t, S um atra w ould hav e b e e n g iv e n a g r e a t e r s h a r e o f the re p a ra tio n s and i f H a t t a had re m a in e d a s V ice fund. The R e p a r a t i o n s L o b b ie s The r e p a r a t i o n s w e re o f i n t e r e s t t o J a p a n e s e businessm en b ecau se th e y in v o lv e d la r g e because, a s man y t o l d t h i s w r i t e r, suade In d o n e s ia n businessm en to su m s o f m o n e y, a n d th e y co u ld e a s ily p e r o v e rp ric e t h e i r p roducts and s h a r e t h e l a r g e p r o f i t s w i t h them. T here w ere rum ors t h a t some I n d o n e s i a n o f f i c i a l s, u su a lly h ig h -ran kin g, g i v e n a c u t from t h e s e p r o f i t s ( o r k o m is i from "co m m issio n ") fo r allo w in g th e Japanese to o v e rp ric e F urtherm ore, paym ents, w ere t h e i r pro d u cts. t h e r e p a r a t i o n s b u s i n e s s was s e c u r e b e c a u s e even th o se f o r o v e rp ric e d p ro d u c ts, th e J a p a n e s e g o vernm ent, w e r e made b y n o t by I n d o n e s i a ’ s u n s t a b l e governm ent. Many J a p a n e s e c o m p a n i e s c o m p e t e d k e e n l y i n t h e i r b id s fo r th e re p a ra tio n s p r o je c ts. rep o rts, company o f f i c i a l s tio n s M ission o f f i c e, A c c o r d i n g t o news freq u e n tly v is ite d th e R epara hoping to e s t a b l i s h a good r a p p o r t and th u s p e rh a p s to r e c e iv e s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a ti o n. They w o u ld go d i r e c t l y t o D j a k a r t a t o l o b b y w i t h r e p a r a t i o n s o fficials th ere. Company o f f i c i a l s w o u l d e v e n s u g g e s t === [PDF page 179] === p r o d u c ts and s e r v ic e s "b en eficial" In d o n esia. w o rd s, th e b a s ic n e g o t i a t i o n s w ere c a r r i e d o f f i c i a l r e q u e s t s w ere f i l e d In o th er out b efo re the in th e R e p a ra tio n s M ission o ffice. In term ed iaries, or rep a ratio n s lo b b y ists, th e p ro cu rin g agents o f th e the acted fo r I n d o n e s ia n governm ent and f o r. supplying ag en ts o f th e Japanese firm s. Among t h e m w ere o v e rs e a s C hinese t r a d e r s and s e l f - s t y l e d "In d o n esia e x p e r t s " who h a d l i v e d i n p re w a r o r w artim e In d o n e s ia and, sim ila rly, "Japan e x p e rts." se lf-sty le d n e s i a n and Ja p a n e se w e l l, co u n tries' B o t h knew I n d o claim ed to u n d e rs ta n d b o th b u s i n e s s m ethods and w ere w e l l - a c q u a i n t e d w i t h governm ent l e a d e r s. Japanese firm s sought th ese in te r m ed iaries in o rd er to b rin g t h e i r needs to th e a tt e n t i o n th e to p ech elo n s o f th e nese firm s t r i e d h is Japanese w ife, Dewi, f ig u re s in th e r u l in g L ib eral-D em o cratic N atu rally, com panies, Many J a p a to e s t a b l i s h d i r e c t com m unications r o u t e s w i t h Sukarno h i m s e l f, tia l I n d o n e s ia n gov ernm en t. or in flu e n O P arty. t h e s e p r o m i n e n t men cam e t o f a v o r c e r t a i n as w i l l be se e n i n th e c a se o f th e K in o s h ita T r a d i n g Company a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r K i s h i N o b u s u k e. in tu rn, T h is, g e n e r a te d s p e c u l a t i o n and c h a rg e s t h a t t h e s e co m p an ies c o n t r i b u t e d f u n d s t o them o r t o t h e i r p a r t y. 1970 t o 1972 t h i s w r i t e r m et s e v e r a l J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s m e n i n D j a k a r t a who m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e v e n some o f J a p a n ’ s A m bassadors t o I n d o n e s ia h a d f a v o r e d c e r t a i n com panies d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 1958 t o 1965. The c i r c l e of th o se === [PDF page 180] === in v o lv ed " che r e p a r a t i o n s l o b b i e s h a d becom e s o w id e th at i t d i f f ic u lt to d if f e r e n tia te a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s and a s o f f i c i a l A com plete l i s t betw een t h e i r r o l e s d ecision-m akers. o f Jap an ese firm s o b ta in in g con t r a c t s w i t h t h e I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t b e e n made p u b lic, n o r have th e d e t a i l s of th e ir c o n tra cts. O ften th e c o n t r a c t i n g c o m p a n i e s m ade s u b c o n t r a c t s w i t h o t h e r com p a n i e s, m aking i t n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e t o o f e a c h company. One s o u r c e, estim ate th e p r o f i t p u b l i s h e d i n 1968 by t h e J a p a n F e d e r a t i o n o f Econom ic O r g a n i z a t i o n s (K eidanren), p r o v i d e s t h e n a m e s o f t h e m a j o r J a p a n e s e f i r m s t h a t made c o n tra c ts w ith In d o n esia, a s shov/n i n T a b l e V - 2. T his i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company h a d t h e l a r g e s t share o f th e c o n tra c ts, co n su ltin g firm, larg e f o l l o w e d b y am e n g i n e e r i n g N i p p o n K o e i Com pany, c o m p a n i e s a s C. I t o h, and such t r a d i n g N o m u r a, a n d Tomen ( T ô y ô M e n k a ). e stab lish ed tra d e rs The s u c h a s M i t s u i a n d M i t s u b i s h i do n o t se e m t o h a v e b e e n a s s u c c e s s f u l a s t h e i r p r e s t i g e w ould im p ly. company, A tten tio n sh o u ld be g iv e n a ls o to an obscure t h e T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Com pany, v / h i c h won c o n t r a c t s en larg e th e I n d o n e s i a n Embassy b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t t h e Wisma I n d o n e s i a The t a b l e rep aratio n s i n Tokyo and t o (In d o n esia H all) i n Tokyo. i n s h o r t r e p r e s e n t s t h e new a c t o r s lo b b ies. M atsunaga Yasuzaemon, i n t h e P e a c e Lobby and one o f t h e in th e a c h ie f fig u re "In d o n esia t r i o, " became an a d v is o r t o th e J a p a n - I n d o n e s ia A s s o c ia tio n b u t rem ained a l o o f from t h e r e p a r a t i o n s lo b b y, a s d i d Ayukawa G i s u k e. === [PDF page 181] === The l a s t o f t h e "In d o n esia t r i o, " seemed t o have b een i n t e r e s t e d Ish ih a ra H iro ich irô, in th e re p a ra tio n s b u sin e ss; how ever he s u p p o r te d t h e a n ti - S u k a r n o Sum atra R e b e l l i o n, and t h u s l o s t S u k a rn o 's favor. An I n d o n e s i a n p e a c e ' l o b b y i s t and a "Japan e x p e r t," Omar T u s i n, who u s e d t o a s s i s t t h e B a n te n g C o u n c i l o f S u m a tra, was p l a c e d u n d e r s u r v e i l l a n c e a s a p o s s i b l e a n t i - S u k a r n o i s t and rem ained i n a c t i v e d u r in g th e Sukarno p r e s id e h c y. K ubota Y utaka o f N ippon K oei re m a in e d a c t i v e th e post-1958 p e rio d. He h a d s h o w n i n t e n s e during i n t e r e s t in the d evelopm ent o f I n d o n e s i a 's h y d r o e l e c t r i c pow er, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Asahan r i v e r i n N o rth S um atra. B u t t h e Asahan p r o j e c t was g i v e n t o t h e S o v i e t Union i n I9 6 0 p o s s i b l e for p o l it i c a l reasons. K u b o t a 's company, h o w e v e r, g a in e d n e a r ly an e x c lu s iv e h o ld o v er I n d o n e s ia 's i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p ro je c ts under th e re p a ra tio n s the s o -c a lle d " 3 K" p r o j e c t s m antan from 1961 t o 1 963. fund. He won c o n t r a c t s in E a s t Ja v a and S outh K a li I t is in d ic ativ e o f K u b o ta 's s u c c e s s fu l lo b b y in g w ith h ig h In d o n esian o f f i c i a l s, c lu d in g P r e s i d e n t Sukarno and o f f i c i a l s o f P u b l i c W o rk s. for As a n i l l u s t r a t i o n, from th e M in is tr y when P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o was i n Tokyo i n 1963 f o r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h P h i l i p p i n e P r e s i d e n t M a ca p ag a l on t h e M a l a y s ia i s s u e, K ubota t o d i n n e r one e v e n in g and o f f e r e d t o t o P r e s i d e n t Nkrumah o f G h a n a. L a t e r he in v ite d i n t r o d u c e h im i n 1 9 6 4 N k ru m ah a s k e d N i p p o n K o e i t o c o n d u c t s u r v e y s f o r so m e e x t e n s i v e p ro jec ts i n Ghana. A c c o r d in g t o one a c c o u n t, K ubota a l s o === [PDF page 182] === 176 TABLE V-2 MAJOR REPARATIONS CONTRACTS AND CONTRACTED COMPANIES Items and Projects Cost in Thousands of $ •51 ships •10 patrol boats 41,213 7,350 •Musi River Bridge (S. Sumatra) 10,525 ^Shipbuilding Dock (E. Java) 6,600 8,000 •Ball Beach Hotel (Bali) Contracting Companies^ Kinoshita, Tonichi, Nichlmen, Nomura IshikawaJIma-Harima Heavy Industry, Hitachi Shipbuilding, 'Jraga Dock Nlchimen, Fuji k'heels, 3hayashigumi Construction, Mitsui Daiichi Busshô, Pacific Consultants Kinoshita, Talsel Construction Kinoshita, Talsei Construction, Tonichi > 18,503 •Samdura Beach Hotel (W. Java) Kinoshita, Taisel Construction, Tonichi Kinoshita, Taisel Construction, Tonichi Wisma Nusantata building (Djakarta) 5,800 •Sarinah Department Store (Djakarta) 11.000 C. Itoh, Obayashigumi Construction Wisma Indonesia (Tokyo) 2.000 Tonichi', Hasegawa Construction Indonesian Embassy building expansion (Tokyo) Kinoshita, Taisel Construction, Kajima Construction 300 Tonichi, Hasegawa Construction Neyama Tunnel (E. Java) 1.972 Nippon Koei, Kajima Construction Karankates Dam (E. Java) 19.237 3.441 Nippon Koei, Kajima Construction Rlam Kanan Dam (S. Kalimantan) Slantar paper mill (N. Sumatra) 5,664 1.536 Nippon Koei, Hazamagumi Construction Kanematsu Makassar paper mill (Sulawesi) 6.481 Kanematsu Martapura paper mill (S. Kalimantan) 2.022 Nomura •Banjuwangi paper mill (E. Java) 8,500 Tomen Djakarta textile mill (Djakarta) 3.794 Kalikonto Dam (E. Java) Denpasar textile mill (Bali) Nippon Koei, Kajima Construction C. Itoh Tomen Lawang textile mill (E. Java) 4,906 Battery factory (W. Java) 1,278 Kinoshita, Fuji Electric Palopo Plywood Factory (Sulawesi ) 5 million copies of Koran 5.678 Japan International 1.300 Toppan Printing Co. 548 steam rollers, 166 tractors 12.636 Kinoshita, Nomura, Komatsu Steel, Tomen 1500 trucks, 1300 Jeeps 13,275 C. Itoh, Isuzu Motor, Toyota Motor, Mitsubishi Ralls, 100 railway cars 7.900 Kinoshita, Sumitomo, C. Itoh, Mitsubishi • R e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d l o a n p r o j e c t s Tomen I n c l u d e d. ^Kinoshita merged with Mitsui after August 1964. Of the companies listed, the trading firms are C. Itoh, Daiichi BusshS, Japan International, Kanerantsu, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Mlchimen, Nomura, Tomen, Tonichi, while Nippon.Koei is an engineering consulting firm. Sources; Based on Japan, Foreign Ministry, Economic Affairs Bureau, Indoneshia. pp. 115-16; and Reparations Problems Study Group, Nihon no baishc 1903. pp. 213-24, 234-38. Supplementary Information is octalned from Sakata Zenzaburo, Indoneshia; gen.lo to mondai ten. pp. 75-78. === [PDF page 183] === was a s k e d o c c a s i o n a l l y by I n d o n e s i a n m i n i s t e r s t o h e l p p e r s u a d e Sukarno and D juanda t o a d o p t c e r t a i n p r o j e c t s and budget a p p ro p ria tio n s.^ ^ A lso e n t e r i n g t h e a re n a o f J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s ia n e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s w a s t h e K a j i m a C o n s t r u c t i o n Com pany, w h i c h b u i l t t h e Neyama T u n n e l i n E a s t J a v a i n 1 9 6 1 a n d p a rtic ip a te d area. i n tw o o f t h e "3 K" dam p r o j e c t s i n t h e sa m e I n 1 9 6 4 K a j i m a m ade a j o i n t c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e T a i s e l C o n s t r u c t i o n Company f o r t h e Wisma N u s a n t a r a o f f i c e b u ild in g in D jak arta. K ajim a M o rin o su k e t h u s g a in e d a p o s itio n of in flu e n ce in of th is is h is In d o n esian m a tte rs. An i n d i c a t i o n a c c e s s i o n i n 1962 t o t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f t h e Jap an -In d o n esia A sso ciatio n, w h ic h h a d a m em bership o f o v e r one h u n d re d com panies d o in g b u s i n e s s w i t h I n d o n e s i a. 12 L a t e r i n 1970 he c o n s t r u c t e d I n d o n e s i a 's p a v i l i o n a t th e Osaka E x p o s i t i o n, inv o lv em en t in an o th er in d ic a tio n o f h is c o m p a n y 's In d o n esia. K i n o s h i t a S h i g e r u a n d Kubo M a s a o, who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e K i n o s h i t a and T o n ic h i T r a d in g Com panies r e s p e c t i v e l y, estab lish ed s im ila r ly pow erful c o n n ec tio n s w ith th e Indo n e s i a n P r e s i d e n t and o t h e r h i g h - r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s D ja k a r ta a s w i l l be se en l a t e r. rep aratio n s B oth g o t in v o lv e d i n th e th ro u g h I n d o n e s ia 's i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l T heir a c t i v i t i e s and t h e sig n ifican ce tro u b les. of t h e i r presence Ja p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n r e l a t i o n s w i l l be t r e a t e d fo llo w in g s e c tio n s. in th e === [PDF page 184] === T h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company a n d C e s s a t i o n o f t h e D utch S h ip p in g O p e ra tio n s K i n o s h i t a ' s C o n t r a c t t o S u p p ly N ine S h i p s, A first though p r o v i s i o n a l r e p a r a t i o n s was s i g n e d on J u n e 18, 1958 co n tra ct 1958, betw een I n d o n e s i a 's M i n i s t r y o f S h ip p in g and th e K in o s h ita T rad in g C o m p a n y. T h e c o n t r a c t was l a t e r f o r m a l i z e d b y t h e R e p a r a t i o n s M i s s i o n an d and t h e J a p a n e s e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y and was t h e n v e r i f i e d by t h e F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y on J u l y 24, Under t h i s t r a c t f o u r new s h i p s a n d f i v e s e c o n d - h a n d s h i p s, con each w e i g h i n g 2, 5 0 0 DWT a n d c o s t i n g a t o t a l o f $ 7. 2 m i l l i o n, w ere s u p p lie d to In donesia. A f t e r December 2, 1 9 5 7, when I n d o n e s i a h a d o r d e r e d t h e D u t c h s h i p p i n g c o m p a n y KPM ( K o n i n k l i j k e M aatsch ap p i.i) to h a l t i t s o p eratio n s P ak etv aart in Indonesian w aters, th e co u n try d e s p e ra te ly needed i n t e r - i s l a n d s h i p s. F o r Ind o n esia to p ro c u re sh ip s through r e p a r a tio n s a p p ro p ria te m easure. how ever, seem ed an Soon a f t e r t h e c o n t r a c t was s i g n e d, th e J a p a n Shipow ners A s s o c ia t io n r a i s e d of irreg u laritie s in the c o n tra c t. T his c ritic ism c h a r g e was a d d r e s s e d t o t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company w h i c h h a d re c e iv e d c o n tr a c ts f o r n in e out o f th e te n sh ip s re q u e ste d, alth o u g h i t had n o t d e a l t w ith sh ip s p r e v io u s ly. i n F e b r u a r y 1959 t h e L ater o p p o sitio n S o c ia lis t P a rty used th is c h a rg e t o i m p l i c a t e Prim e M i n i s t e r K is h i an d one o f h i s c a b i n e t members i n t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e co n tract. === [PDF page 185] === 179 But even i f th e S o c i a l i s t P a r t y ’s a c c u s a t i o n w ere c o r r e c t, t h e r e was n o t h i n g i l l e g a l a b o u t t h e c o n t r a c t; i t s i m p l y was th e outcom e o f s u c c e s s f u l b a r g a i n i n g by t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g C o m pany. K in o sh ita S h ig eru (1899-1967), P re s id e n t o f th e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Com pany, w a s a s h r e w d b u s i n e s s m a n. had had a s u c c e s s f u l w h o le sa le b u s in e s s d e a lin g w ith i r o n ore, scrap, and s t e e l p ro d u c ts in M anchuria d u rin g th e p rew ar y e a r s and i n th e P h i l i p p i n e s years. As h i s lum ber, te x tile s, a ls, company grew, d u rin g th e postw ar he expan d ed h i s b u s i n e s s i n t o f e r t i l i z e r s, ch em icals, b u ild in g m a te ri17 and m achinery. K i n o s h i t a ’s b u s i n e s s grew th r o u g h h is e f f o r ts e s ta b lis h personal t i e s w ith in f lu e n tia l p o litic a l and i n d u s t r i a l f i g u r e s. Co m pany, e stab lish ed i n 1932, made g o o d u s e o f J a p a n ’ s ex p an sio n ist p o licy, h elp in g the F u ji pany t o se ll The K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g I r o n a n d S t e e l Com s t e e l p ro d u c ts to M anchuria. Through h i s b u s i n e s s t h e r e K i n o s h i t a becam e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Nagano Shigeo, pany, M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r o f t h e F u j i I r o n a n d S t e e l Com a n d w i t h Inayam a Y o s h i h i r o, M a n ag in g D i r e c t o r o f t h e Y aw ata S t e e l Company. K inoshita a ls o c a m e t o kn ow t h e a m b i t i o u s V i c e M i n i s t e r o f Commerce a n d I n d u s t r y a n d fu tu re Prim e M i n i s t e r, governm ent p o s i t i o n, steel K ish i Nobusuke, who t h r o u g h h i s had c lo s e c o n ta c t s w ith th e i r o n and in d u strie s.^ ® T h e s e f o u r men— K i n o s h i t a, Nagano, K ish i— m aintained c lo se r e la tio n s h ip s. Inayam a, and At th e s t a r t o f === [PDF page 186] === 180 t h e P a c i f i c War t h e i r o n a n d s t e e l c o m p a n i e s w e r e p l a c e d u n d e r governm ent c o n t r o l. F rom 1 9 4 3 t o 1 9 4 4 K i s h i w a s S ta te M in is te r in G eneral T ô jô 's C ab in et, g o v e rn m e n t's S t e e l C o n tro l C o u n c il. C o u n c i l ' s Raw M a t e r i a l s S e c t i o n; heading th e Nagano h e a d e d t h e Inayam a was d e p u t y c h i e f o f th e P ro d u c tio n S e c tio n o f th e C o u n cil; and K in o s h ita w orked u n d e r them and o b v i o u s l y d id n o t s u f f e r from t h e governm ent c o n tr o l o f i r o n and s t e e l. J a p a n ' s surrender led to th e a r r e s t o f K ish i as a c la s s -A war c r im in a l s u s p ect. At t h i s tim e K in o s h ita e s t a b l i s h e d th e Jap an S t e e l T r a d i n g Company a n d, w h e n K i s h i w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m Sugamo P riso n in la te 1 9 4 8, K i n o s h i t a made h i m p r e s i d e n t o f t h e company a s t h e o n l y means o f a s s i s t i n g f i n a n c i a l l y him s i n c e he was n o t a ll o w e d by t h e O c c u p a tio n a u t h o r i t i e s assum e any p u b l i c o f f i c e t i l l p o litics. 1 9 5 2 v/hen h e r e - e n t e r e d 20 K i n o s h i t a ' s c o n t r a c t f o r s h i p s was b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e N a t i o n a l D i e t on F e b r u a r y 13 a n d 1 4, o p p o sitio n p a r ty 's The Imazumi Isa m u a n d Y a n a g i d a H i d e k a z u c h a r g e d t h a t t h r e e men s e r v e d i n e f f e c t a s l o b b y i s t s f o r K in o sh ita: a n o v e r s e a s C h i n e s e t r a d e r n a m e d C. M. Chow, h i s p re w a r and w artim e a c q u a in ta n c e and a d ip lo m a t, shim a Naka, and K i n o s h i t a ' s o l d f r i e n d Prim e M i n i s t e r K is h i Nobusuke. c le ar but i t Toyo- 22 The e x a c t r o l e th a t each p layed i s n o t i s p o s s i l b e t o d o c u m e n t some a s p e c t s o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n s from i n t e r v i e w s and p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s. === [PDF page 187] === -L O J. A ccording to an inform ed so u rc e, i n t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s C. M. Chow w a s i n S h a n g h a i w o r k i n g f o r J a p a n e s e m i l i t a r y in te l l i g e n c e w h e n h e m e t T o y o s h i m a, who w a s w o r k i n g i n t h e Jap an ese C o n su late t h e r e.^ T o yoshim a l a t e r was a s s i g n e d t o t h e C o n s u l a te - G e n e r a l i n B a t a v i a and i n 1941 s e r v e d a s V ice-C o n su l.^ ^ V/hen t h e M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e g a n i n. 1942, Toyoshim a became h e a d o f t h e O v e rs e a s C h in e s e A f f a i r s team w i t h i n t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's P o p u la r A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t a n d a s k e d Chow t o j o i n h i m. ^ ^ A f te r th e w ar, Chow rem ained i n In d o n e s ia and, w h ile s e r v in g a s an i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c e r f o r th e I n d o n e s ia n governm ent, export t r a d e r. became a n im p o r t- He s e t u p t h e I n d o n e s i a n O v e r s e a s Company w hich d e a l t p r i m a r i l y w ith s c r a p - i r o n and s h i p s. Through h i s b u s i n e s s Chow b e c a m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g C o m p an y.^ ® A f t e r t h e w ar Toyoshim a w orked i n t h e Im m ig ratio n B ureau o f th e M in is try o f J u s t i c e u n t i l h i s r e tir e m e n t in e a r l y 1 9 58.^^ shim a t o K i n o s h i t a, tiv e Chow l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d Toyo who made h i m h i s b u s i n e s s r e p r e s e n t a in D jak arta. A c c o r d i n g t o a M i t s u i T r a d i n g Company e m p l o y e e i n D jak arta, Chew a p p r o a c h e d S u k a r n o ' s a d j u t a n t, and o b tain ed a l e t t e r S ughandi, o f i n t r o d u c t i o n from P r e s i d e n t S u k a r no w hich he to o k t o Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i i n J a p a n. T h i s p o s s i b l y was t o im press K ish i w ith h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith S u k arn o and t o g a i n t h e Prim e M i n i s t e r ' s f a v o r i n h i s bu sin ess e ff o r ts. In th e F e b ru ary 13, 1959 s e s s i o n o f th e D i e t K i s h i a d m i t t e d t h a t h e h a d m e t Chow i n H a k o n e " a === [PDF page 188] === c o u p l e o f t i m e s " a f t e r h e h a d come b a c k f r o m h i s S o u t h e a s t 29 A sian t o u r. I m a z u m i c l a i m e d t h a t Chow h a d t o l d h i m t h a t h e h a d m et K i n o s h i t a i n Tokyo p r i o r t o K i s h i ’ s t r i p N ovem ber. On D e c e m b e r 6, had l e f t, 1957, so o n a s t h e D utch v e s s e l s rep o rted th a t the I n d o n e s ia n governm ent re q u e ste d th e use of Japanese f r e ig h te r s and ta n k e r s. On D e c e m b e r 1 7 I n d o n e s i a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l I s k a n d a r I s h a q f o r m a l l y r e q u e s t e d a l o a n o f 1 0 0,0 0 0 t o n s o f s h i p p i n g from Y am agata K a ts u m i, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e J a p a n S h ip o w n e rs A s s o c i 32 a tio n. Y am agata t h e n m et w i t h P rim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i and F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r F u jiy a m a on D ecem b er 17 a n d 1 9. T he J a p a n e s e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y d e c i d e d t h a t J a p a n w ould d e c l i n e re q u e sts fo r th e re p a ra tio n s funds u n t i l the peace tr e a ty was s i g n e d. On D e c e m b e r 21 t h e I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t s e n t a m i s s i o n t o T o k y o w h i c h w a s h e a d e d b y S. E. Haznam, rep resen tativ e o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n N a t i o n a l S h i p p i n g Company ( P e l a.j a r a n N a s i o n a l I n d o n e s i a o r PELNI). h e a n d Y am agata s i g n e d an a g r e e m e n t t o cargo and p a sse n g e r sh ip s, to ta lin g On D e c e m b e r 28 c h a rte r tw en ty -six 7 5, 0 0 0 DWT, a n d 3 t o 5 tan k e rs. Haznam i m m e d i a t e l y r e c e i v e d b i d s f r o m t w e n t y Japanese s h ip p in g c o m p a n i e s. H o w e v e r, th e agreem ent l a t e r was deemed u n w o rk a b le b e c a u s e J a p a n ' s "too h e av y." demands w ere M i n i s t e r o f S h i p p i n g Commodore Mohammad N a z i r c am e t o T o k y o o n J a n u a r y 4 t o n e g o t i a t e b u t h a d n o s u c c e s s. On J a n u a r y 2 4, 1 9 5 8 Haznam 'e c la re d t h a t th e n e g o tia tio n s === [PDF page 189] === -LCSp w ere t e r m in a te d and added: from i n d i v i d u a l statem en t, s ix te e n o r sev en teen Japanese firm s t h a t had o f f i c e s ly to g ain c o n tra c ts. 1958 Sukarno v i s i t e d jo u rn al, Tokyo, and th e r e s p e c t e d w eekly " t h e c o m p e t i t i o n amon g t r a d i n g 37 in la te January c o n trib u to rs A ccording to Y a n a g id a ' s ch arg e i n th e and t o th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d Ekonom isuto Chow a r r a n g e d on F e b r u a r y 1 3 a n d 1 4, and Sukarno to A ccording to 1959 t h a t com panies f o r s h ip c o n t r a c t s K i n o s h i t a a n d Chow w e r e a c t i v e D ie t in 1959, K ish i, on F e b r u a r y 14, clim ax d u rin g S u k a rn o 's v i s i t S u k a rn o 's v i s i t. article, i n D j a k a r t a com peted f i e r c e - From J a n u a r y 29 t o F e b r u a r y 1 5, E konom isuto, r e p o r te d reached i t s o f sh ip s firm s. Upon t h i s trad in g " I am e x p e c t i n g o f f e r s dine in a g e ish a re s ta u ra n t.^ ® th e m agazine a r t i c l e, A kagi M unenori a d m i tte d th e K is h i and Akagi d e n ie d i t fo r K in o sh ita, K i s h i 's C ab in et S e c re ta ry F e b r u a r y 13 g a t h e r i n g, but a t th e D iet s e s s i o n. H o w e v e r, t h e P rim e M i n i s t e r d i d a d m it t h e F e b r u a r y 14 m e e ti n g, e x p l a i n i n g t h a t S u k a rn o h a d a s k e d K i s h i t o b e p r e s e n t when h e m e t K i n o s h i t a a n d t h a t t h e m e e t i n g h a d b e e n i n n o wa y 40 out of lin e. W hile t h e e x a c t c o n t e n t o f t h e i r m e e ti n g o r m eetin g s has n o t been d is c lo s e d, a rticle sta te s th at c o n tr a c ts w ith th e soon a f t e r su ffe rin g t h i s m e e t i n g K i n o s h i t a m ade In d o n e s ia n governm ent to on a c o m m e r c ia l b a s i s. t o man y J a p a n e s e t h e Ekonom isuto s e l l n in e sh ip s T h is c o n t r a c t a p p e a re d f o o lh a r d y s h i p p i n g c o m p a n ie s, f o r I n d o n e s i a was from a s h o r t a g e of fo reig n currency re s e rv e s. === [PDF page 190] === T he c o m p a n i e s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a c o u l d c h a r t e r s h i p s from J a p a n th r o u g h th e r e p a r a t i o n s fu n d s, a n d Y a m a g a t a on F eb ru ary 1 had su g g e ste d t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y to F oreign M i n i s t e r F u j i y a m a a n d V i c e F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r Ono K a t s u m i. On F e b r u a r y 3 I n d o n e s i a n S h i p p i n g M i n i s t e r N a z i r, s t a y e d i n Tokyo t o j o i n th e Sukarno p a r t y, d iscu ssed th is w i t h M i n i s t e r o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Nakamura S a n n o j i. a f t e r th ese ta lk s K ishi, I t was I t was r e p o r t e d t o t h e D i e t i n 1959 b y Y a n a g id a t h a t Murakami T o r u, D i r e c t o r o f t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company, I n d o n e s i a on A p r i l 4, t h e R e p a r a ti o n s A greem ent w ent i n t o 1958, M anaging a n d C. M. Chow e le v e n days b e fo re e f f e c t a n d t h a t on A p r i l 8 K in o s h ita a l s o had flow n to D j a k a r t a. Y a n a g i d a a c c u s e d t h e t h r e e men o f h a v i n g b r i b e d t h e o fficials, Indonesian e s p e c ia lly M in is te r of Shipping N a z ir, i n c o r p o r a t e t h e c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Com pany i n to th e f i r s t y e a r 's r e p a r a t i o n s paym ent program. On A p r i l 1 5, 1 9 5 8 F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S u b a n d r i o came t o T o k yo t o e x c h a n g e t h e r a t i f i c a t i o n docum ents o f th e R e p a r a ti o n s A greem ent and t h e Peace T r e a t y. At t h i s tim e he a l s o t o l d F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r F ujiyam a t h a t p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r th e f i r s t y e a r ' s p ro c u re m e n t o r d e r p l a n were d e la y e d and r e q u e s te d t h a t th e f i r s t y e a r 's p ro c u re m e n ts be p e r m i t t e d on t h e b a s i s lib itu m lim its t h a t t h e c l o s e d m e e t i n g among S u k a r n o, and K in o s h ita took p la c e. had flow n to who h a d of c o n tra cts ^ o f $20 m i l l i o n. w ith in the Fujiyam a c o n s e n te d t o t h i s. === [PDF page 191] === M in is te r of Shipping N azir l e f t f o r T okyo on J u n e s t a t i n g t h a t h e w a s g o i n g t o J a p a n t o make " f i n a l arrangem ents" f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f n i n e s h i p s. En r o u t e in S ingapore he a ls o d e c la r e d t h a t In d o n e sia hoped to g e t t e n s h i p s from J a p a n a s p a r t o f t h e war r e p a r a t i o n s p r o gram s. 43 On J u n e 6 B a s u k i, who h a d come t o T okyo a s t h e f i r s t C h ie f of th e In d o n e sia n R e p a ra tio n s M ission, met w i t h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r F u jiy a m a t o d e l i v e r a m essage from F o re ig n M in is te r S ubandrio r e q u e s tin g th e procurem ent o f Japanese ships as p a rt of th e re p a ra tio n s. B asu k i p r e s e n t e d to Y oshida K e n 'i c h i r o, 44 D ire c to r of the R e p ara tio n s D iv isio n o f th e F oreign M in istry, p la n f o r th e use o f the f i r s t y e a r 's On J u n e 7 I n d o n e s ia 's $20 m i l l i o n f u n d w h ich i n c l u d e d an o r d e r f o r t e n s h i p s. 45 In answer to N a z ir 's s ta te m e n t i n S in g a p o re and B a s u k i' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Indonesian p lan, th e Ja p a n e se s h ip p in g and t r a d i n g com panies im m e d ia te ly t e n d e r e d b i d s. N a z ir 's p a rty a rriv e d i t On J u n e 6 when found th e h o t e l desk p i l e d w ith b i d s a lr e a d y su b m itte d by th e s h ip p in g and t r a d i n g fir m s fo r th e c o n tra c t of ten s h i p s. L a t e r th e se firm s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company a l r e a d y h a d re c e iv e d a c o n tra c t fo r nine of th ese sh ip s. On J u n e 7 N a z i r m et w it h F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r F u jiy am a and Prim e M i n i s t e r K ish i. H is m e e tin g w ith K is h i l a s t e d hours, c a u s i n g a n AP c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o co m m en t t h a t i t w a s e x tr a o r d in a r il y lo n g. 47 f o r m o r e t h a n tw o F ujiyam a e x p la in e d to th e D ie t in 1 9 5 9 t h a t b o t h N a z i r a n d B a s u k i h a d come t o obtain h is === [PDF page 192] === ±tSD consent to purchase th e A ctu ally th e re sh ip s w ith th e re p a ra tio n s fund. i s ground to b e lie v e t h a t N a zir co u ld have d i s c u s s e d v/ays i n w h i c h t h e p u r c h a s e o f s h i p s f r o m K i n o s h i t a co u ld have been t r a n s f e r r e d to the r e p a r a tio n s p ro gram. On J u n e 12 K i s h i r e s h u f f l e d h i s C a b i n e t a n d a p p o i n t e d N a g a n o Mamoru a s M i n i s t e r o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n. ^ ^ N ag an o, whose m i n i s t r y was i n c h a rg b o f g r a n t i n g p e r m i s s i o n fo r the su pply o f s h ip s u n d er r e p a r a t i o n s, in c o rp o ra tio n of K in o s h ita ' s nine tio n s plan. sh ip s in to th e re p a ra F ujiyam a l a t e r t e s t i f i e d i n te r - m in is te r ia l R ep aratio n s o n J u n e 16 t h a t t h e Im plem entation C o o rd in a tin g C om m ittee a l s o had s t u d i e d and a p p ro v e d t h e 50 req u est fo r ten s h i p s. O n a u th o riz e d the In donesian J u n e 18 N a z i r s i g n e d a c o n t r a c t w ith K in o sh ita f o r th e purchase of nine com m ercial b a s i s. D iet, 51 A ccording to Y o sh id a ’s rem arks in th e on J u l y 16 B a s u k i a n d Y o s h i d a s i g n e d a n a g r e e m e n t w hereby K i n o s h i t a ' s n in e rep aratio n s J u ly 24, s h i p s on a f uindi nds, 52 s h i p s w ould be c o v e r e d by t h e a n d t h e a g r e e m e n t was v e r i f i e d 1 9 5 8, 53 K in o s h ita ' s B usiness S tra te g y seem s p r o b a b l e tio n s h ip s w ith K ish i, to h is th a t K in o sh ita' s personal r e la Chow, o b tain in g th e sh ip an d Toyoshim a w ere i m p o r t a n t c o n tra cts. T he c se t i e s b etw een Sukarno and K is h i were m a n if e s te d th ro u g h t h e s e c o n tra cts. The J a p a n S o c i a l i s t P a r t y c h a r g e d t h a t K i s h i i n t e r v e n e d i n b e h a l f o f one o f t h e b i d d i n g c o m p a n ie s. === [PDF page 193] === th is c h a rg e w ere t r u e, o n e t h e n may a r g u e t h a t K i s h i a c t e d more a s a l o b b y i s t t h a n a s a p r i m e m i n i s t e r. A fter securing th e sh ip c o n tra c ts, K in o sh ita c o n tin u e d h i s m aneuvering f o r s i x o r seven y e a r s u n t i l h i s company w e n t b a n k r u p t i n A u g u s t 1 9 6 4. c o m p a n y made c o n t r a c t s p a tr o l b o ats, In donesia, to c o n s t r u c t a d d i t i o n a l s h i p s and fo u r la rg e h o t e l s in c lu d in g the H otel a n d t h e t w e n t y - n i n e - s t o r y Wisma N u s a n t a r a o f f i c e b u ild in g in D ja k a rta. H i s company a l s o b u ild in g p la n ts, steam r o l l e r s, (se e T able V-2). supplied and a g r i c u l t u r a l the re p a ra tio n s p ro je c ts. S ulaw esi n i c k e l, c o m p a re d t o o n l y 60 i n 1 9 4 5. Company m e r g e d w i t h M i t s u i, firm s. The f a i l u r e 1964 was a t t r i b u t e d ex ten d ed beyond and o f f s h o r e 54 fish eries. o f 2,100 em ployees, When t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g ranked seventh in to K in o s h ita ' s ex tra v ag e n ce i n e n t e r c u s to m e rs and t h o s e whose exam ple, i t was c l a i m e d w i d e l y i n 1958 t h a t when S u k a rn o a n d h i s p a r t y K i n o s h i t a s p e n t from ¥30 m i l l i o n ($139,000) Hakone d u r i n g t h e sales o f t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company i n i n f l u e n c e m ig ht h e lp h i m. F o r m illio n 55 t a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l and a c t u a l Japan, but K i n o s h i t a a l s o was i n t e r e s t e d A t i t s p e a k h i s company h a d a t o t a l among t r a d i n g equipm ent company f i n a l l y r e c e i v e d, i s known t h a t h i s b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i e s S um atran o i l, sh ip i s n o t know n p u b l i c l y j u s t how much o f th e r e p a r a tio n s funds h is U n til then h is to e n te rta in came t o them i n Tokyo, e ig h te e n days t h a t th ey sta y e t o ¥50 o to, and in Japan. 57 === [PDF page 194] === -LOO T h is e n te rta in m e n t a ls o in clu d ed th e in tro d u ctio n p r e t t y model t o P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o. T h i s caused K in o s h ita 's b u sin ess r i v a l, T r a d i n g C o m pany, then to th e ra m ific a tio n s in th e of a in tro d u c tio n Kubo M a sa o o f t h e T o n i c h i i n t r o d u c e Dewi t o P r e s i d e n t S u k a r o f w hich m e e tin g w i l l be d i s c u s s e d fo llo w in g s e c tio n. The S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n a n d Kubo Ma sao U n t i l 1 9 5 8 Kubo M a sa o w a s P r e s i d e n t o f a n e w a n d o b s c u r e t r a d i n g company c a l l e d t h e T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Company. E stab lish ed i n M arch 1 9 5 4, and c o n s t r u c t i o n. had on i t s t h e company h a n d l e d b o t h t r a d e A lth o u g h i t was s m a l l, board o f d ir e c to r s such le a d e r s t h e company of th e r u lin g L i b e r a l D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y a s Ono B a n b o k u a n d Kono I c h i r o and th e r i g h t i s t lead er, Kodama Y o s h i o. I n 1958 th e T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Company a n d Kubo b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n In d o n esian a f f a i r s. When P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o p l a n n e d t o v i s i t J a p a n i n Ja n u a ry 1958, a g r e a t problem f o r I n d o n e s i a 's C onsul- G e n e ra l i n Tokyo, Iskandar Ishak, was a d e q u a t e fo r th e P re sid e n t, a s t h e r e w ere rum ors t h a t a n ti - S u k a r n o i s t g ro u p s m ight e n t e r Ja p an s e c r e t l y a t e him. and t r y The T o k yo M e t r o p o l i t a n P o l i c e, resp o n sib le fo r secu rity resp o n sib ility f o r th e u n o fficial v is it in th e c ity, secu rity to a s s a s s in who w e r e r e f u s e d t o assum e P r e s i d e n t w h i l e h e was on a n on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t h e w a s r e c k l e s s h is personal a ff a irs and m ig h t n o t f o l lo w th e schedule set === [PDF page 195] === 189 i n ad v an c e f o r him, w h ic h i n t u r n w ould ham per e f f e c t i v e s e c u r ity m easures. A ccording to co n fid an t, inform ed so u rc e s in D ja k a rta, C o l o n e l Sambas A tm a d in a ta, M in is te r o f V eteran A f f a ir s, w artim e f r i e n d, S u k a rn o 's then A s s is ta n t co n tacted h is r e l a t i v e and O g u c h i M a s a m i, who s u g g e s t e d u s i n g a p r i v a t e b o d y g u a rd.F o llo w in g th is su g g e stio n C onsul-G eneral I s h a k c a l l e d Kodama Y o s h i o, who r a n k e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e h ierarch y of r i g h t i s t p o litic ia n s underw orld o r g a n iz a tio n s.® ^ and t h e i r a f f i l i a t e d Kodama h a n d e d o v e r t h e a s s i g n m ent t o one o f h i s p r o m i n e n t f o l l o w e r s, K obayashi Kusuo. K o b a y a s h i w a s P r e s i d e n t o f D a i N i h o n Kyôgyô ( G r e a t e r J a p a n C o n s t r u c t i o n Company), a l l e g e d l y a f r o n t f o r an u n d e r w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n kno w n a s t h e "G inza P o l i c e, " p o w e rfu l i n T o k y o 's G inza a r e a, a n d a l s o was a n a d v i s o r th e p a t r i o t i c "Kusunoki K o d o ta i" m o n arch ist group, n o k i A c t i o n Command f o r S u p p o r t o f t h e 64 65 group Kubo M a sa o t h e n w a s a s k e d t o a c t a s l i a i s o n b etw een t h e g a n g s t e r s, d en t. (Kusu- I m p e r i a l Way). K o b a y a s h i a g r e e d t o r e c r u i t t w e n t y members o f t h i s to g uard Sukarno. i t was th e p o lic e, and th e P r e s i He w a s c h o s e n p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e h e s p o k e E n g l i s h and b e c a u se K o b a y a s h i' s b o s s, Kodama, w a s o n t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s o f K u b o ' s T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Company. The e x t e n t o f t h e K i s h i G o v e r n m e n t ' s i n v o l v e m e n t in th is a f f a i r i s n o t known. M in ister K is h i's p a tte r n h is "H ow ev e r, ju d g in g from Prim e o f co n serv a tiv e behavior, from clo se a s s o c ia tio n w ith r i g h t i s t o rg a n iz a tio n s, and === [PDF page 196] === from t h e d i p l o m a t i c head o f s t a t e, im portance of p ro te c tin g a fo reig n i t w ould n o t be s u r p r i s i n g i f K i s h i w ere aw are o f t h i s and m ig h t h av e a g re e d t o i t. sc ien tist. K in o sh ita H a n ji, w rite s (R ig h tist te rro rs ); ta c ts w ith r i g h t i s t lead ers. A p o litic a l i n h i s Uyoku t e r o "K ishi w illin g ly m a in ta in s c lo s e con g r o u p s and makes u s e o f them a f t e r assum ing th e p r e m i e r s h ip. among K i s h i ' s c l o s e 65 I t i s p u b l i c know ledge t h a t a sso ciates a re p ro m inent r i g h t i s t R e c e n t l y i t h a s become i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s p i c u o u s t h a t th e L ib eral-D em o cratic P a rty under h is le a d e rs h ip had c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h r i g h t i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s. "®® A six -m a n group o f S um atran r e b e l s se cre tly e n te red Tokyo on J a n u a r y 28 a n d s t a y e d a t t h e N i k k a t s u H o t e l, th e I m p e r ia l H o te l where th e P r e s i d e n t i a l p a r t y D u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o w e e k s Kubo a n d h i s clo se to the P re sid e n t. I t was i r o n i c near stay ed. team s t a y e d t h a t S u k a r n o, who was c r i t i c i z e d a s b e i n g l e n i e n t to w a r d t h e C o m m u n ists, was b ein g p ro te c te d i n Ja p a n by an an ti-C om m u nist b odyguard a g a i n s t an anti-C om m unist group. Kubo s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t h i s a s s ig n m e n t and Sukarno l e f t J a p a n s a f e l y. th is t i m e Kubo m u s t h a v e h a d a c h a n c e t o D uring observe c lo s e ly t h e m od u s o p e r a n d i o f K i n o s h i t a, Chow, con clu d in g t h e i r and he m ust have se e n th e sh ip c o n tra c ts, and Toyoshim a i n advantage o f b e in g in th e r e p a r a tio n s b u s in e s s. decided to use h i s Kubo t h u s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S u k a rn o t o become in v o lv ed f u r t h e r in In d o n esian a f f a i r s. The e x a c t d e p t h o f Kubo' s in v o lv e m e n t i s y e t to be e s t a b l i s h e d. M ajor === [PDF page 197] === 191 so u rces of in fo rm atio n a v a ila b le so f a r a r e a rticle s p e a r i n g in p o p u la r w eekly m agazines r a t h e r th a n th o s e o f a more s e r i o u s n a t u r e. One s h o u l d b e a r t h e s e lim ita tio n s m ind w h i l e r e a d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s. On J u n e 6, Japan and, 1959 P r e s i d e n t Sukarno r e t u r n e d t o on J u n e 16 Kubo i n t r o d u c e d t o h i m a n i n e t e e n - y e a r - o l d c a b a r e t h o s t e s s n a m e d Nem oto Naoko.®® A ccording t o h e r own n o t e s l a t e r m ade p u b l i c M i s s N e m o to m e t w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t two m ore t i m e s a t t h e I m p e r i a l H o t e l b e f o r e h is d ep artu re.® ^ From D j a k a r t a, Sukarno s e n t " a f f e c t i o n a t e " letters t o M i s s Nem oto t h r o u g h t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y i n T o k y o. They e x ch a n g ed l e t t e r s a few t im e s b e f o r e S u k a rn o, le tter i n v i t e d M i s s Nem oto t o d a te d A ugust 18, f o r a tw o -w e e k t r i p. th is. 72 71 70 in a In d on esia S u k a r n o a l s o n o t i f i e d Kubo Masao o f On S e p t e m b e r 1 4 M i s s Nem oto l e f t for In d o n esia, d i s g u i s e d a s a n e m p l o y e e o f T o n i c h i a n d a c c o m p a n i e d b y Kubo him self. 75 O n l y a f t e r t h e y h a d a r r i v e d i n D j a k a r t a on S e p t e m b e r 15 d i d s h e r e a l i z e, as she w ro te l a t e r, was u s i n g h e r t o e n h a n c e h i s b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s n e s ia.'^ ^ t h a t Kubo in Indo Kubo d e n i e d i n 1 9 5 6 t h a t h e h a d u s e d h e r t o g a i n S u k a rn o 's fa v o r, a lth o u g h he a d m itte d t h a t h i s company h a d p r o v i d e d h o u s i n g f o r h e r i n D j a k a r t a w h e r e h e s a i d S u k a rn o h a d v i s: * 'd h e r. 75 : a r r i v a l o f M i s s N em o to i n I n d o n e s i a w a s a c h alle n: to S u k a r n o 's t h i r d w if e, t o him t y Toyoshim a Naka a n d, who h a d b e e n i n t r o d u c e d on S e p te m b e r 30, 1959, she === [PDF page 198] === c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e i n D j a k a r t a w h i l e M i s s Nemoto a n d S u k a r n o w e re v i s i t i n g BaliT® B e t w e e n I 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 6 3 Kubo M asao r e c e i v e d f o u r larg e rep aratio n s co n tracts suspect th a t Nemoto t o (see T able V -2). t h e s e were a r e s u l t o f h i s Sukarno. One mayi n t r o d u c i n g M iss I n 1 9 6 1 Kubo c o n s t r u c t e d t h e f o u r - s t o r y I n d o n e s i a H a l l o r "Wisma I n d o n e s i a " i n Tokyo. a l s o won a c o n t r a c t t o e x p a n d t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y b u ild in g i n T o k yo u n d e r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s funds in I960 as w e l l a s t o p r o v i d e p a t r o l - f r e i g h t e r b o a t s a n d some o f t h e equipm ent and f a c i l i t i e s in B a li, Java). Jo g jak arta 77 (C en tral Ja v a), and P la b u h a n R a tu (W est In a d d itio n to th ese r e p a r a tio n s c o n tr a c ts, ob tain ed the r ig h ts tia l fo r the th re e r e s o r t h o te ls b u i l t P alace, to b u ild a guesthouse in th e P re sid e n t h e N a t i o n a l Monum ent, m issio n tow er, a ll in D jak arta. and a t e l e v i s i o n " p r e s t i g e p r o j e c t s." became one o f L o cated a t th e c e n t e r o f M erdeka S q u a r e i n f r o n t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l P a l a c e, m onum ent i s a huge o b e lis k tran s- The N a t i o n a l M onum ent, o r w h a t i s know n a s Monas ( Monumen N a s i o n a l ), S u k a rn o 's Kubo the to p p ed by a g o ld e n l i g h t and i l l u m i n a t e d from t h e g ro u n d a t n i g h t. The T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Company a p p e a r e d m o s t a c t i v e in 1961. The c o m p a n y i n v i t e d a t l e a s t f i f t e e n h i g h - ranking o f f i c i a l s to Japan th a t y e ar, number o f I n d o n e s i a n v i s i t o r s in v ita tio n o f the when t h e t o t a l coming t o J a p a n a t t h e o f Ja p a n e se o r g a n i z a t i o n s and upon th e a p p ro v a l I n d o n e s i a n Embassy was o n l y t h i r t y - o n e. 79 === [PDF page 199] === 193 first, b u t, T o n i c h i h a d h a d o n l y one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w ith in a year, in D jakarta i t s D ja k a r ta b ra n c h had te n Ja p a n e se e m p l o y e e s, among whom w e r e s e v e r a l w a r t i m e " I n d o n e s i a 80 e x p e rts." Thus i t i s g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t th e g ro w th o f t h e T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Company was d u e i n l a r g e p a r t t o t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Kubo a n d S u k a r n o. M i s s Nemoto was s e c l u d e d i n t h e T o n i c h i d o r m i t o r y i n D j a k a r t a aw ay f r o m p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n. But she d id accom pany S u k a r n o on h i s overseas t r i p s, of h is "Mrs. s e c r e ta r ie s or as t r a v e l i n g a s o ne K irish im a." (Mr. K i r i s h i m a ftp worked a t T o n i c h i ' s D j a k a r t a b r a n c h. ) By 1 9 6 2 c o n s i d e r ab le f r i c t i o n h a d b u i l t u p b e t w e e n M i s s Nemoto a n d Kubo. Sh e w a s a m b i t i o u s a n d n o t c o n t e n t t o r e m a i n a t o o l f o r Kubo' s b u s in e s s.® ^ A l s o t h e r e w a s r i v a l r y b e t w e e n Kubo a n d T o y o s h i m a, who was t r y i n g t o w i n M i s s Nemoto o v e r t o h is sid e. F in ally, t h e j o u r n a l i s t Omori M i n o r u, who w a s c l o s e t o M i s s Nemoto a t o n e t i m e, o b se rv e d t h a t Sukarno h a d become d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h Kubo' s b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s an d f o r c e d him t o c l o s e h i s D j a k a r t a o f f i c e i n N ov e m ber 1 9 6 3. By t h e n M i s s Nemoto was c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h T o y o s h i m a? ^ Dewi a n d Wisma Y a s o o The c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n Kubo a n d M i s s Nemoto l e d t o changes in th e r e p a ra tio n s lo b b ie s. t u r e M i s s Nemoto s i d e d w i t h t and h e l p e d Toyoshim a. A f t e r Kubo' s d e p a r K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company T hrough Toyoshim a, a s she w ro te, she a l s o c u l t i v a t e d a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h J a p a n e s e Am bassador === [PDF page 200] === 194 Ôda Takio®® a n d g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e d p r o m i n e n c e i n J a p a n ' s a n d I n d o n e s i a ' s p o l i t i c a l and b u s i n e s s c i r c l e s. The d a t e o n w h i c h S u k a r n o m a r r i e d M i s s N e m o to i s not certain. v a te ly One s o u r c e on M arch 3, sta te s t h a t t h e y w e r e wed p r - 1962 when sh e t o o k t h e I n d o n e s i a n na me 87 o f R a t n a Dewi S a r i a s w e l l a s I n d o n e s i a n c i t i z e n s h i p. A nother so u rce s t a t e s o f f i c i a l w ife as l a t e t h a t sh e became t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s 88 a s May 1 9 6 4. • N e v e r th e le s s, as e a r l y a s Ju n e 1961 she was i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e L i b e r a l D e m o c r a tic P a r t y ' s f u t u r e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t K awashima S h ô j i r ô 89 by a w artim e p ro p a g a n d a o f f i c e r, Shim izu H i t o s h i. On a 1962 t r i p to Japan, Dewi m e t T a k e m i T a r o, P re sid e n t of the J a p a n M e d ic a l A s s o c i a t i o n and K ajim a M o rin o su k e, P resid en t o f t h e K a j i m a C o n s t r u c t i o n Com pany, w i t h whom s h e d i s c u s s e d p lan s to b u ild a h o s p ita l in D jak arta.^ ® In Septem ber 1963 s h e was i n t r o d u c e d t o P rim e M i n i s t e r I k e d a H a y a to and h i s w ife a t a p r iv a te g a th e rin g during t h e i r o f f i c i a l v isit In donesia. Dewi ' s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e s e p r o m i n e n t f i g u r e s Japan in creased h e r s ta tu s p articu larly a fte r in th e J a p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n lobby, t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company l e f t I n d o n e s i a i n 1 9 6 4 a n d a f t e r Dewi m o ved f r o m w h a t s h e c a lle d a "hideout" Y a so o.D ew i C hinese t r a d e r s, each o th er to t o a l a r g e m a n s i o n c a l l e d t h e Wisma em erged a s th e P r e s i d e n t ' s and a s an i n f l u e n c e i n h e r own r i g h t. Japanese firm s, and In d o n e s ia n o f f i c i a l s o b tain h er sp e c ia l favor. " F i r s t L ady," com peted w i t h Fro m e a r l y 1964 === [PDF page 201] === 195 th r o u g h t h e a b o r t i v e coup i n 1965, " a l m o s t no b u s i n e s s b e tw e e n I n d o n e s i a and J a p a n was t r a n s a c t e d w i t h o u t f i r s t m e e t i n g h e r a p p r o v a l; a t r a d i n g company was q u o t e d a s 92 say in g. T h e " Dewi m o d e " ( t h e p i l g r i m a g e t o D e w i ) b e c a m e a c y n ic a l term d e s c r ib in g th e b u s in e s s m a n 's n e c e s s a r y t r i p t o Wisma Y a s o o. 93 Dewi h e r s e l f l a t e r ex p lain ed t h i s fo llo w s: F r a n k l y, t h e r e w e r e J a p a n e s e a n d I n d o n e s i a n s who so m ehow h a d t h e m i s t a k e n v i e w t h a t t h e i r b u s i n e s s w o u l d go w e l l i f t h e y a p p r o a c h e d m e. They t r i e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f me, b o r n i n J a p a n, whom th e y c o n s id e r e d i n f l u e n t i a l to Sukarno, j u s t b e c a u s e I was v e r y c l o s e t o h im. They a lw a y s a p p r o a c h e d me w i t h t h e sa m e l i n e: t r y i n g t o s e l l th e m s e lv e s by s p e a k in g i l l o f t h e i r r i v a l s and c r i t i c i z i n g th e k in d s o f c o n n e c tio n s t h a t th e y had had w ith In d o n esian i n f l u e n t i a l s... She a l s o w r o t e: In D j a k a r t a a lo n e t h e r e w ere o v e r s i x t y J a p a n e s e t r a d i n g com panies. [ T h e c o m p e t i t i o n among t h e m was so k e e n t h a t ] a fe w d o z e n o f them h a d t o f i g h t j u s t t o g e t one c o n t r a c t. T h eir r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s m aneuvered w henever p o s s i b l e b e h in d th e scenes in o rd er to achieve s a t is f a c to r y re su lts. T h e i r l a r g e s t p r o b l e m was t o e s t a b l i s h c o n ta c ts w ith th e im p o rtan t In d o n esian f i g u r e s c o n ce rn e d and to g a in t h e i r su p p o rt in o b t a i n i n g c o n t r a c t s, and th e y w i l l i n g l y gave rem u n eratio n s fo r th e s e rv ic e s of th ese f ig u r e s. To m a x i m i z e t h e i r c o m p a n i e s ' p r o f i t s a s w e l l a s t o m ak e h i g h r e b a t e f r o m t h e i r p r o f i t s, t h e y m ade a l l s o r t s o f schem es. For in s ta n c e, I have h eard t h a t t h e s h ip b u i l d i n g com panies t h in n e d s t e e l p l a t e s and ir o n w a lls in b u ild in g c o n tr a c te d v e s s e l s; c o n s t r u c t i o n co m p an ies, re d u c e d t h e amount o f c e m e n t t o b e u s e d; r u b b e r t i r e f i r m s m ad e t h i n t i r e s; and t e x t i l e com panies lo w e re d th e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r p ro d u c ts, and th e l i k e. The e x p o r t a t i o n o f m a c h i n e r y was o n l y o n e e x a m p l e w h i c h d i d n o t in v o lv e such i r r e g u l a r i t i e s. I t is also tru e t h a t t h e r e w e r e I n d o n e s i a n s who made s p o r t o f s u c h f i r m s b y d e m a n d i n g h i g h c o m m i s s i o n s. 95 === [PDF page 202] === 196 A lthough she d e n ie s i t, many J a p a n e s e a n d I n d o n e s i a n businessm en in D ja k a r ta t o l d too rec eiv e d some c o m m i s s i o n s. t h i s w r i t e r t h a t Dewi An i n f o r m e d s o u r c e r e l a t e d t h i s w r i t e r t h a t t h e Wisma N a s a n t a r a o f f i c e was c o n t r a c t e d, in stead w ith D ew i' s i n t e r v e n t i o n, o f t o Yokoi H id e k i, to K in o sh ita P re sid e n t o f th e O rie n ta l S h i p p i n g Company ( T ô y ô Y ü s e n ) a n d a d a r i n g A nother source s t a t e d b u ild in g sp ecu lato r. t h a t Dewi a n d ' H a r t i n i, S u k a rn o 's s e c o n d w i f e, f o u g h t w i t h e a c h o t h e r on b e h a l f o f two r i v a l J a p a n e s e a u t o m o b i l e c o m p a n i e s who s o u g h t P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o ' s approval of t h e i r ex p o rtin g v e h ic le s In donesia. As t h e f e m i n i n e h e a d o f Wisma Y a s o o, Jap an ese w ife t r i e d stren g th e n her p o s itio n. s u c c e s s f u l w hen i n May 1 9 6 4, w ith S u k a rn o 's was n o m in a te d a s h o n o r a r y c h a ir m a n o f t h e Japan F rien d sh ip S ociety D je p a n d g o r LPID), chairm an. she In d o n esiaw ith S u k a rn o 's l i f e - l o n g 96 She seem ed su p p o rt, ( Lembaga P e r s a h a b a t a n o f I n d o n e s i a ' s few p r o m i n e n t b u s i n e s s m e n, S o c ie ty 's S u k a rn o 's In d on esiaf r i e n d an d one M. D a s a a d, as th e Madame Dewi t h e n o r g a n i z e d t h e J a p a n e s e w ives o f I n d o n e s ia n s i n t o a group o f f o r t y t o 97 f i f t y c a l l e d th e N adeshiko C lub. Some o f t h e m e m b e r s u s e d t h e c lu b a s a means o f s e e k i n g D e w i's, and e v e n t u a ll y S u k a rn o 's p e rs o n a l f a v o r to advance t h e i r h u s b a n d 's p o s i tio n s. 98 I t ap p ears t h a t n e it h e r th e F rien d sh ip S o c i e t y n o r t h e N a d e s h ik o C lub f u n c t i o n e d a s lo b b ie s fo r th e r e p a ra tio n s p r o je c ts, o f th ese In d o n esia-Jap an b u t Dewi d i d make u s e to c o l l e c t d o n a tio n s to b u i l d an em ergency === [PDF page 203] === 197 h o sp ital in D jak arta. V/hen K a w a s h i m a v i s i t e d th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t's r e p r e s e n t a t i v e D jakarta as to the te n th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e A s i a n - A f r i c a n Bandung C o n fe re n c e i n A p r il 1 9 6 5, he and Sukarno a g re e d t o fo r In do nesia, $37 m i l l i o n o f w hich $ 1,3 5 0,0 0 0 in c r e d its was t o be e a rm a r k e d fo r th e c o n stru c tio n of th is h o s p ita l. t i o n s h i p w i t h Kawashima, the U sing h e r r e l a -. I n d o n e s i a n F i r s t Lady v i s i t e d J a p a n i n e a r l y J a n u a r y 1 9 6 6 a n d meir w i t h P r i m e M i n i s t e r S a t o t o a s k him t o a l l o c a t e p a r t o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s to b u ild th e h o s p ita l. W ith S a t o ’ s a g r e e m e n t, fund th e con t r a c t f o r $ 3. 3 m i l l i o n was s i g n e d by h e r a n d b y K a jim a, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e K a j i m a C o n s t r u c t i o n Company a n d P r e s i d e n t of the Jap an -In d o n esian A sso c ia tio n, on J a n u a r y 8. ^ ^ ^ The p o l i t i c a l t u r m o i l i n I n d o n e s i a i n 1 9 6 6 p r e v e n t e d t h e a c tu a l c o n s tru c tio n of the h o s p ita l, up t o i t illu stra te s i a and th e r o l e b u t th e ev ents lea d in g th e power she h ad a c h ie v e d i n In d o n e she had p la y e d f i r s t a s a l o b b y i s t and e v e n tu a lly as a d ecision-m aker. Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n P r o j e c t s The E c o n o m i c C o o p e r a t i o n A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a a n d J a p a n was c o n c l u d e d i n 1 958 a t t h e t h e R e p a r a t i o n s A g re e m e n t was s e t t l e d. same t i m e t h a t A lthough th e E conom ic C o o p e r a t i o n A g reem en t d i d n o t i n v o l v e th e re p a ra tio n s funds, i t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d h e r e b e c a u s e in v o lv e Ja p a n e se in v e s tm e n ts and lo a n s. did The a g r e e m e n t s t a t e d t h a t $ 4 0 0 m i l l i o n v / o u ld b e s p e n t o v e r a p e r i o d o f === [PDF page 204] === 198 tw enty y e a r s, b u t f u r t h e r d e t a i l s w ere n o t s p e c i f i e d. The c a p i t a l was t o be r a i s e d by t h e c o m p a n ie s t h e m s e l v e s, J a p a n ’ s b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y w a s much l e s s p riv ate in v e s tm e n ts and c r e d i t s t h e more s e c u r e r e p a r a t i o n s p o litica l in sta b ility ism p l u s i t s e n th u s ia s tic over th a n th o se co n n ected w ith co n tracts. and i t s and In d o n e s ia ’s grow ing a f f i n i t y f o r Commun a v e rsio n to fo re ig n in v estm en t a ls o did n o th in g to encourage th e flow o f Ja p a n e se c a p i t a l in to its co u n try. N ev erth eless, w ith governm ent s u p p o r t t h r e e m ajor in v e s tm e n t p r o j e c t s were p la n n e d f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of th re e o f In d o n e s ia 's n a tu r a l re s o u rc e s; lum ber. o il, n ick el, and One o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a s a n illu stra tio n of the n e g o tia tin g p ro c e ss la r a tten tio n s h o u l d be p a i d t o t h e w artim e t i e s in v o lv ed. P articu im portance o f p e rs o n a l, th e n e g o tia tio n s alo n g l i n e s seen e a r l i e r in th e r e p a r a tio n s lo b b ie s. S u m a tr a n O i l and t h e K o b a y a sh i Group S e v e ra l em inent Ja p a n e se i n d u s t r i a l i s t s, in clu d in g Iw ata, K ud o, M a t s u n a g a, A yukaw a, Y a m a s h i t a, a n d hara, became i n t e r e s t e d i n S um atran o i l d u rin g th e r e p a r a t i o n s n e g o t i a t i o n s p e rio d o f 1951-1957 and, e sta b lish m e n t o f d ip lo m atic r e l a ti o n s and te c h n o lo g y t o dev elo p and r e h a b i l i t a t e B e f o r e t h e War, w ith the i n A p r il 1958, In d o n e s ia n governm ent p e r m itte d Ja p a n t o u se i t s o il fie ld s. Ish ithe c ap ital N o rth S u m a tra 's In d o n e s ia ’s o i l had been c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o il c a rte l; d u r i n g t h e War, === [PDF page 205] === 199 i t h a d b e e n h e l d by t h e J a p a n e s e m i l i t a r y; W ar, m o s t o f t h e o il and a f t e r th e f i e l d s had been re tu rn e d to th e o r i g i n a l E uro p ean and A m erican o i l c o m p an ies. e x c e p t i o n was N o r t h S u m a t r a ' s o i l field s, The o n l y w hich had been o w n e d b y BPM ( B a t a a f s c h e P e t r o l e u m M a a t s c h a p p i. j ) w i t h R o y a l D u t c h P e t r o l e u m p r o v i d i n g 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e c a p i t a l, and S h e l l, 40 p e r c e n t. o p p o sitio n to re tu rn in g But because of th e stron g lo c a l t h e N o rth S um atran o i l o p e r a t i o n s t h e r e w ere n o t resu m ed. In la te t o BPM, 1957 t h e I n d o n e s ia n governm ent to o k o v e r p o s s e s s i o n o f th e N o rth S um atran o i l f i e l d s and e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o il PERMINA ( P e r u s a h a a n M i n j a k N a s i o n a l ), company, f i r s t n a tio n al headed b y C o l o n e l Ib n u Sutow o. B ecause o f th e S um atran R e b e llio n Jap an d elay ed in v estm en t in th e o i l f i e l d s u n t i l th e s i t u a t i o n was b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l. d id have g r e a t need o f o v e rsea s in F e b ru ary 1958, At t h a t t i m e J a p a n o il co n cessio n s. From 1 9 5 1 i 9 6 0, J a p a n ' s own c r u d e o i l p r o d u c t i o n w a s o n l y c e n t o f th e w o rld 's p ro d u c tio n, J a p a n o w ne d n o o v e r s e a s o i l i m p o r t 97 p e r c e n t o f i t s 102 and u n t i l late .07 p e r 1957 c o n c e s s i o n s and was f o r c e d o il. As e a r l y a s J u n e 1 9 5 8 N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a w e n t t o In d o n esia a t th e re q u e st of Is h ib a s h i S h ô jirô, P resid en t of t h e B r i d g e s t o n e T i r e C om pany, who w a s i n t e r e s t e d in g an L.P.G. h is (liq u ified o ld c o n ta c ts About th e sta rt p etro leu m gas) p r o j e c t. U s i n g in In do n esia, N i s h i j i m a m et w i t h Sutow o. sa m e t i m e t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g Company a l s o === [PDF page 206] === 200 t a l k e d w i t h Sutowo a b o u t o b t a i n i n g o i l c o n c e s s i o n s exchange f o r su p p ly in g s t e e l. too, was i n t e r e s t e d T h e M a r u z e n O i l Com pany, in th a t area. any p o s s i b l e d i s r u p t i o n s 115 T herefore, to a ll a y Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i c a l l e d upon K o b a y a s h i A t a r u t o m e d i a t e among t h e g r o u p s. The K o b a y a s h i Group c o n s i s t e d P re sid e n t of the o f M im u r a K i i c h i, O i l R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t Company ( a q u a s i - g o v e rn m e n ta l com pany), I s h i b a s h i S h ô j i r ô, and K in o s h ita S higeru. serv e as th e core They w ere t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h PERMINA. F irst, g ro u p s e n t a s u r v e y team t o e x p l o r e ways i n w h ic h J a p a n e s e c a p i t a l m ig h t be in v e s te d S um atra. group in th e S ep tem b er 1958 th e in d ev elo p in g o i l in N orth Because o f I n d o n e s ia ’s s h o rta g e o f f o r e ig n c u r rency re s e rv e s th e e n s u i n g a s s e s s m e n t p r o p o s e d a $50 m illio n c re d it over ten years in exchange f o r repaym ent in p ro d ucts over t h i r t y y e ars. 107 I n M a r c h 1 9 5 9 S u t o w o cam e t o T o k y o t o b e g i n n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h K obayashi, and from A u g u st 24 t o 1 0, M im u ra w e n t t o Indonesia to co n tin u e in clu d in g N ish ijim a in h is p a rty. Septem ber th e n e g o tia tio n s, In I n d o n e s ia he sig n e d a p r o v i s i o n a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h PERMINA, w h i c h b o t h t h e K i s h i C a b in e t and Sukarno e n d o rse d. To n e g o t i a t e o f th e term s o f c a p i t a l in v e s tm e n t, Kobayashi s e n t to th e d e ta il s on J a n u a r y 2 8, I n d o n e s i a Y o s h id a H an 'em o n, an e x p e rt b o t h on o i l a n d on I n d o n e s i a a n d t h e n a n a d v i s o r t o O i l R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t C om pany. 18 N i s h i j i m a a l s o w e n t t o 109 I960 the L a t e r on F e b ru a ry In d o n esia as K obayashi' s p e rs o n a l === [PDF page 207] === 201 a d v i s o r. I n December 1959, in order to establish an o il company, t h e K o b a y a s h i Group f o r m a l l y r e q u e s t e d K eidanren, Ja p a n ’s b u sin e ss fed eratio n, firm s to c o n trib u te f o r t h e new o i l c o m p a n y. However, the p riv ate c a p i t a l and a l s o was r e j e c t e d by t h e E x p o r t- I m p o r t. K o b a y ash i Group f a i l e d Bank o f J a p a n, c re d its cap ita l member to c o lle c t s u f f ic ie n t a governm ent bank w hich e x te n d s com m ercial e x p o r te r s and im p o r te r s.' The r e a s o n f o r t h e E x p o r t - I m p o r t B a n k ’ s r e j e c t i o n was t h a t governm ent had r e q u e s te d (th e to ask i t s the Japanese $200 m i l l i o n fro m t h e W o rld Bank I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ), w h ic h t h e n c o m p la in e d t h a t J a p a n s h o u l d n o t p u t $50 m i l l i o n out of th is in stead amount i n t o N o rth S um atran o i l d e v elo p m en t b u t sh o u ld spend i t in te rn a lly. i m p l i c a t e d A m erican and B r i t i s h B a n k 's c r i t i c i s m. The J a p a n e s e p r e s s o il c o m p a n ie s i n t h e V/orld 112 The r e j e c t i o n b y t h e E x p o r t - I m p o r t Bank a l s o tated PERMINA, w h i c h d e m a n d e d t h a t a f i n a l s ig n e d by th e end o f M arch I9 6 0. K is h i governm ent f o r i t s company, d eclarin g: $250 m i l l i o n K obayashi u p b ra id e d th e h a lf-h e arted In d o nesia. m i t t i n g o n l y $50 m i l l i o n, a ll I960, o il support of the w ill co m m itted a lo se th e confidence B e t we e n M a r c h 1 l o b b y i s t s K o b a y a s h i a n d M im u ra d e l i b e r a t e d w ith I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade and I n d u s tr y M in is te r Ikeda H ayato, o il I f J a p a n d e l a y s com t h e S o u th e a s t A sian g o v e r n me n t s. and 11, agreem ent be "P rem ier K hruschev j u s t c re d it to irri F inance M in is te r S ato E isak u, K eidanren V ice- === [PDF page 208] === 202 P r e s i d e n t Uyemura K ô g o rô, th e L ib eral-D em o cratic P a r ty 's O v e r s e a s Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n C om m ittee C h airm an, H isato. and P rim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i. even th re a te n e d At one p o i n t K o b a y a sh i t o v /ith d raw from t h e w hole b u s i n e s s, on M arch 11 K i s h i, S ato, and Ikeda f i n a l l y t h e E x p o r t - I m p o r t Bank a p p r o p r i a t e company. Ichim ada but ag reed to have th e funds f o r th e Armed w i t h t h e r u l i n g p a r t y ' s fin al M im u ra w e n t t o I n d o n e s i a o n M a r c h 2 2 a n d, 114 s i g n e d t h e a g r e e m e n t w i t h PERMINA. o il en d o rsem en t, on A p r i l 7, The a g r e e m e n t w a s b a s e d on w h a t I n d o n e s i a c a l l e d a p ro d u ctio n -sh arin g sy stem, n o t on t h e jo in t v en tu re sta te d system f o r w hich J a p a n o r i g i n a l l y had o p te d. w ould e x te n d c r e d i t o f ¥ 1 8,8 4 5 m i l l i o n ($ 5 2.3 m il l io n ) a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d and w ould p r o v i d e m a c h in e ry, and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e, 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e or a to ta l th a t Japan m aterial, f o r w hich Ja p a n w ould r e c e i v e o il over a b asic amount o f 8 0 0,0 0 0 k l 115 of 5-6 m illio n k l over te n y e a r s.' ment th e a g re e m e n t, over To i m p l e th e J a p a n e s e governm ent e s t a b l i s h e d the N o r t h S u m a t r a O i l D e v e l o p m e n t C o o p e r a t i o n Company (NOSODECO) on J u n e 1, m illio n I960. The c o m p a n y r e c e i v e d ¥ 4 0 0 i n 1961 a n d ¥3 5 0 m i l l i o n i n 1962 fro m J a p a n ' s Over s e a s Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n F u n d.^ ^ ^ The l e a d e r s h i p o f NOSODECO d u r i n g t h e n e x t s e v e r a l y e a rs c o n s is te d of a m ix tu re o f e x -b u re a u c ra ts, men, and " In d o n e s ia n e x p e r t s, " o i l lobby in J a p a n. b u sin ess r e v e a lin g th e e x te n t o f the K obayashi rem ained a s an a d v i s o r. Among NOSODECO' s e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r s w e r e Azuma S u m i o f r o m === [PDF page 209] === 203 th e M in is tr y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade and I n d u s t r y, M unetaka from t h e M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e, (who l a t e r b e c a m e i t s P re sid e n t) and Y o s h id a H an 'em o n. Koj i m a Im ai Tom inosuke from M i t s u i, N ish ijim a, On NOSODECO's b o a r d o f a u d i t o r s was T a k a s u g i S h i n ' i c h i from M i t s u b i s h i, who i n 1 9 6 7 b e c a m e t h e c h a irm a n o f K e i d a n r e n ' s I n d o n e s i a C om m ittee. Because o f th e im p o rta n t p o s i t i o n he had had in th e f i r s t J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s ia n eco n o m ic.-co o p eratio n p r o j e c t, N i s h i j i m a foiond i t advantageous to r e t a i n h i s Ja p an e se and In d o n e s ia n c o n t a c t s. I n I 9 6 0 h e m o v ed t o D j a k a r t a a s NOSODECO' s l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d, he had a t l e a s t r e s i d u a l in f lu e n c e Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e la tio n s in te rn al p o litic s. in th a t cap a city, on t h e c o u r s e o f and e v e n on I n d o n e s i a ' s A m agazine a r t i c l e com m ented t h a t N i s h i j i m a was c o n c e r n e d m ore a b o u t t h e th an about th e was g i v i n g o fficials e x p o rt o f technology, sp iritu a l "export of s p ir it" s u g g e s t i n g t h a t he g u id an c e and a d v ic e t o t h e PERMINA a nd w o r k e r s a n d t h a t h e was a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h t h e h ig h -ran k in g o f f i c i a l s as M in is te r o f B asic su rro u n d in g P r e s i d e n t Sukarno, such I n d u s t r i e s C h a iru l S a le h and M in is te r o f T r a d e Adam M a l i k. Because n in e ty p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s ia 's c o n t r o l l e d by C a l t e x, in to th is Texaco, and S h e ll, o i l was J a p a n 's f i e l d was a n i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i c a l en tra n ce co n trib u tio n. s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t NOSODECO m a i n t a i n e d c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h PERMINA f r o m 1 9 6 3 t o 1 9 6 5 w hen S u k a r n o w a s l e a n i n g t o w a r d Communism a n d t h e W e s t e r n n a t i o n s h a d r e d u c e d t h e i r === [PDF page 210] === 204 c o n t a c t s w i t h I n d o n e s i a t o a m in im u m. On M a rc h 1 9, when P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o s e i z e d A m e ric a n a n d B r i t i s h 1965, o il p r o p e r t i e s a n d p l a c e d th e m u n d e r I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t c o n tro l, NOSODECO a n d o t h e r J a p a n e s e c o n c e r n s n e g o t i a t e d w ith In d o n e sia to p u rch a se c ru d e o i l d i r e c t l y g o v e r n m e n t. On May 1 3,1 9 6 5 a j o i n t v e n t u r e, from th e th e F ar E a st O i l T r a d i n g C om pany, w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d h a d t h e r ig h t to im p o rt o i l fro m I n d o n e s i a. e x c lu siv e J19 T h e u n u s u a l l y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s am ong PERMINA, NOSODECO, a n d t h e F a r E a s t T r a d i n g Company r a i s e d su sp i c io n s ab o u t th e e th ic a l co n d u ct o f t h i s Ja p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n b u s in e s s co n cern. new spaper in The I n d o n e s i a R a y a, a l e a d i n g d a i l y In d o n e sia, c la im e d i n D ecem ber 1969 t h a t S u to w o h a d l o w e r e d t h e o i l r e l i n 1957 t o ex p o rt p ric e from $ 2.2 4 p e r b a r $ 1. 4 9 p e r b a r r e l f o r NOSODECO ( a f t e r I 9 6 0 ) and $ 1.9 5 f o r t h e F a r E a s t ( a f t e r 1 9 6 5 ), o b t a i n c r e d i t f r o m NOSODECO. in o rd er to I t a ls o re p o rte d th a t NOSODECO h a d r e c e i v e d a c o m m i s s i o n o f 40 p e r b a r r e l i n 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 6 6 a n d o f 20 i n 1 9 6 6 - 1 9 6 7. PERMINA ( a t t h i s tim e, The a r t i c l e PERTAMINA), h o w e v e r, arg u ed t h a t sh o w e d n o r e c o r d o f r e c e i v i n g c o m m i s s i o n s f r o m NOSODECO f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h NOSODECO. T he I n d o n e s i a n p r e s s d e m a n d e d t o know w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d t o c o m m issio n s, tio n c h a rg in g t h a t t h i s p r a c t ic e am ong t h e PERMINA o f f i c i a l s. 1 20 c h a rg e s p ro v ed to be in c o n c lu s iv e, th e so -c a lle d su g g e ste d c o rru p - A lth o u g h t h e s e th e y l e f t no d o u b t t h a t t h e m a r r ia g e b e tw e e n I n d o n e s i a n o i l a n d J a p a n e s e === [PDF page 211] === 205 c a p i ta l p la y e d a s i g n i f ic a n t p o l i t i c a l r o le th e n a ti o n s ’ c lo s e r e la tio n s h ip d e p en d e n ce upon J a p a n a s i t s in m a in ta in in g and had le d to In d o n e s ia ’s p rin c ip a l buyer of o il. An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s L o b b i e s T h e k e e n c o m p e t i t i o n am ong J a p a n e s e c o m p a n i e s a n d I n d o n e s ia n g o v ern m en t a g e n c ie s t o o b t a i n t h e maximum s h a r e o f th e r e p a r a tio n s fu n d s re n d e re d u s e le s s th e fo rm al s t r u c tu re to d e te rm in e th e s e a l l o c a t i o n s. In e f f e c t, th e se c o m p a n ie s a n d a g e n c ie s g e n e r a t e d an i n f o r m a l d e c i s i o n m ak in g s y s te m i n w h ic h t h o s e w i t h p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y i n f l u e n c e h a d d o m in a n c e o v e r t h e p ro je c ts and d i s t r i b u t i o n s e le c tio n o f re p a ra tio n s o f th e fu n d s. The m a jo r c o m p o n e n ts o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s lo b b y in c lu d e d Jap an ese tr a d e from s i x t e e n in c lu d e d o f f i c e s i n D j a k a r t a w h ic h g rew i n num ber i n 1958 t o s i x t y six te e n m in is trie s and in te r m e d ia r ie s. o f th e Among t h e in 1965, and I n d o n e s ia n g o v ern m en t o u tsta n d in g lo b b y is ts w e r e w a r t i m e o f f i c e r s who w o r k e d e i t h e r a s c o m p a n y r e p r e se n ta tiv e s (T o y o sh im a ) o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y T here w ere a ls o b r o k e rs (K ish i, K a w a s h im a, a c te d as lo b b y is ts (C.M. Chow) a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s and S u k a rn o ). ty p es o f lo b b y is ts: (N ish ijim a ). T h e r e w e r e tw o d i s t i n c t t h o s e who w e r e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s b u t fa v o rin g c e r ta in K a w a s h im a, a n d S u k a r n o ); c o m p a n ie s ( K i s h i, a n d t h o s e who b e g a n a s l o b b y i s t s b u t e v e n t u a l l y becam e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s i n t h e a l l o t m e n t o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s p a y m e n ts. la tte r t y p e w a s D e w i. T he m o s t t y p i c a l l o b b y i s t o f t h e === [PDF page 212] === 206 W h ile t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s i n t h e r e p a r a t i o n s p a y m e n ts r e v e a l e d J a p a n 's p o l i t i c a l s t y l e and th e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n c o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t y l e a d e r s h i p and th e r i g h t i s t g ro u p s, a ls o d is c lo s e d b o th J a p a n 's and I n d o n e s i a 's p r a c t i c e o f fa v o re d t r e a tm e n t. t h i s w ith h is p a t r i o t i c ta s te s, se le c te d la rg e, e x p e n siv e, p ro je c ts, v is ib le, g iv in g th e c o n tr a c ts C o m b in i n g P r e s i d e n t S ukarno b u t o fte n im p ra c tic a l t o a few s e l e c t c o m p a n ie s a n d c a u s i n g I n d o n e s i a t o consum e m o st o f t h e f u n d s b y 1965. E c o n o m ic a n d p e r s o n a l t i e s b e t w e e n J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s ia w ere r e i n f o r c e d re p a ra tio n s th ro u g h im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e fu n d s and lo n g -te rm n a tu ra l re so u rc e s. in v e s tm e n t in I n d o n e s i a 's T h is e x p la in s I n d o n e s i a 's c o n tin u e d a s s o c ia tio n w ith p ro -W e ste rn Ja p an d u rin g i t s p e rio d of a n ti- W e s te r n p o l ic y and th e r e p a r a t i o n s l o b b ie s a s a b a s i s f o r J a p a n 's m e d ia tio n r o l e M a la y sia n c o n f l i c t s th e In d o n e sia n - fro m 1963 t o 1 9 6 6, w h ic h w i l l be d i s c u s sed in th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r. === [PDF page 213] === FOOTNOTES:; CHAPTER V ^ Y o m iu ri S h in b u n. S e p te m b e r 2 1, 1958. R e p a r a t i o n s P ro b le m s S tu d y G ro u p, e d., N ih o n -go ~ b aish o 1 9 6 5 ( T o k y o: S e k a i J a n a r u S ha, 1963)," p p 7 ” 8 7 8 8, 1 0 0 —0 5. I n d o n e s ia n E m bassy, T okyo, L a n o ra n T ahunan 1 9 6 9. p p. 397-98. T he a n n u a l e x p e n s e s f o r ” t h e M i s s i o n a n d t h e f m d s f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m p r e v i o u s l y m en t io n e d, r e q u i r e d no c o n t r a c t. J a p a n - I n d o n e s ia A s s o c ia t io n, T o k u b e tsu s h i r y o, I -k o k u s e i f u k ak u sh ô b e t s u shonendo b a i s ho h a i ( m i m e o g r a p h e d, S e p t e m b e r 1 0, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 1. -----------5 L i t t l e h a r d d a t a o n e x a c t l y who l o b b i e d f o r w h a t a n d who d e c i d e d u p o n w h i c h p r o j e c t w a s a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s w rite r. M ost o f t h o s e i n t e r v i e w e d w ere r e l u c t a n t t o r e v e a l t h e i r k n o w le d g e, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e m a t t e r in d e e d w as se n sitiv e. V/hat t h e y d i d r e v e a l s t i l l r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t i n g e v id e n c e, w h ic h i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n. bunhyo ^T h ese m a jo r p r o j e c t s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b le V -2. " S e i s h o t o j o, " A s a h i S h i n b u n. M a rc h 1 0, 1 9 5 9. F o r e x a m p le, i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t S u k a r n o 's f r e q u e n t v i s i t s t o J a p a n i n c l u d e d num erous d i n n e r p a r t i e s g i v e n by im p o rta n t p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s and f i n a n c i a l l y sp o n so re d by t r a d i n g an d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n ie s t h a t h a d i n t e r e s t s i n In d o n e sia. See "S u k aru n o o m e g u tta N i h o n j i n, " Shükan ----------S h in c h o, A p ril 2, 1966, p. 37. I n 1 9 5 9 K u b o t a p r e s e n t e d new p r o p o s a l s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c p l a n t s a n d a lu m in u m r e f i n e r i e s i n A s a h a n, b u t i n I 9 6 0 t h e S o v i e t U n io n e x te n d e d $100 in c r e d i t to In d o n e sia. See N a g atsu k a T o sh ik a z u, K u b o ta Y u ta k a 1966 (T ok v o; D enki Jôhô Sha, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 361. Some b e l i e v e t h a t i t w a s Mohammed Y am in who g a v e K u b o t a ' s p ro p o s a ls to th e R u ssia n s. From Omar T u s i n, p r i v a t e in te rv ie w in D ja k a rta, F eb ru ary 10, 1972. The S o v i e t te c h n ic ia n s had h a rd ly begun c o n s tr u c tio n b e fo re th e a b o r t i v e coup i n O c to b e r 1965 f o r c e d t h e R u s s ia n w ith d r a w a l from t h e A sahan r e g i o n. T h u s i n 1 9 6 7 N i p p o n K 6 e i w as i n v i t e d a g a in t o lo o k i n t o t h i s a r e a. A f t e r tw o y e a r s o f p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y s, K u b o ta s u b m i t t e d a r e p o r t t o P r e s i d e n t S u h a r t o i n J u l y 1 9 6 9, a n d f i n a l l y i n May 1 9 7 0 h e s u c c e e d e d i n s i g n i n g a c o n t r a c t f o r m o re s p e c i f i e d s t u d i e s o f A s a h a n 207 === [PDF page 214] === 208 w a t e r sy ste m p r o j e c t s. S e e D a iy a m o n d o S h a, (T o k y o: D a iy a m o n d o S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p p. 1 0 2 - 0 3. 10 N a g a t s u k a, N ip p o n K 5ei 367-6 8. 11. ■ Ib id. I n I 9 6 I - I 9 6 2 t h e A s s o c i a t i o n h a d 1 0 7 m em ber c o m p a n ie s. See J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n, J i g y o n a r a b i n i k a i k e i h o k o k u sh o 1 9 6 1 -1 9 6 2 (m im e o g ra p h e d, no p a g e num bers). ^^A n ta ra, June 20, 1958. ^ ^ Y o s h i d a K e n ' i c h i r o ' s e x p l a n a t i o n w a s m ade i n t h e D ie t, F eb ru ary 14, 1959. S e e J a p a n, N a t i o n a l D i e t, H o u se o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, B u d g e t C o m m itte e, D ai 5 1 - k a i K o k k ai S h û g i i n Y o s a n l i n k a i g i r o k u, n o. 11 ( F e b r u a r y 1 4, 1 9 5 9 ), H e r e a f t e r a b b r e v i a t e d a s t h e " B u d g e t C o m m i t te e P ro c e e d in g s." ^ ^ A n t a r a, D ecem ber 2, 1 9 5 7. On D e c e m b e r 3, t h e KPM m anagem ent was t a k e n o v e r by t h e w o r k e r s u n i o n. See A n ta r a, D ecem ber 8, 1 9 5 7. J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, I n d o n e s h i a K y ow ako ku b e n r a n (T o k y o: N ih o n K o k u s a i M ondai K e n k y u jo, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1 6 5. ï h i s a n ti- D u tc h m easure had p r o t e s t e d th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y ' s v o t i n g o n N o v e m b er 2 9, 1 9 5 7 a g a i n s t I n d o n e s i a 's p r o p o s a l r e q u e s t i n g th e U n ite d N a tio n s to ta k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n r e s u m i n g t h e D u t c h - I n d o n e s i a n t a l k s on W est I r i a n. KPM p r e v i o u s l y h a d c o n t r o l l e d 8 0 p e r c e n t o f I n d o n e s i a 's s h ip p in g b u s i n e s s, w ith s e v e n ty - f o u r f r e i g h t e r s ( t o t a l i n g 1 1,5 1 6 to n s ) and tw e n ty - s ix p a s s e n g e r s h ip s ( t o t a l i n g 7 8,4 6 4 t o n s ). T h e ir w ith d ra w a l from I n d o n e s ia n w a t e r s n a t u r a l l y c a u s e d a n en orm ous i n c o n v e n i e n c e an d p a r a l y z e d t h e n a t i o n ' s i n t e r - i s l a n d co m m erc e a n d t r a n s p o rta tio n. See i b i d. ^ ^ N ih o n s h o k u i n r o k u ( 1 0 t h e d.; T o k y o: Jin ji K o s h in j o, 1 9 6 4, S e c t i o n on C o m p an ies, p. 1 4 1 1. ^ ® K u n it5 Y o s h i m a s a, S e i s h o m a k a r i t o r u A k ita S h o te n, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 104. (T o k y o: ^ ^ F u jis h im a U d a i, " K is h i N obusuke s h i n i o k e ru ' s e n so h a n z a i ' no k e n k y ü," i n U s h io, J u l y 1 9 7 2, p. 322. 13, 1959); " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. an d n o. 11 ( F e b r u a r y 1 4, 1 9 5 9 ). 10 ( F e b r u a r y 22 I b i d., n o. 1 0, p. 1 3; a n d n o. 1 1, p. 3. === [PDF page 215] === 209 23 C a p t a i n Y anagaw a M u n e to s h i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D ja k a rta, Ja n u a ry 23, 1971. 24 J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, G a im u s h o s h o k u i n r o k u 1 9 4 1. p. 2 5. --------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- -25 Y anagaw a, in te rv ie w. 26 A nonym ous M i t s u i T r a d i n g Com pany e m p l o y e e, p r i v a t e c o n v e rs a tio n in D ja k a rta, F eb ru ary 1972. See a l s o " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 0, p. 1 0. 27 J a p a n, F in a n c e M i n i s t r y P r i n t i n g O f f i c e, N ih o n sh o k u in ro k u. 1 9 5 8 -n en I - g a t s u. I, p. 186. 28 M i t s u i T r a d i n g C om pany e m p l o y e e, i n t e r v i e w. 29 " B u d g e t C o m m i t te e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 0, p. 1 3. 31 32 33 A n t a r a. D ecem ber 6, 1957. i n t a r a. D ecem ber 1 8, 1957. A n t a r a. D ecem ber 3 0, 1957. 34 F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r F u j iy a m a 's re m a rk s a t t h e N a t i o n a l D i e t on F e b r u a r y 1 4, 1 9 5 9. S e e " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p ro c e e d in g s," no. 11, p. 4. 35 A n ta ra. Jan u ary 25, 1958. " B u d g e t C o m m i t te e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 1, p. " S e i s h o t o j o, " A s a h i S h in b u n, M arch 1 0, 1 9 5 9. 37 and "Iw a y u ru 'b a i s h o o s h o k u ' no a r a s u j i, " E k o n o m isu to. F e b ru a ry 14, 1959, p p. 2 4 -2 5. ^ ^ " B u d g e t C o m m i t te e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 1, p. Iw ayuru ' b a i s h o o s h o k u ’, " p. 24. 40" 40j B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 0, p. 1 3. 41, ■ "B u d g e t C o m m i t t e e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 1 1, p. 4. 42 A n ta ra. June 4, 1958. 43 A n ta ra. June 7, 1958. 44 A n ta ra. June 9, 1958. 45 Antara. June 9, 1958. === [PDF page 216] === 210 46 " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " 11, p. " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 10, p. 10. . u o ted i n A n t a r a, J u n e 2 0, 48 1958. 49 N a g a n o Mamoru w a s t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r o f N a g a n o S h i g e o, who w a s K i s h i ' s a n d K i n o s h i t a ' s l o n g - t i m e f r i e n d from t h e i r d a y s i n M a n c h u ria. 50 " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. ^ ^ A n ta ra, Ju n e 20, 52 10, p. 10. 10, p. 10. 1958. " B u d g e t C o m m itte e p r o c e e d i n g s, " n o. 53lbid. ^ ^ K u n ito, p p. K u n ito, 110, 110. 111. 114. ^ ^ " S e i s h o t o j o, " A s a h i S h i n b u n, M a rc h 1 0, i b i d., p. 107. 1959; ^ ® A fter s h e w as i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e P r e s i d e n t i n K y o to i n 1 9 5 8, s h e w e n t t o I n d o n e s i a i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 5 8 a s " a t u t o r " f o r T o y o s h im a 's d a u g h t e r. She w as c a l l e d M rs. B a s u k i s i n c e i t w as e a s i e r t o s t a y i n I n d o n e s i a a s t h e w ife o f an In d o n e s ia n th a n a s th e w ife o f a J a p a n e s e. J u l y 1959 sh e becam e t h e t h i r d o f f i c i a l w if e o f P r e s i d e n t S uk arno. See K a jiy a m a T o s h i y u k i, "Shübun n i i r o d o r a r e t a D e v i f u j i n h i r o k u, " Y angu R e d i, M arch 3 1, 1 9 6 6, p. 1 4 9. T o y o s h im a l a t e r r e m a r k e d t o a m a g a z i n e r e p o r t e r: " I was a s k e d b y Mr. S u k a r n o ' s a d j u t a n t a n d Chow who w o r k e d f o r K i n o s h i t a on t h e r e p a r a t i o n s c o n t r a c t, t o b r i n g h e r [ t h e m o d e l]. So I h a d my w i f e, who p l a n n e d t o come t o D j a k a r t a a h a l f - y e a r l a t e r, b r i n g h e r a s a m em ber o f o u r f a m i l y. " See "S u k aru n o o m e g u t t a," p p. 3 8 -3 9. 59 N ih o n s h o k u i n r o k u ( 1 0 t h e d.; T okyo: Jin ji K o s h in jo, 1 9 6 4 ), S e c t i o n on C o m p an ies, p. 1 4 1 1. ^ ^ K a jiy a m a, p. 150. ^^A f o r m e r w a r t i m e o f f i c e r, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, J a n u a r y 19 7 1; an d an anonym ous J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s m an, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 2. For O g u c h i 's b a c k g ro u n d, s e e T ak ed a S h i g e s a b u r o, e d., J a g a t a r a kanwa ( N a g a s a k i: by th e e d i t o r, 1 9 6 8 ), p. 318. === [PDF page 217] === 211 62 Kodam a, b o r n i n 1 9 1 1, w a s a p a t r i o t i c a c t i v i s t i n p rew ar d ay s. D u r i n g t h e P a c i f i c W ar h e c o o p e r a t e d w i t h J a p a n ’ s p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y m an e u v ers i n m a in la n d C h in a b y p r o v i d i n g h i s own i n t e l l i g e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n know n a s t h e "K odam a A g e n c y. " When t h e War e n d e d, h e s e r v e d a s a n a d v i s o r t o t h e f i r s t p o s tw a r c a b i n e t fo rm ed by P r i n c e H ig a sh ik u n in o m iy a. L a t e r h e w as d e t a i n e d u n t i l l a t e 1 948 a s a c la s s -A w ar c r im in a l s u s p e c t. When h e w a s r e l e a s e d h e r e s i d e d h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e w in g o f t h e r u l i n g p a r t y and h a s e x e r t e d i n d i r e c t i n f lu e n c e o v e r p o s t w a r p o l i t i c a l an d e c o n o m ic l e a d e r s h i p. He h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d h i s a b i l i t y to s o l i c i t f i n a n c i a l a id and h i s pow er to d e p lo y s i z e a b l e num ber o f v e t e r a n s, s t r e e t v e n d o rs, and m e m b e rs o f u n d e r w o r l d s y n d i c a t e s. He h a s p r o m o t e d p a r t y l e a d e r s _ o f n o n b u r e a u c r a t i c o r i g i n s, H a to y a m a I c h i r o ( 1 8 8 3 1 9 5 9 ), Ono B a n b o k u ( 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 6 4 ), Kono I c h i r o ( 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 6 5 ), K a w a s h im a S h ô j i r ô ( 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 7 0 ), a n d m o re r e c e n t l y, N a k a s o n e Y a su h iro (b. 1 9 1 8 ). I n 1 9 6 1 Kodama h e l d a c o m m a n d in g p o s i t i o n i n t h e tw o m o s t p o w e r f u l r i g h t i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s, th e F e d e r a tio n o f A ll - J a p a n P a t r i o t i c O r g a n iz a tio n s (Z e n ’a i K a i g i ) a n d t h e Y o u th I d e o l o g y S tu d y A s s o c i a t i o n ( S e i s h i k a i ). S e e N akam ura K ô j i, "T he S a m u ra i S p i r i t, " F a r E a s t e r n E c o n o m ic R e v i e w. O c t o b e r 1 6, 1 9 7 1, p p. 2 2 % ^ 63 S o c i a l P r o b l e m s S t u d y G r o u p, U yoku j i t e n ( T o k y o: F u ta b a Sha, 1971 ), p. 33. ^^ Ib id. 65 I n i 960 K i s h i d i d a g r e e t o u s e a r i g h t - w i n g b o d y g u a rd f o r P r e s i d e n t E is e n h o w e r ’ s p la n n e d v i s i t t o Tokyo. E is e n h o w e r and E m peror H i r o h i t o w e re t o d r i v e t o g e t h e r i n a n o p e n lim o u s in e from H aneda a i r p o r t t o t h e I m p e r i a l P a l ace. G u a rd in g t h i s r o u t e w o u ld r e q u i r e 1 8,7 0 0 p o lic e m e n, w h e r e a s t h e T okyo p o l i c e c o u l d m o b i l i z e o n l y 1 5, 0 0 0, s o t h e b a l a n c e w a s s o u g h t f r o m am ong t h e r i g h t i s t v o l u n t e e r s. T he r u l i n g p a r t y a l s o s o u g h t a s s i s t a n c e f r o m Kodama Y o s h i o, who o r g a n i z e d a p l a n w h ic h w o u ld d e p lo y 1 8,0 0 0 y a k u z a (g a n g s t e r s ), 1 0,0 0 0 s t r e e t v e n d o r s, and 1 0,0 0 0 v e t e r a n s. Due t o m o u n tin g a n t i - K i s h i s e n t im e n t, E ise n h o w e r w as a s k e d t o cancel h is v i s i t. S ee N akam ura, p. 2 4. ^ ^ K i n o s h i t a H a n j i, U yok u t e r o ( K y o t o: H o r i t s u Bunka Sha, i 960). Q u o te d i n D a v id C onde, I n d o n e s h i a no h e n b o, t r a n s. b y K aS ah ara Y o sh io (T okyo: K ô b u n d ô,1 9 6 b ), p. 1 4 7. 67 A n ta ra. F e b ru a ry 5, 1958; A sah i S h in b u n. F e b ru a ry 4, 1958. The a n t i - S u k a r n o r e b e l l i o n o f 1 9 5 8 w a s s t a g e d b y b o t h S u m a tra n an d S u la w e s i d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s. But in t h i s s t u d y i t i s c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e S u m a tra R e b e llio n. F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s, se e C h a p te r V I I I. _^^D ew i S u k a rn o, " D a it ô r y ô f u j i n e no k e t s u b e t s u " Shukan G e n d a i. D ecem ber 25, 1969, p. 118. D ew i === [PDF page 218] === 212 c o n t r i b u t e d a s i x - p a r t s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s t o t h e m ag a zin e fro m t h e D ecem ber 1 1, 1969 th r o u g h t h e J a n u a r y 2 2, 1970 issu e s. T he t h i r d p a r t w a s i n t h e f o r m o f a l e t t e r t o P r e s i d e n t S ukarno d e s c r i b i n g h e r l i f e and e x p e r ie n c e s in In d o n e sia. Not a l l th e f a c t s g iv e n a r e c o r r e c t. N em o to N a o k o w a s b o r n i n 1 9 4 0 a s t h e t h i r d d a u g h t e r o f a c o n s t r u c t io n w o rk e r in Tokyo. B ecause h e r f a t h e r had l i t t l e m oney, Naoko h a d t o w o rk a s a w a i t r e s s i n t h e C h iy o d a L i f e I n s u r a n c e Com pany a f t e r s h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n 1955, b u t a l i t t l e o v e r a y e a r l a t e r she r e s i g n e d t o w ork a s a n i g h t c l u b h o s t e s s. T he l a s t n i g h t c lu b i n w h ic h sh e w o rk ed w as f a s h i o n a b l e A k a s a k a 's C opac a b a n a, one o f th e f a v o r i t e n i g h t c lu b s o f v i s i t i n g f o r e ig n e rs. S u karn o w en t t h e r e on Ju n e 16, 1959. See F u jiw a ra H i r o t a t s u, e t. a l., H adaka no D e v i f u j i n (T okyo: Y agum oi S h o in, 197077 p p. 11, 20, 23, 34, 36, 40, "D a itô ry ô f u j i n, " 119. ^ ^ D ew i, " D a itô r y ô f u j i n, " ( 3 ), p. 75 "S ukaruno o m e g u tta," p. 39. K a jiy a m a T o s h i y u k i, p. 1 4 8. 120. 71 118. F u jiw a ra, p. 40. 72ibid. 43. 77 (T okyo: S a k a ta Z e n z a b u ro, In d o n e s h ia; g e n jo t o m o n d a ite n F e d e r a t i o n o f E c o n o m ic O r g a n i z a t i o n, 1 9 6 8 ), p p. 78 I n d o n e s i a n E m bassy, p p. 18 8 -8 9. Tokyo, L ap o ran Tahunan 1 9 6 1. '^^ I b i d.. p p. 1 5 4 - 5 5. 80 K i r i s h i m a Mas a y a, p r i v a t e F eb ru ary 17, 1972. 81 82 "S ukaruno o m e g u tta," p. K irish im a, in te rv ie w, D ja k a rta, 39. in te rv ie w. ® ^ K irish im a, i n t e r v i e w. 84O m o ri M i n o r u, S u k a r u n o s a i g o n o s h i n s o S h in c h ô S ha, 1 9 6 7 ), p. 2?: (T o k y o: === [PDF page 219] === 213 ^ ^ K irish im a, in te rv ie w. ® ^ " T J a t a ta n P r i b a d i D e w i," I n d o n e s i a R a v a. M arch 1 2. M a h a b r a t a S u r y a d h a r m a, S u k a r n o d i - t e n g a h 2 W a n it a ( K u a l a L u m p u r; P e n e r b ita n P u sta k a S a r i, 1 9 67 ), p. $. 1970. 88 "S u karuno o m e ^ t t a, " p. 40. Dewi a l s o v i s i t e d M e c c a t o b e c o m e a H a d j i ( t h e t i t l e g i v e n t o t h o s e m a k in g th e p ilg r im a g e to M ecca). S e e D e w i, " D a i t ô r y ô f u j i n, " ( 4 ). Ja n u ary 1, 1970, p. 87. 89 " N e a g a r i m a c h i g a i n a s h i n o D e v i f u j i n n o ’ Kawa sh im a S h o j i r o k a i s o r o k u ', " S h u k an P o s u t o. Novem ber 2 7, 1970, p. 87. S h im izu h a d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e J a p a n e s e I n d o n e s i a n C u l t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n a n d h a d m ade h i m s e l f i t s c h a i r m a n a n d h a d n o m i n a t e d K a w a sh im a a s i t s a d v i s o r. Fro m S h i m i z u H i t o s h i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n T o k y o, A p r i l 2 5, 1972. F o r S h i m i z u 's b a c k g ro u n d, s e e C h a p te r I I I. D e w i, " D a i t ô r y ô f u j i n, " ( 4 ), p. 8 7. 91 T h is m a n sio n i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n b u i l t w i t h c o n t r i b u t i o n s by J a p a n e s e c o m p a n ie s. Dewi h e r s e l f s t a t e d t h a t som e J a p a n e s e a n d I n d o n e s i a n s " v o l u n t e e r e d " t o b u i l d a h o u s e f o r m e. S e e D e w i, " D a i t ô r y ô f u j i n " ( l ), D e c e m b e r 11, 1969, p. 49. 92 93 94 F u jiw a ra, p. 40. 99. D e w i, " D a itô ry ô f u j i n, " D ecem ber 18, 1969, D e w i, " D a itô ry ô f u j i n, " D ecem ber 1 1, 1969, 62. 95 "S ukaruno o m e g u tta," p. 96 T he S o c i e t y, e s t a b l i s h e d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 5 8, b e g a n m o d e s t l y w i t h o n l y 30 m e m b e rs b u t b y 1 9 6 5 i t h a d g r o w n t o o v e r 200 m em bers. B e in g an o f f i c i a l l y a c c r e d i t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n, i t n u m b e r e d am ong i t s m e m b e rs s u c h p r o m i n e n t f i g u r e s a s S u d i r o, f o r m e r M a y o r o f D j a k a r t a, Omar T u s i n, f o r m e r C h a i r m a n o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n C h a m b e r o f I n d u s t r y, a n d Umar J a d i, In d o n e s ia n R e p r e s e n ta tiv e to th e U n ite d N a tio n s o rg a n iz a tio n s in S w itz e rla n d. H a rto n o, fo rm e r S e c r e t a r y G eneral o f th e S o c ie ty, p r iv a te in te rv ie w in D ja k a rta, J u ly 13, 1971. 97 T he C l u b w a s n a m e d a f t e r t h e J a p a n e s e w o r d f o r t h e f lo w e r c a l l e d a " p i n k, " w h ic h s y m b o liz e s t h e i d e a l J a p a n e s e woman. === [PDF page 220] === 214 98 A nonym ous f o r m e r e x e c u t i v e m em ber o f t h e C l u b, i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, N ovem ber 1 9 7 0. 99O m o r i, p. 1 5 2. p riv a te ^^^C onde, I n d o n e s h ia no h e n b o. p. 1 4 8. For th e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f D e w i's v i s i t a t t h a t t i m e, s e e C h a p te r V II. ^ ^ ^ Y a m a sh ita T aro i n 1957 o b ta in e d J a p a n 's f i r s t o v e rs e a s o i l c o n c e s s io n s in o ffs h o re S audi A ra b ia. 102 Ja p a n P e tro le u m F e d e r a tio n, N a ig a i s e k iv ü s h ir v ô 1970, p. 9. 103 In d u stry, J a p a n, M in is tr y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l T rad e and Sogo e n e r u g i t o k e i 1 9 6 8. p. 7 0. ^ ^ ^ N is h ijim a S h i g e ta d a a l s o was v e r y a c t i v e i n th e r e p a r a t i o n s n e g o t i a t i o n s; se e C h a p te r I I I. 105 "S u m a to ra e no k y o s h ü," M a in ic h i S h in b u n. J u l y 31, 1959. ^ ^ ^ K o b a y a s h i A t a r u a l s o w as v e r y a c t i v e i n t h e re p a ra tio n s n e g o tia tio n s; se e C h a p te rs I I and I I I. 107 "S u m a to ra e no k y o s h ü." 108 T he K i s h i C a b i n e t e n d o r s e d t h i s o n S e p t e m b e r 2 6, 1959 and P r e s i d e n t S ukarno in fo rm e d K is h i o f h i s a p p ro v a l i n a l e t t e r w h ic h S u b a n d rio c a r r i e d t o J a p a n on O c to b e r 14, 1959. S e e T ok v o S h i n b u n. J a n u a r y 2 2, I 9 6 0. 109 M a in ic h i S h in b u n. J a n u a ry 23, I9 6 0. ^ ^ ^A sahi S h in b u n. F e b ru a ry 17, ^ ^ ^ Tokyo S h in b u n. J a n u a r y 2 2, I 9 6 0. 112 S a n k e i S h in b u n, M arch 2, I 9 6 0. ^ ^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n. M a rc h 2, I 9 6 0. 114 A s a h i S h i n b u n. M arch 2 3, 2 4, a n d A p r i l 8, I 9 6 0. 115 S e k iy ü no K a i h a t s u. V o l. I, n o. 1 ( 1 9 6 8 ), p. 24. ^ ^ ^ G iju ts u k y o ry o k u nenpo 19 6 4, p p. 4 5 0 -5 1. 117 " K ita S u m a to ra s e k i y u o g y ü j i r u o t o k o," J i t s u g y o no S e k a i, A p r i l 1 9 6 5, p. 9 8. === [PDF page 221] === 215 118 I b id., p. 100. NOSODECO p l a c e d i n i t s M edan, N o rth S u m a tra, o f f i c e N a k a ta n i Y o sh io, an I n d o n e s ia n l a n g u a g e e x p e r t who h a d w o r k e d f o r t h e o c c u p a t i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f J a v a d u r i n g t h e P a c i f i c War a n d h a d s e r v e d a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r f o r S u karno d u rin g h i s f r e q u e n t v i s i t s t o Tokyo. N a k a t a n i l a t e r m oved t o D j a k a r t a t o t e a c h I n d o n e s i a n t o D e w i. A c c o rd in g t o t h i s m a g a z in e a r t i c l e, N is h ijim a h a d e s t a b l i s h e d c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h D ew i t o r e i n f o r c e h i s a l r e a d y w arm r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e m e m b e rs o f t h e i n n e r c i r c l e s o f P r e s i d e n t S u karn o. See i b i d., p. 98. 119 I t s p r e s i d e n t w a s Azuma S u m io, o n e o f NOSODECO*s e x e c u tiv e d ir e c to r s. 120 " M e n g a p a I b n u S u to w o T u r u n k a n H a r g a M i n j a k k e D je p a n g? " I n d o n e s ia R ay a, D ecem ber 2 6, 1 9 6 9. See a ls o an a r t i c l e c r i t i c i z i n g t h e s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n PERMINA a n d t h e K i n o s h i t a T r a d i n g C om pany; "P e rm in a B e li K a p a l S e l a l u L e w a t 'B r o k e r * - T u n a s L t d. d a n K i n o s h i t a B e l i L a g i d a r i O rang L a i n, " I n d o n e s i a R a y a, D ecem ber 3 1, 1 9 6 9. === [PDF page 222] === CHAPTER VI JAPAN’ S ROLE IN THE INDONESIAN-MALAYSIAN CONFLICTS, I 9 6 3-1966 The c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a a n d M a l a y s i a f r o m 1 9 6 3 t o m ld - 1 9 6 6 w as o n e o f t h e m o s t t u r b u l e n t p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s i n p o s tw a r S o u th e a s t A s ia, o v ersh ad o w ed o n ly by th e g re a te r c o n flic t In d o c h in a. S u k a rn o ’s K o n fro n ta sl a g a i n s t t h e n e w l y - f e d e r a t e d M a l a y s i a was s u p p o r t e d b y I n d o n e s i a ’ s C o m m u n ist P a r t y (P K I) a n d s o u g h t b a c k i n g f r o m P e k i n g. M a l a y s i a was s u p p o r t e d b y G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d i t s C om m onw ealth fo rces and B r i t a i n in tu rn s o u g h t A m e ric an s u p p o r t f o r M a l a y s ia i n e x c h a n g e fo r I ts o f A u s tra lia a n d New Z e a l a n d, s u p p o r t o f A m e ric an e f f o r t s i n V i e t N am.^ The c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f f i c i a l l y o r ig in a te d w ith F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S u b a n d r i o ’ s s t a t e m e n t on J a n u a r y i n w h ic h he d e c l a r e d I n d o n e s i a ’ s p o l i c y 20, 1963, of c o n fro n ta tio n a g a i n s t t h e M a la y s ia n f e d e r a t i o n o f M a lay a, S in g a p o r e, S araw ak, and B ru n e i. th e In d o n e s ia ’s p o lic y c o n tin u e d th ro u g h G e s ta p u A f f a i r on S e p te m b e r 3 0, 1965 a n d e n d e d on A u g u s t 1 1, 1 9 6 6, w hen F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s R azak s ig n e d a p e ac e a g re e m e n t. Sabah, th e c o n fro n ta tio n i t s e l f, ^ o f Ja p a n ’s ro le cover th is Adam M a l i k a n d Tun D e sp ite th e a t t e n t i o n little g iv e n n o tic e has been ta k e n th is c o n flic t. T h is c h a p t e r th e n w i l l a s p e c t o f th e c o n flic t, as w e ll as 216 th e in te r- === [PDF page 223] === 217 n a tio n a l s ig n ific a n c e o f J a p a n 's in te rv e n tio n, J a p a n 's p a r t i n I n d o n e s i a 's M a la y s ia grew p a r t l y out of i ts th ro u g h r e p a r a t i o n s. 3 D e m o c ra tic P a r ty c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith in v o lv e m e n t w ith I n d o n e s ia D u rin g t h i s tim e J a p a n 's L ib e ra l- (LDP) w as i n p o w e r, h e a d e d by P a r t y P re si d e n t I k e d a H a y a t o f r o m i 960 t o 1964 an d V i c e - P r e s i d e n t K a w a sh im a S h ô j i r ô 1970. fro m 1964 t o I k e d a, K a w a s h im, a n d th e Ja p a n e se F o re ig n M in is try a c t u a l l y ta tio n is ts," o f th e w ere th o u g h th e y a c te d a s m e d ia to r s. c o n f r o n t a t i o n w e re t h e "a n ti-C o n fro n T hose i n In d o n e sia n S tu d e n ts A s s o o ia tio n ( g e r ^ a tu a n P e l a d J a r I n d o n e s i a o r P P I) i n T okyo w h i c h s u c c e e d e d in g a in in g th e s u p p o rt o f th e Japan S o c i a l i s t P a rty of a le ss c o n se rv a tiv e D e m o c ra tic P a r ty a n d m in o r f a c t i o n PKI s i n c e i 960. in th e D u rin g th e re la tio n s T h is c h a p t e r w i l l d i s c u s s I k e d a a n d K a w a s h im a, a l l o f re p a ra tio n s i s s u e, w h ile th o s e f a v o r o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i l l be e x a m in e d i n th e r u l i n g o f th e L ib e r a l - ( J C P ), w h ich h a d c u l t i v a t e d o n ly J a p a n 's F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y, whom w e r e a c t i v e (JS P ) and l e d by U t s u n o m i y a T ok um a, a s w e l l a s t h e J a p a n C o m m u n ist P a r t y w ith I n d o n e s i a 's fav o r C h a p te r V II. c o n f r o n ta tio n th e F o re ig n M in is try and L ib e ra l-D e m o c ra tic P a rty c o o rd in a te d t h e i r e f f o r t s a t m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a a n d M a l a y s i a a n d f o u n d th e m t o be c o m p le m e n ta ry. re s p e c tiv e th is p ap er, th e stu d y o f t h e i r e f f o r t s h a s b e e n d i v i d e d am ong t h r e e p e r i o d s; (1 ) th e p re -M a la y s ia p e r io d, S e p tem b er I 6, 1963; fro m J a n u a r y 2 0, I 963 t o ( 2 ) th e p o s t-M a la y s la p e r i o d, S e p tem b er 1 6, 1963 t o S e p te m b e r 3 0, 1965; and fro m ( 3) th e p o s t- === [PDF page 224] === 218 G e stap u p e r i o d, fro m S e p te m b e r 3 0, 1965 t o A u g u st 1 1, 1 9 6 6, The F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y ' s first and th e th ird second p e rio d. p r e s e n c e was n o t n o t i c e a b l e p e rio d s and t h a t o f th e The e m p h a s i s o n t h e in th e LDP, i n L D P 's r o l e th e in th e second p e r i o d was d u e t o t h e h i g h - l e v e l m e d i a t i o n r e q u i r e d a t t h a t tim e, The P r e - M a l a y s i a P e r i o d; F ro m i t s c lo s e in c e p tio n a tte n tio n to th e Jan u ary 20. 196 3 - S e p t e m b e r l 6. 1 9 6 3 th e Ja p a n e se F o re ig n M in is try p a id fo rm a tio n o f M a la y s ia, w a tc h in g f o r any r e p e r c u s s i o n s t h a t m ig h t o b s t r u c t J a p a n 's tio n s w ith th a t area. re p a ra tio n s J a p a n w as i n th e p r o c e s s o f p a y in g I n d o n e s i a, B u rm a, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s, a n d S o u t h V i e t Nam, a n d o f e x t e n d i n g g r a n t s l a t t e r th re e t o L a o s a n d C a m b o d ia, t h e o f w h ic h w ere s u f f e r i n g t h e V i e t Nam c o n f l i c t. But t h e M a la y sia, th e P h ilip p in e s, th e e f f ic a c y o f J a p a n 's from th e and I n d o n e s ia p ro m ise d t o re d u c e re p a ra tio n s to e x p o r t m a rk e ts in th e s e th e l a t t e r ta n k e rs th ro u g n th e S tra its s o much u p o n M i d d l e E a s t e r n o i l of its tra n s p o rta tio n c o u n trie s. F u rth e rm o re, J a p a n 's first i n N o rth S u m a tra n o i l. o f Japanese Japan depends t h a t any s u b s t a n t i a l h in d ra n c e upon i t s la rg e The p o s s i b i l i t y passage o f M a lac c a, th ro u g h th e S t r a i t s im m e d ia te and a d v e r s e e f f e c t tw o. e v e n t u a l l y w o u ld l e a d t o o f c o n f l i c t a ls o th r e a te n e d t o b lo c k th e o il consequences o f i n c r e a s i n g t e n s i o n am ong Jap an had hoped t h a t th e r e p a r a t io n s p ro fita b le e c o n o m ic r e l a w o u ld h a v e a n heavy i n d u s t r i e s. c a p i t a l in v e stm e n t had been Any show dow n b e t w e e n D j a k a r t a a n d K u a l a Lum pur w o u l d o c c u r e i t h e r i n t h e S tra its o f M a la c c a o r === [PDF page 225] === 219 on t h e the In d o n e s ia n -M a la y sia n b o rd e r i n B orneo, S tra its, Ja p a n 's o i l developm ent p r o j e c t s w o u ld become p r i m a r y t a r g e t s At t h e tim e tatio n were i n i n N orth S um atra o f th e M alaysian f o r c e s. th a t In d o n e s ia proclaim ed i t s P o lic y a g a in s t M alay sia in Ja n u ary c o ncluding a re p a ra tio n s last If it Confron 1 9 6 3, J a p a n was a g r e e m e n t w i t h S o u t h V i e t Nam, t h e S o u th e a s t A sian c la im a n t. From b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e J a p a n e s e governm ent and e v en from t h e U n ite d S t a t e s, th e r e had been c a l l s t ic a l p o sitio n try f o r Japan to in th a t re g io n.^ re-en try How ever, th e F o r e ig n M in is D espite t h i s, Japan, m ediator, the con clu sio n e a s i e r f o r Japan s o rt of p o licy. th erefo re, d e c i d e d on t h e c a u t i o u s ro le f e e l i n g t h a t t h i s m ig h t b o th prom ote p e a c e and s e r v e a s a means o f r e - e n t r a n c e tic a l affairs. J a p a n 's persuaded v i s i t i n g on May 2 4, sen sin g a g r e e m e n t w i t h S o u t h V i e t Nam a s J a p a n ' s s e t t l e m e n t w i t h S o u t h e a s t A s i a made i t to adopt t h is th is, r e a c t i o n by S o u t h e a s t A s i a n s t o J a p a n ' s in to th e ir a ff a irs. of a rep aratio n s thus a more a c t i v e l y p o l i and th e r u l i n g p a r t y had warned a g a i n s t a p o ssib ly u nfavorable last take in to S o u th e a s t A sian p o l i F o re ig n M i n i s t e r S h ir a M asayoshi In d o n e sia n F o re ig n M in is te r S ubandrio 1963 t o i n v i t e M a l a y s i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r T un k u A b d u l Rahman t o m e e t w i t h P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o i n T o k y o, o f f e r them a p r i v a t e place fo r d isc u ssio n.^ On May 3 1, I 9 63 Rahman f l e w t o T okyo a n d m e t w i t h P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o. f i r s t m eetin g a f t e r th e b e g in n in g o f th e s u c c e s s f u l a n d t h e y m e t a g a i n on J u n e co n flict T his was 1 ag reein g to observe === [PDF page 226] === 220 the s p i r i t of th e ir 1959 F r i e n d s h i p T r e a t y a n d t o s t r i v e fo r a peaceful settlem en t. d ecided th a t ip p in es, the the P h i l a n d M a l a y s i a s h o u l d m e e t i n M a n i l a on J u n e 7, 1 9 6 3 sum m it c o n f e r e n c e of the le a d e rs o f the c o u n trie s,^ The f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s ' m e e t i n g f r o m J u n e 6 t o J u n e 11 was f o l l o w e d by a s u m m it c o n f e r e n c e 1963. S u k a r n o a n d Rahman fo reig n m in iste rs o f In d o nesia, t o s e t up a l a t e r three In a d d it i o n, from J u ly 30 t o August 5, The s u m m i t c o n f e r e n c e p r o v e d t o b e o n l y a t e m p o r a r y success. The t h r e e lead ers, c o nceived o f a f e d e r a t i o n Maphilindo,and S u k a r n o, Rahman, and M a c a p a g a l, o f "M alay p e o p l e s " t o be named Rahman c o n s e n t e d t o p o s t p o n e t h e fo rm atio n o f M alay sia u n t i l a U nited N atio n s survey had a s c e r ta in e d t h e w ish e s o f N o rth Borneo and Saraw ak a b o u t J o i n i n g the fed eratio n. A l t h o u g h a UN t e a m w a s d i s p a t c h e d t o N o r t h B o r n e o, Rahman p r e m a t u r e l y before (Saban) a n n o u n c e d on A u g u s t 2 9, t w o d a y s I n d e p e n d e n c e D a y, t h a t h e w o u l d f e d e r a t e M a l a y s i a on Septem ber I 6 o f t h a t y e a r. M a l a y s i a Day f r o m A u g u s t subsequent s e le c tio n W hile M a l a y a 's p o s tp o n e m e n t o f 31 was h u m i l i a t i n g f o r R a h m a n, h i s o f Septem ber I 6, p r i o r to h e a r i n g th e UN s u r v e y ' s o u t c o m e, was e q u a l l y M acapagal. M a l a y s i a D a y, t h e n, was l e s s th an had been a n ti c i p a te d. th e P h ilip p in e s I n s u l t i n g to Sukarno and W ith t h e r e f u s a l o f I n d o n e s i a a n d to reco g n ize M alay sia, w e r e s e v e r e d on t h e of a celeb ratio n v e ry day o f i t s d ip lo m atic r e l a ti o n s fo rm atio n. A l th o u g h t h e sum m it c o n f e r e n c e u l t i m a t e l y th e fact th at to o k p la c e in T okyo s i g n i f i e d failed, J a p a n 's renew ed === [PDF page 227] === 221 p o l i t i c a l involvem ent in S o u th e a s t A sia. a Japanese F oreign M in istry o f f i c i a l, Rahman w e r e r e l u c t a n t t o m e e t i n "to save J a p a n 's face."® A ccording to b o th Sukarno and T okyo a n d d i d s o p r i m a r i l y A pparently a t th at tim e th e y d i d n o t f e e l th e need fo r J a p a n 's m e d ia tio n — bu t l a t e r when t h e s i t u a t i o n w o r s e n e d, 1965 t h e y w elcom ed J a p a n ' s in te rv en tio n. 2» ^ e _ P o 3 t - M a l a y s i a P e r i o d; S e p tem b er 1 6. 1 9 6 3 -S e p tem b er 30.1965 (1) I k e d a 's M e d iatio n E f f o r t s On S e p t e m b e r 1 6, 1 9 6 3 t h e M a l a y s i a n a n d B r i t i s h E m bassies i n D j a k a r t a were a t t a c k e d T u n k u Rahman p u b l i c l y a y s ia 's and, s t e p p e d on t h e d ip lo m a tic ru p tu re w ith in r e t a l i a ti o n, Indonesian f la g. I n d o n e s ia and th e M al P h ilip p in es p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r i t e m on t h e a g e n d a f o r P r i m e M i n i s t e r I k e d a ' s good w i l l t o u r " to the P h ilip p in es, In d o n esia, A u stra lia, a n d New Z e a l a n d ^ a n d m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s p e r s o n a l in te rv en tio n. In a p re s s c o n f e r e n c e on S e p t e m b e r 19 I k e d a r e m a r k e d t h a t h e w a n t e d t o make a p e r s o n a l e f f o r t th e issu e, to m ediate " e v e n i f he w ere n o t a s k e d by t h e p a r t i e s con cerned. Several fa c to rs m ediate. F irst, he f e l t co n trib u ted to Ik e d a 's d e s ir e t h a t n e it h e r th e U nited S ta te s G re a t B r i t a i n were e x e r t i n g a d e q u a te p r e s s u r e and M a la y s ia. upon I n d o n e s i a I n d e e d, a c c o r d i n g t o a n a c c o u n t w r i t t e n by Ik e d a 's personal se c re ta ry, v isite d London, he had been a sk e d p e r s o n a l l y I 4 i n i s t e r M acm illan t o t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r when I k e d a by P r i m e "co n tain " S u k a r n o. S e c o n d, seem ed === [PDF page 228] === 222 th a t th e le a d e rs of In d on esia, M alay sia, h a r b o r e d more e m o t i o n a l t h a n p o l i t i c a l th at a l l o f them seem ed t o d e s i r e and th e P h ilip p in es d isag reem en ts, and a n o t h e r sum m it m e e t i n g. T hird, on S e p t e m b e r 19 w h e n S u b a n d r i o s t o p p e d i n rou te t o New Y o r k, h e g a v e t h e Tokyo e n i m p r e s s i o n t o Oda T o k i o, for mer A m bassador t o I n d o n e s i a a n d p r e s e n t C o u n s e l o r i n t h e F oreign M in istry, m ed iatio n. th at F ou rth, th e M alaysian is s u e W est c o n f l i c t, in su re the I n d o n e s i a would a p p r e c i a t e Japan’s to prevent was i n J a p a n ' s from d e v e lo p in g i n t o and f i f t h, a sta b le a fu ll-fled g e d S outheast r e g i m e was i m p e r a t i v e sta b ility to the re g io n. o f the Sukarno t o c o n t a i n i n g t h e a d v a n c e o f C o m m u n is t i n t o S o u t h e a s t A s ia and t h a t J a p a n ' s m e d i a t i o n w ould stren g th en i t s T his p o l it i c a l p o sitio n in th e reg io n.^ ® l a s t re a so n, the re a ffirm a tio n p o litic a l p o sitio n, ese n a tio n a l p rid e e x a c tly what th e of J a p a n 's c o in c id e d w ith the re-em erg en ce due t o i t s econom ic s u c c e s s P h i l i p p i n e s w ished to a v o id. of Japan a n d was When I k e d a t a l k e d w ith M acapagal in M anila d u rin g h i s v isit e m b e r 23 t o co o lly to 2 6, 1 963, he r e p o r t e d ly o f f e r of m ed iatio n, the s u p e rio rity jo in t E ast- A s ia would c o n tin u o u s e x p o r t o f J a p a n e s e goods Ikeda f u r th e r reaso n ed th a t th e forces in te re st reacted from S e p t I k e d a 's p robably n o t w ishing to ap p ear to accep t o f J a p a n 's p o litic a l p o s i t i o n. T h e i r c o m m u n iq u e on S e p t e m b e r 26 s t a t e d t h a t th e y had had a f r a n k e x c h a n g e o f v i e w s on v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s o f m u t u a l in te re s t but i t made n o r e f e r e n c e a t a l l to th e C o n fro n tatio n.^ ^ === [PDF page 229] === 223 Ikeda's subsequent v isit to Djakarta from September 26 to 25 was more successful than his v isit to Manila, His personal acquaintance with the Indonesian leaders might have been a decisive factor. He addressed Sukarno as "Brother Sukarno," which reportedly pleased the la tte r g r e a t l y.O n 22% Japan's support of Malaysia, and In th eir Joint communique on October 3, Australian Prime Minister Robert lenzles and the Japanese Prime Minister "expressed deep concern for the situation In that area."^^ But In Indonesia and In Manila Ikeda had been careful not to express this position publicly. SepteÉer 2J the parties Joined to discuss economic cooper ation Including Ikeda's offer of |12 m illion In credit, and then the two leaders talked privately for forty minutes. Ikeda Is said to have persuaded Sukarno to order the Indo nesian flag removed from the ransacked British EÉassy.^^ In th eir second meeting on September 28 Sukarno became more agreeable to Ikeda's emphasis on a peaceful approach to the Malaysian conflict. While In Djakarta Prime Minister Ikeda also talked with the B ritish Ambassador, Sir Andrew G ilchrist, and tne Dnlted States Amassador, Howard Jones. The A s ^ Shlnhun on September 30, 1563 speculated that Ikeda nad requested the B ritish ambassador to persuade Malaysia to avoid violent action, while warning the Dnlted States ambassador that the American suspension of aid to Indonesia might have a negative effect, Ihelr Joint communique on September 28 stated that Ikeda le ft Indonesia with optimism over the Malaysian the President and the Prime Minister had "agreed to cooperate Issue. He stated at a press conference In Australia that he closely to promote peace In the world, particularly In the would not have to mediate because the three nations con Western Pacific." In reference to Indonesia the communi cerned would settle the Issue by themselves. His optimism que also declared that: "In th is regard the Prime Minister was not long-lived for the three nations did not actually expressed the strong desirability of mushawarah (consulta begin to move toward settlem ent. Most of the B ritish busi tions) among the Maphlllndo leaders In the sp irit of the nesses continued under Indonesian government control and most Manila summit to the end of contributing to the sta b ility, of the former Malayan offices, private residences and pro peace and mutual prosperity of th eir region." Although the perties were confiscated by the Indonesian authorities, Ikeda-Sukarno communique registered Sukarno's favorable Indonesian armed forces and volunteers were dispatched to the attitude toward Japan's mediation, neither this nor Ideda's Kallraantan-Sarawak borders and to North Sumatra, which faces communique with Macapagal made mention of the tension among the Malay peninsula. On December 12, 1563 Sukarno demanded Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia. Only In Canberra, that another survey be conducted by the United Nations to following his v isit to Djakarta, did Ikeda publicly state ascertain the wishes of the SabÉ and Sarawak peoples. Tnls === [PDF page 230] === 225 M alaysia r e j e c t e d, m ilita ry a ttack R ah m an 's g o v e rn m e n t i n t e n s i f i e d on I n d o n e s i a and t h e M a la y s ia n i s s u e its appeared f a r from b e in g s o l v e d. Thus P rim e M i n i s t e r I k e d a a g a i n a t t e m p t e d t o m e d i a t e in th e M alaysian i s s u e. On J a n u a r y came t o J a p a n on o n e o f h i s c o in c id e d w ith a v i s i t R o b e rt Kennedy. o p p o rtu n ity January by th e 16, th e Ja p a n e se Prim e M i n i s t e r ' s upon S u k arn o and I n d o n e s ia n s S ecretary, and Am bassador t o from th e I n d o n e s ia n s i d e. S ubandrio, adm onished th e 22 In t h i s In d o n esian s a g a in s t M alay sia, d id have funds s u f f i c i e n t they 21 m et. used t h i s a n d, on On t h e J a p a n F oreign M in is te r O h ira, K urogane, F o re ig n M in is tr y In d o n esia F u ru u ch i, and P re s id e n t Sukarno, F o reig n M in is te r A m b a s s a d o r t o J a p a n B a n b a n g S u g e n g, a n d Army C h i e f o f S t a f f Y ani, stru g g le w hich t h e n U.S. A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l B oth J a p a n and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s to e x e rt p re ssu re C ounselor 3da, 1964 P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o freq u e n t inform al t r i p s, e s e s i d e were P rim e M i n i s t e r I k e d a, the 15, co uld spend i t m eeting Ik ed a i s fo r c o n tin u in g t h e i r ex pensive p o in tin g out th a t, system l i k e by s i l e n c e according to J a p a n 's. the a peaceful so lu tio n to for in stan ce, a h ig h th ere, w ith th e Japanese and A tto rn e y - Ind o n esian s to agree ag ain to seek th e M alay sian i s s u e, th e y and th e M a la y s ia n s o n ly i n t e n s i f i e d tow ard each o t h e r. Ind o n esia These rem a rk s w ere fo llo w e d a d iplom at p r e s e n t A lthough t h e i r t a l k s G e n e r a l Kennedy l e d t o buy o r b u i l d t w e n t y w a r s h i p s, f a r b e t t e r on, speed tr a i n s a id t o have f a c t both th e ir b e llig ere n ce Cambodia and T h a i l a n d o f f e r e d m e d i a t i o n === [PDF page 231] === 226 b u t w i t h no s u c c e s s. 25 The M a l a y s i a n l e a d e r s th e ir a n ti-In d o n e s ia p o stu re A p ril 25, in to carried the g e n e ra l e le c tio n s 1 9 64 a n d on May 2 0, S u k a r n o d e c l a r e d w o u ld be " c r u s h e d " by t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r. t h a t M alaysia The P h i l i p p i n e s, how ever, in d e fe re n c e to i n t e r n a l s u p p o r t f o r M a la y s ia and t o A m erican p r e s s u r e, m o dified i t s o n May 18 r e - e s t a b l i s h e d stan d tow ard th e consular r e la tio n s and p r e s e n t e d i t s e l f a s a m e d i a t o r. Cam bodia, and t h e The A s i a n m e d i a t o r s P h ilip p in es. and w ith M alaysia t h e I n d o n e s i a n - M a l a y s i a c o n f l i c t now n u m b e r e d f o u r: T h ailan d, issue Japan, The l a t t e r c o u n t r y ' s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S a l v a d o r Lopez s h u t t l e d b a c k an d f o r t h b e t w e e n D j a k a r t a a n d K u a l a Lum pur a n d, in June 1964, fin ally was a b l e t o a r r a n g e a n o t h e r s u m m i t m e e t i n g i n T o k y o. The p a r t i c i p a n t s agreed in p r in c ip le i n t h i s m e e t i n g on J u n e 20 f i r s t P r e s i d e n t M a c a p a g a l's p r o p o s a l f o r the fo u r A fro-A sian n a tio n s to e s t a b l i s h a m e d i a t i o n commis s io n, but then d iffe re n c e s m a te ria liz e d. sessio n o f the th re e heads o f s t a te v o iced agreem ent to t h i s summit s e s s i o n, At t h e m o r n i n g S u k a r n o a n d Rahman h a d proposal b u t, the a fte rn o o n Rahman c h a n g e d h i s p o s i t i o n a n d d e m a n d e d t n e w ithdraw al o f In d o n esian g u e r i l l a forces from N o rth Borneo w i t h i n f o u r weeks a s a p r e c o n d i t i o n t o th e com m ission.^® Sukarno th en w alked o ut o f th e le a v in g the s ia n and P h i l i p p i n e retu rn ed la t e r, lead ers sessio n, Malay i n d i s c u s s i o n b u t, wh en h e th ey had n o t reach ed a c o n s e n s u s. T h e i r subsequent J o in t statem en t t r i e d co n ceal the t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s, b u t t h i s was made m a n i f e s t failu re a day D a t e r === [PDF page 232] === 221 228 when Malaysia resumed m ilitary action against the Indonesian Council as a nonpermanent member. In answer to the la tte r guerrillas. Japan's participation in th is summit meeting was action, SÉarno withdrew Indonesia from the United Nations on January 2, 1565, a decision which only isolated his more limited than at previous meetings. Not only was the country f u r th e r.I n d o n e s ia 's withdrawal from the United Foreign Ministry apprehensive of the results of the meeting, Nations naturally worried the Western and neutral nations. but also Prime Minister Ikeda did not want to take away from Indonesia had drifted away from Japan's influence, and now the Philippines the credit for arranging the meeting. Ikeda there loomed the possibility that closer ties between also was anxious that Japan should tre a t each of the coun- ' Djakarta and Peking might drive away Japan altogether. trie s im partially, being aware of Malaysia's and Great On January 6, 1565 Prime Minister Sato sent a per B ritain's suspicion that it was p artial to I n d o n e s ia.H e sonal le tte r to Sukarno, urging him to reverse his decision thus tried to avoid discussing the Malaysian issue and and offering to send a special envoy to Indonesia if that allotted an equal amount of time to his conferences with would help.^^ Although U.S. President Johnson, during a each head of state. Nevertheless, his underlying interest v isit by Sato in mid-January, expressed pessimism over Sato's may be evidenced by the donation of his own residence for continuing efforts at mediation, the United Nation's the meeting. Secretary-General U Ihant expressed s u p p o rt.S u k a rn o Ikeda's desire for mediation was never realized, apparently wished to maintain a friendly relationship with By the time of his resignation in November iqSlj, Japan's Japan, motivated possibly by Indonesia's economic deterior Foreign Ministry was convinced that Sukarno had lost control ation and possibly by the influence of-his Japanese wife, of the PKI, which was the real force behind the anti-Malaysia Dewi. He therefore welcomed Sato's offer to send an envoy campaign, Sukarno was seeking a solution to the campaign to Djakarta, without losing face and privately agreed to adhere to the that its relationship with Indonesia would not be altered by U J,'s mediation plan.^^ His pride, nonetheless, stood in its withdrawal from the United Nations. The Japanese government announced further the way. He had been hurt by the B ritish and American sup At f ir s t, the Sato Cabinet considered sending port given to Rahman's announcement of Malaysia Day made Kawashima Shôjirô, Vice-President of the ruling party, as prior to hearing the results of the 'J.N. survey. And he was its envoy to Indonesia, But because Kawashima had had li ttl e hurt again when the United Nations General Assembly voted advance preparation for the mission, i t decided on a less on December 25, 156% to le t Malaysia s it on the Security s te lla r figure to ascertain D jakarta's intentions. This man === [PDF page 233] === 229 w as O g a s a K ô s h ô, a m em b er o f t h e D i e t a n d V i c e - P r e s i d e n t o f th e J a p a n - I n d o n e s ia A ssociation.® ® S u k a r n o on J a n u a r y 2 6, Ogasa l e a r n e d t h a t h i s w ith d raw In d o n e s ia from th e a t i o n m ight be n e c e s s a r y d ecisio n U.N. was f i n a l b u t t h a t h e w o u l d be g l a d t o h a v e Kawashima v i s i t v isit, In h is m eeting w ith and f e l t t h a t J a p a n 's m edi a t a l a t e r tim e.® ® W hile l o o k i n g f o r an o p p o r t u n e tim e f o r K aw a sh im a 's the the F o reig n M in istry S ato C ab in et th en i n s t r u c t e d to study th e fea sib ility o f the f o u r - n a t i o n m e d i a t i o n commis s i o n p r o p o s e d by M a c a p a g a l a t t h e T okyo s u m m i t m e e t i n g i n June 1964. S u b an d rio, in a February v isit t o a m e d i a t i o n commission®® b u t a g a i n t h e s e to Tokyo, a g re e d effo rts came t o n au g h t. I n t h e m eantim e t h e S a to C a b i n e t, M in istry, and th e r u l i n g K awashim a, t r i e d p arty th e F oreign lea d ersh ip, p articu larly t o k e e p J a p a n e s e —I n d o n e s i a n r e l a t i o n s and c o n sid e re d I n d o n e s i a 's req u est in a lo n g -term, o f $139 m i l l i o n. ® ^ On F e b r u a r y th erefo re. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S u b a n d r i o came t o T ok y o t o d i s cuss t h i s as w e l l as th e to in flu e n c e cred it im p o rt cred it th e M alay sian i s s u e. p urchasing g e n e ra to rs, set p lan ts, up a J o i n t e n t e r p r i s e sh ip s, from th e W estern o i l 1965 f o r 11, Ja p a n hoped to use and f e r t i l i z e r p r o j e c t s t h e same m o n t h J a p a n p l a n n e d w ith In d o n e s ia, O i l T r a d i n g C o m pany, w h i c h w o u l d i m p o r t e ctly January I n d o n e s i a, w h i c h was I n t e r e s t e d as w e ll as consum er g o o d s. I n late in ta ct crude p e tro leu m d i r I n d o n e s ia n governm ent i n s t e a d com panies t h e r e. B e c a u s e the Far East o f from t h e b i g In d o n e sia had Ju s t === [PDF page 234] === 230 announced i t s seizu re w ishing to s e l l to p r o f it o f A m erican and B r i t i s h o il p ro p erties, th e o i l i n d e p e n d e n t l y, Jap an hoped n o t only from t h i s Jo in t n e s i a n o i l from g o in g t o v en tu re b u t a ls o to p re v e n t Indo Communist C h in a. ( 2 ) The " K a w a s h i m a L o b y " a n d K a w a s h i m a ' s R o l e a s D i p l o m a t Prim e M i n i s t e r S a to d e c i d e d t o personal re p re se n ta tiv e celeb ra tio n to the s e n d Kawashima a s h i s A p r i l 19 65 t e n t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f th e A s ia n - A f r ic a n Bandung C o n fe re n c e. S a to 's c h o i c e was d e l i b e r a t e a s Kawashima was t h e m o st I n f l u e n t i a l o f the to Sukarno. Japanese clo se P ro m m i d - 1 9 6 4 t o e a r l y 1 9 6 6 h e a l s o was c o n s i d e r e d t h e h e a d o f I n d o n e s i a L o b b y i n J a p a n, p rom pting i t t o be t e r m e d t h e "Kawashima L o b b y. " K aw ash im a's c a r e e r i n I n d o n e s i a n a f f a i r s v aried one. The p o s i t i o n s was a t h a t Kawashima h a d h e l d i n the L i b e r a l - D e m o c r a ti c P a r t y and i n th e governm ent a f t e r 1 95 7 p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h many o p p o r t u n i t i e s Sukarno. From J u l y ru lin g p a rty 's 1957 t o J u l y secretary t o meet w i t h P r e s i d e n t i 96 0 K a w a s h i m a was t h e u n d e r Prim e M i n i s t e r K i s h i. also served I n te rm itta n tly as th e p a r t y 's Ju ly 1964 u n t i l h i s i n November 1970. Kawashima i n t o p o sitio n death Indonesian a f f a i r s as S ta te M in is te r in charge of p o l i t i c a l b ias p a rtic ip a tio n from Y et w hat drew o f the 1964 T o k y o June 1962. c a p a c i t y Kawashima w ent t o I n d o n e s i a i n A u g u s t 1962 f o r t h e F o u r t h tio n V ice-P resid en t m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y was h i s O ly m p ic s, a p o s t w hich he assum ed i n In t h i s in the A s i a n G am es. in to th e In d o n e s ia 's Games p r e c l u d e d i t s in ser fu tu re 1 9 6 4 T okyo O l y m p i c s a n d, on F e b r u a r y 7, === [PDF page 235] === 231 1963, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l O lym pics C om m ittee (IO C ) s u s p e n d e d I n d o n e s i a 4>n t h e b a s i s th at i t rejectin g grounds th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n a list on p o l i t i c a l C hina and I s r a e l in had v io la te d IOC r u l e s o f N ation th e D j a k a r t a - s p o n s o r e d games. A l t h o u g h I n d o n e s i a r e t a l i a t e d by w i t h d r a w i n g f r o m t h e IOC, l a t e r r e g r e tte d th e d e c i s i o n a n d s o u g h t a f a c e - s a v i n g way to r e - e n t e r the o rg a n iz a tio n. I n May 1 9 6 3 K a w a s h i m a m e t i n T okyo w i t h S u k a r n o t o d i s c u s s w a y s i n w h i c h I n d o n e s i a w o u l d be a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e the re a so n s was t h e t h e Tokyo O l y m p i c G a m e s. A m o n g t h a t Sukarno had chosen to latter* s obvious in f lu e n c e w ith in th e and h i s sym pathy to w a rd th e ever, c o n f e r w i t h Kawashima, "non-aligned" ru lin g p arty co u n tries. How o ne c a n n o t i g n o r e S u k a r n o ' s p e r s o n a l c o n f i d e n c e i n Kawashim a, i n s p i r e d by h i s w ife Dewi' s f r i e n d s h i p w ith K a w a s h i m a, whom s h e a d d r e s s e d a s addressed as "Kakakm u" " P a p a " a n d ^hom S u k a r n o (E ld er B r o th e r ). L a t e r i n A p r i l 1964 S u k a rn o I n v i t e d Indonesia n i n e members o f t h e D i e t and s e v e n p o l i t i c a l J o u r n a l i s t s whom h e r e q u e s t e d K a w a s h i m a t o s e l e c t b y h i m s e l f, w h i c h h e 45 d id. He i n c l u d e d f o u r m em bers o f h i s p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n, t h e. Koyu C l u b. A fter th is v i s i t m em b e r s o f t h e a n d K a w a s h i m a ' 3 s u p p o r t e r s made f r e q u e n t Ogasa K ô s h ô 's v isit i n J a n u a r y 1965 was i n The s o - c a l l e d the re p a ra tio n s th is K a w a sh im a Lobby a c t e d i n lo b b y t h a t emerged i n i 9 6 0. l o b b y was c e n t e r e d p r i n c i p a l l y the trip s on p o l i t i c a l Indonesia. c o n te x t. c o n ce rt w ith The r e p a r a t i o n s on econom ic i s s u e s, Kawashima Lobby c o n c e n t r a t e d Kôyü C l u b w hereas issu es. Both === [PDF page 236] === 232 o v e r la p p e d and o p e r a t e d I n f o r m a l l y e x a c t m em bership o f t h e o n e may s p e c u l a t e w orked i n the th at but some o f t h o s e w i t h whom K a w a s h i m a h a d lobby w ere: (A m bassador t o The l o b b y i s y e t t o be i d e n t i f i e d, D ew i, S h im iz u H i t o s h i o f the Ja p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n S hizuo and c o n f i d e n t i a l l y. C u ltu ra l A sso c ia tio n ), In d o n esia), (D jak arta R ep resen tativ e (C hairm an S aito N ish ijlm a S h ig etad a o f th e N orth Sum atra O il D evelopm ent C o o p e r a t i o n Company [NOSODECO])^ a n d f o r m e r Army C a p t a i n Yanagawa M u n e t o s h i. Shim izu H i t o s h i, tio n ad m in istratio n w artim e a s s o c i a t i o n the co n tin u ed h is w ith Sukarno and In d o n e s ia n He m a i n t a i n e d h i s occupa frien d s in te re st from i n and f o r I n d o n e s i a by f o r m in g t h e J a p a n e s e - I n d o n e s i a n C u ltu ra l A sso ciatio n h is in Ja v a d u rin g th e w ar, Propaganda O ffic e. affectio n a propaganda o f f i c e r o f the A sso ciatio n and, after to D ja k a r ta 's 1964, he a tte m p te d to r e l a t e Ind o n esia-Jap an F rien d sh ip S o c i e t y w h i c h Dewi h a d h e a d e d s i n c e May 1 9 6 4. A ccording t o o n e s o u r c e, S h i m i z u was a f r e q u e n t v i s i t o r o f D e w i ' s Wisma Yasoo. S aito S h i z u o was h e a d o f t h e P l a n n i n g S e c t i o n G eneral A ffa irs d u rin g D epartm ent o f th e o c c u p a tio n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n th e war an d, as s u c h, T h a t h e h a d b e e n on f r i e n d l y reason fo r h is c ritic a l the of the ap p o in tm en t one o f S u k a r n o 's clo se frien d s.^ ® t e r m s w i t h S u k a r n o was a m a j o r a s Am bassador t o Indonesia a t t i m e whe n S u k a r n o w a s l e a n i n g m o r e d e c i s i v e l y C o m m u n is t c am p. Upon h i s tow ard assig n m en t to D ja k a rta in S e p t e m b e r 1964 he f r e q u e n t l y was s e e n a t the the P r e s i d e n t i a l === [PDF page 237] === 233 M erdeka P a l a c e. S aito One s o u r c e i n d i c a t e s also th at c u ltiv ated Dewi’ s f r i e n d s h i p. th e Am bassador r o u t i n e l y p la y e d b r i d g e w i t h h e r a t Wisma Y a s o o t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t I n d o n e s ia 's fo rth co m in g p o l i t i c a l m o v e s. S a i t o o t h e r w artim e Ja p a n e s e whom h e w o r k e d. W ar. statio n ed in D ja k arta w ith N i s h i j i m a S h i g e t a d a h e h a d know n s i n c e t h e On t h e n i g h t o f A u g u s t 1 6, lead ers dence, co lleag u es h a d two d isc u sse d the both S a ito tex t o f the 1945 when t h e Indonesian P ro clam atio n of Indepen and N i s h i j i m a were p r e s e n t. T h e o th er c o l l e a g u e was f o r m e r C a p t a i n Y a n a g a w a M u n e t o s h i, who was w ith th e Beppan (S p ecial In te llig e n c e S i x t e e n t h A r r a y 's s t a f f. n esian m ilita ry arm y ( P E T A ), ® the school in o rig in of the clo se I n d o n e s i a n arm y. c o n ta c t w ith Sukarno d u rin g th e War a n d h a d a r e u n i o n w i t h h i m i n Tokyo i n J u n e S h i m i z u, Yanagawa s e r v e d a s a d v i s o r t o fo r the T a n g g e r a n g, W est In d o n esian v o lu n tary core o f th e p r e s e n t Y a n a g a w a a l s o was i n of the I n 1943 Yanagawa o r g a n i z e d an I n d o in tellig en ce J a v a, w h ic h became t h e Task U n it) 1959. W ith th e J a p a n e s e team QANEPO (Games f o r t h e New E m e r g i n g F o r c e s ) i n Nov— em ber 1963 ta n t to and in th e various fo llo w in g y e a r re tu rn e d as a c o n su l J a p a n e s e com panies,® ® S him izu, S a i t o, c o n ta c ts w ith im p o rtan t N ish ijim a, fig u res a f r ie n d o f C h airu l S aleh, a n d Yanagawa a l l h a d c l o s e in In d o n e sia. S h i m i z u was M in is te r o f B asic I n d u s t r i e s, u s e d t o work i n S h i m i z u ' s p r o p a g a n d a o f f i c e o f S u k a r n o ' s r i g h t - h a n d men. who a n d now was o n e N i s h i j i m a kne w b o t h S a l e h a n d Adam M a l i k, b o t h o f whom h a d b e e n l e a d e r s o f the rad ical === [PDF page 238] === 234 Murba P a r t y. Adam M a l i k w o r k e d c l o s e l y w i t h S u k a r n o u n t i l N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 4 w h e n h e a n d o t h e r M urb a l e a d e r s movement (BPS)®^ t o p r e v e n t a n a l l i a n c e th e C om m unists the PK I' 3 o p p o s i t io n. c o n ta c t w ith S u d irg o. (P K I), w hich f a i l e d Yanagawa i s In d o n e s ia 's m i l i t a r y Ambassador S a i t o q u i c k l y for re lia b le in sid e co rresp o n d en ts heed to the in fo rm atio n. o rganized a betw een Sukarno and b e c a u se o f S u k a rn o ’ s and known t o h a v e h a d c l o s e P o lice C h ie f, M ajor G e n e ra l e stab lish ed a rep u tatio n A dm iring t h i s, Japanese and ev en A m e ric a n Embassy o f f i c i a l s "S aito jô h ô " ( S a itô 's a d d itio n S a ito 's in fo rm atio n ).® ® p a id clo se boss in Tokyo, S h iin a E ts u s a b u ro, F o re ig n M i n i s t e r from J u l y 19 64 t o D e c e m b e r 1966 b e l o n g e d t o the Kawashima f a c t i o n i n t h e r u l i n g p a r t y. ag ain st Lobby" em erged. Its th is background t h a t m em bers sh ared th e the "Kawashima vie.v t h a t n o I n d o n e s i a n b u t Sukarno co u ld h o ld th e tro u b led c o n s id e r in g t h a t Japan had l i t t l e ch o ice but to su p p o rt S uk arno and hope f o r a s t a b l e In d o n esia under h is Kawashima w ent t o D j a k a r t a i n as Prim e M i n i s t e r S a t o 's the lead ersh ip. A p ril I 965, o s te n s ib ly rep re se n ta tiv e c e rem o n y b u t, more i m p o r t a n t l y, tiv e s country t o g e t h e r, a t the a n n iv e rs a ry f i n d o u t S u k a rn o 's c o n f r o n t a t i o n a g a i n s t M alaysia.® ® o b jec On A p r i l 16 a n d 17 K a w a s h i m a m e t w i t h h i m, p r o p o s i n g t h a t h e come t o Tokyo e a r l y i n May f o r a n o t h e r c o n f e r e n c e w i t h Rahman who a lr e a d y had p lan n ed to v i s i t t h a t tim e. t o e n h a n c e h i s p r o p o s a l by t e l l i n g s u p p o rt th e second A fro-A aian Kawashima t r i e d S u k a rn o t h a t J a p a n w ould conference t o be h e l d t h a t === [PDF page 239] === 235 June In A lg ie rs and t h a t h e, Kawashima, w ould a t t e n d. ®? Japan p r iv a te ly hoped t h a t t h i s g e s t u r e would d i s c o u r a g e I n d o n e s i a from s e e k i n g s u p p o r t from P e k in g a t K a w a sh im a a g r e e d t o I n d o n e s ia ’s r e q u e s t f o r b u i ld steam -pow er p l a n t s the o u tsk irts the conference. $20 m i l l i o n of D jak arta. F r o m D j a k a r t a K a w a s h i m a f l e w t o K u a l a L umpur t o talk w i t h Rahman on A p r i l 2 0. Rahman t h e c o n t e n t s agreed to the of h is A f t e r Kawashima r e l a t e d d i s c u s s i o n w i t h S u k a r n o, Rahman f o r m a t i o n o f a f o u r —n a t i o n m e d i a t i o n c o m m i s s i o n and to a n o th e r m eetin g w ith Sukarno. Then Kawashima w ent t o Bangkok t o r e q u e s t th e Thai g o v e rn m e n t's m ediation e f f o r t s. I n Bangkok Kawashima a l s o J a p a n 's am b assad o r's t o I n d o n e s i a, S a ito S hizuo, support of Japanese g ath ered M a la y s ia, and T lia ila n d; Kai F u m ih ik o, and K asuya T ak a o, r e s p e c t i v e l y, t o work o u t p r o v i s i o n a l p l a n s f o r the com m ission. S a i t o t h e n r e t u r n e d t o D j a k a r t a on A p r i l 25 t o S u k arn o th e outcom e o f t h e L umpur a n d t o i n v i t e convey t o Kawashlma-Rahraan t a l k s him f o r m a l l y Ambassador in K uala t o T o ky o t o m e e t w i t h Rahman.®® in v ita tio n was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t S u k a r n o h a d a c c e p t e d t h e b u t, on May 1 h e t o l d a huge, ch eerin g crow d o f w o r k e r s t h a t h e w o u l d n o t go t o T o k y o.® ^ T h i s was e x p l a i n e d i n p a r t by I n d o n e s i a n C o o r d i n a t i n g M i n i s t e r o f P u b l i c F ^ ® i ^ t i o n s R o e s I a n A ' o d u l g a n i wno t o l d a F a r E a s t e r n E c o n o m i c Re v i e w c o r r e s p o n d e n t t h a t h e h a d r e c e i v e d letters" from I n d o n e s i a n s He a d d e d t h a t the "thousands e x p re ssin g d is a p p ro v a l o f the T u n k u 's v i s i t v isit. t o T okyo h a d b e e n p l a n n e d === [PDF page 240] === 236 23? primarily to chair the Asian Soccer Council and to attend apparently meant that Indonesia would welcome both Japanese the games and that Indonesia considered the Malaysian dis... 60 pute too important to be discussed during a sports trip. mediation and economic aid. The Shiina-Subandrio talks pro Kawashima's in itia l attempt at mediation thus duced an additional Japanese credit of |15 m illion. Japan's delegation to the second Afro-Asian Confer failed, Only the Tunku came to Tokyo as planned, yet most ence was to number fortv-six members headed by Kawashima, observers believed that Sukarno's refusal was due to pressure Ambassador Saito also would join the delegation, However, from the PKI; that his personal choice had been to come, The on June 19 there was a e g d U.S, Embassy in Djakarta also fe lt that the PKI was trying Ben Bella regime in the host country, Algeria, and the con to undermine its p o litical riv a l, the Indonesia Array, by ference was postponed f irs t until November and then inde creating tension f irs t over West Irian and then M ays la, fin itely, SÉarno and his eighty-member delegation reached thus dispersing the m ilitary forces outside Java,^^ The Cairo on June 26, discussed the future of the conference lunku declared, too, that the Communists in Indonesia were 62 staging "hot and cold wars" against Malaysia. with Nasser and Chou En-Dai, then flew to Paris and returned Japan's-and Kawashima's-second effort to mediate in Indonesian affairs centered on the second Afro-Asian against the pro-Coimunist to Indonesia, ^ His relationship with Chou became closer than ever, Kawashima's third attempt at mediation occurred on conference, Kawashima believed that Japan should establish the occasion of Indonesia's Independence Day celebration, closer relations with the non-aligned nations in order to August 1?, 1965, to which he was invited by SÉarno,*’^ This deal more effectively with the United States and the Soviet mediation attempt proved to be more d iffic u lt than the Union and stressed that an effective delegation oe sent to previous ones. E arlier, Indonesian p o litical leaders includ the conference, Japan also insisted that Malaysia be asked ing Ali Sastroamidjojo, President of the Indonesian Nation to the conference, with which Indonesia naturally agreed. a lis t Party (PNI), had criticized Japan's desire for To discuss this and other economic m atters, Indonesian Malaysia's participation in the Afro-Asian conference^^ and Foreign Minister Subandrio came to Tokyo on May 19 and met in his Independence speech SÉarno had defied Japan's wishes with Prime Minister Sato, Foreign Minister Shiina, Ambassador by calling again to "crush Malaysia," Tnus i t was not Saito, and Kawashima. Subandrio still protested Malaysia's surprising th at, when SÉarno and Kawashima met on August 23, participation in the conference but did emphasize the Importhey disagreed on the second Afro-Asian conference postponed tance of Japan's involvement in Southeast Asia, which for November, on the Southeast Asian M inisterial Conference === [PDF page 241] === 238 f o r E conom ic D e v elo p m en t w h ic h J a p a n h a d p r o p o s e d i n J u l y, ® ® a s w e l l a s o n t h e V i e t Nam i s s u e. Sukarno r e f u s e d t o s e n d an I n d o n e s i a n o f f i c i a l t o any c o n f e r e n c e t h a t M alay s i a a n d S o u t h V i e t Nam w o u l d a t t e n d, adherence to P e k in g 's p o stu re,®? m e a n s o f b a r g a i n i n g was t h e econom ic a i d. larg er c lo ser K a w a sh im a 's o n ly r e m a in i n g o f f e r o f m ore, m uch-needed, He was a b l e t o change S u k a rn o 's d e f e r r e d p a y m e n t f o r $37 m i l l i o n ing J a p a n 's r e fle c tin g h is im portation com m itm ent t h a t y e a r t o m in d w i t h t h e o f goods, b rin g I n d o n e s i a t o $72 m i l l i o n, t h a n t h a t o f any o t h e r c o u n try.® ® Kawashima a c c o m p l i s h e d l i t t l e. t o I n d o n e s i a ) o n S e p te m b e r 30, 1965 t h e Soon a f t e r h i s v isit G e s t a p u A f f a i r was a t t e m p t e d b y C o l o n e l U n t u n g a n d s u p p o r t e d by C o m m u nist f o r c e s. C rushing i t q u i c k l y, t h e S u h a r t o - l e d Army g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e d I n d o n e s ia 's p o l i t i c a l p o lic ie s f r o m a p r o —C o m m u n i s t s t a n c e. The G e s t a p u A f f a i r a l s o e n d e d K a w a s h i m a ' s r o l e Because th e le v e r a g e effo rts as m e d i a t o r. i n K a w a sh im a 's m e d i a t i o n lay in h is clo se r e l a ti o n s h i p w ith Sukarno, i t was no l o n g e r v a l u a b l e a f t e r Sukarno l o s t p o l i t i c a l pow er. Sukarno had had c o n t r o l o v e r th e he a n d Kawashima c o u l d h a v e M alaysian is s u e effo rts PK I, t h e w ould h av e b e e n a r e a l one and K a w a sh im a 's e ffo rts still In th e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n, s h o u ld be Ju d g e d a s u s e f u l, he d i d s u c c e e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s broke o f f econom ic th e U nited S ta te s w ith M alay sia.® ^ th at found a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n t o th e mi g i l t h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l. how ever, h is p o ssib ility w ith (though n o t d i p lo m a ti c ) and G reat B r i t a i n for I n d o n e s i a whe n rela tio n s and d ip lo m a tic w ith rela tio n s === [PDF page 242] === 239 That In d o n e s ia d id m a in ta in was c o n t r a r y t o S u k a r n o ' s clo se tie s "a n ti-c a p ita list, w ith Japan a n ti-im p e ria list" f o r e ig n p o lic y and p o in te d t o S u k a rn o 's p e r s o n a l a f f e c t i o n f o r the co u n try. A lthough Ja p a n s u p p o r te d M a la y s ia, the U nited S ta te s was n o t s t o n e d. o p p o rtu n ist. and G r e a t B r i t a i n, as did t h e J a p a n e s e Embassy S u k a r n o was n o t a n i d e o l o g i s t b u t r a t h e r a n He t o o k a d v a n t a g e of J a p a n 's fear of a c lo ser r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een I n d o n e s i a and C hina t o a c c e p t t h e muchn e e d e d e c o n o m i c a i d t h a t J a p a n was a l l t o o w i l l i n g t o The P o s t - G e s t a p u P e r i o d; T h ough t h e O c t o b e r 19 6 5 - A u g u s t 1 9 6 6 G e s t a p u A f f a i r o c c u r r e d on S e p t e m b e r 3 0, 1965, i t was n o t u n t i l M a r c h 1 2, announce th at i ts in th e M alaysian i s s u e. G eneral S uharto le d a b lo o d le s s Sukarno. 1 96 6 t h a t J a p a n c o u l d p o l i c y to w a r d I n d o n e s i a w ould re m a in u n c h an g e d, and n o t u n t i l e a r l y m ediate g iv e. A lthough S u h a rto May d i d J a p a n o f f e r a g a i n t o On M a r c h 1 1, 1966 L i e u t e n a n t coup a g a i n s t P r e s i d e n t th e n w ie ld e d th e r e a l power in I n d o n e s ia, he allow ed Sukarno to r e t a i n his title d e n t. A f t e r th e coup I n d o n e s i a began t o r e d i r e c t tic a l course. of P resi its p o li On M a rch 2 7, 1 96 6 S u h a r t o a p p o i n t e d Adam M alik as F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r. On M a rch 30 M a l i k s t a t e d w ould s t r i v e to end th e siste d argum ent t h a t M a la y s ia w ould be " c r u s h e d. " in h is c o n fro n tatio n, th at a lth o u g h Sukarno p e r A u g u s t 11 M a l i k a n d M a l a y s i a ' s D e p u t y P r e m i e r Tun R a z a k s i g n e d an a g re e m e n t e n d in g th e c o n fro n ta tio n w ith M alay sia. On t h e In donesian sid e Adam M a l i k o f f i c i a l l y f o r th e agreem ent but th e r e were o t h e r, deserved c re d it u n o fficial === [PDF page 243] === 240 n e g o t i a t o r s who h a d c o n t r i b u t e d t o them w ere A l i M urtopo and h i s th is success. su b o rd in ates, W i l l y P e s i k, b o t h f o r m e r m em bers o f t h e Among D aan M a g o t a n d S um atra R e b e l l i o n.? ^ I n a d d i t i o n S h i r a h a t a Tom oyoshi, a f o r m e r d i p l o m a t, and Am bassador t o M a la y s ia Kai Fum ihiko h a d w orked s e c r e t l y tow ard t h i s se ttle m e n t.? ^ U n t i l th e G estapu A f f a ir S h i r a h a t a d id n ot f e e l t h a t I n d o n e s ia 's own p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w e r e c o n d u c i v e m e d i a t i o n by a t h i r d p a r t y.? ® B u t a f t e r S e p t e m b e r 30 h e was eagei* t o g o t o I n d o n e s i a t o o b s e r v e w h a t c h a n g e s h a d o c c u r r e d. A lthough S h i r a h a t a d id v i s i t next tr ip in O ctober 1965, i t i n A p r i l 19 66 t h a t h e c o n t a c t e d h i s Adam M a l i k. He t o l d S h i r a h a t a t h a t, to M alay sia t h a t was on h i s old f r ie n d, a lth o u g h he had p ro p o se d s e c r e t t a l k s be h e l d i n B angkok, M a la y s ia was s u s p i c i o u s of h is d esire fo r a p eacefu l se ttle m e n t.? ^ Adam M a l i k a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e S u k a r n o f o r c e s s t i l l were s t r o n g and w ere f r u s t r a t i n g h i s On A p r i l 6 a n d 7, e ffo rts.? ® 1966 M a l a y s i a ' s D e p u t y P r e m i e r Tun R a z a k came t o T okyo f o r t h e J a p a n e s e - s p o n s o r e d S o u t h e a s t A sia M i n i s t e r i a l C o n f e r e n c e on E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e new I n d o n e s i a n A m b a s s a d o r, R u k m i t o H e n d r a n i n g r a t, a t t e n d e d as an o b s e r v e r. on t h e g r o u n d s E a r lie r Indonesia had re fu s e d to p a r tic ip a te th at i t M alay sia, b u t in l a t e was i n a s t a t e o f c o n f l i c t w ith M a rch G e n e r a l S u l i a r t o a n n o u n c e d t h a t In d o n e s ia had "opened the door" to a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n to c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h M a la y s ia and would a t t e n d as an o b s e rv e r. A lthough I n d o n e s i a 's the the conference p a rtia l p a rticip a tio n === [PDF page 244] === 241 was r e g a r d e d a s a h o p e f u l s i g n, e x p l a n a t i o n o n A p r i l 16 t h a t "opened th e door" i t Am bassador R u k m ito 's l a t e r even though In d o n e s ia had had n ot r e v e r s e d i t s p rin cip le o f con fro n tatio n ance to a g a in s t M alay sia b ro u g h t b o th c o n fu sio n and annoyV6 K u a l a Lu m pu r a n d t o Adam M a l i k. To c o n v i n c e M a l a y s i a o f I n d o n e s i a ' s sin c erity, Adam M a l i k a s k e d S h i r a h a t a i f h e w o u l d go t o K u a l a L u m p u r. S h ira h a ta agreed to h is Ja p a n 's r e q u e s t a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t he i n c l u d e Am bassador t o M a la y s ia Kai F u m ih ik o.?? th e n proposed th a t K a i go s e c r e t l y S h irah ata t o Bangkok i n l a t e t o m e e t w i t h M a l i k, who was p l a n n i n g t o go t h e r e m eetin g w ith P h ilip p in e F o re ig n S e c re ta ry in D jak arta, K u a la Lumpur w here he t a l k e d p r i v a t e l y t o Bangkok. approved i t. On A p r i l 29 i m m e d i a t e l v a f t e r On t h e recep tio n, evening o f h is M alik and r e tu r n e d Shirahata flew to t a l k e d w i t h Rahman who the Ja p an ese Kai fle w a lo n e to T hailand.?® a r r i v a l h e m e t s e c r e t l y w i t h Adam t o M a l a y s i a on May 1.? ^ B a n g k o k s o o n was d i s c o v e r e d by t h e p r e s s in itia l A f te r con w i t h Kai a b o u t t h e proposed t r i p E m p e ro r's b i r th d a y Kai t h e n for a M a r c o s Ramos w h i c h T h a i F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r T h a n a t Khoman h a d p l a n n e d. s u l t i n g w ith Ambassador S a i t o A p ril, H is t r i p and, d esp ite K a i's d e n i a l s, was c o n f i r m e d p u b l i c l y o n May 5 by D e p u t y P r e m i e r Tun R a z a k i n d e c la rin g th a t Indonesia s in c e re ly fin d e s i r e d peace w ith M alay sia. The s u c c e s s o f K a i ' s t r i p led t o a m e e t i n g b e t w e e n Adam M a l i k a n d Tun R a z a k a m o n t h l a t e r i n B angkok, a m e e tin g w hich p ro v e d t o be a d e c i s i v e step tow ard p eace. === [PDF page 245] === 242 d iffic u lt own c o n t r i b u t i o n s m entioned, forces determ ine the e x te n t o f J a p a n 's to th e peace n e g o tia tio n s. As a l r e a d y a n t i - C o m m u n i s t members o f I n d o n e s i a ' s m i l i t a r y and p a r t i c i p a n t s th e Sum atran R e b e l l i o n t a l k i n g w ith M alaysian l e a d e r s. Bangkok i n late A p ril, a l s o were Im m e d ia te ly a f t e r Kai l e f t Adam M a l i k a l s o talk ed se c re tly G hazali b in S h a f ie, Perm anent S e c r e ta r y i n M a l a y s ia 's F o reig n M inistry.® ^ The a p p a r e n t i m p o r t a n c e mal r e l a t i o n s h i p s necessary in i n i t i a t i n g F irst, some i n t e r v e n t i o n r e a l l y had been the peace n e g o tia tio n s. T his w r i t e r e l i c i t e d q u e stio n. of th ese in fo r betw een I n d o n e s i a and M a la y s ia r a i s e q u e s tio n as to w hether J a p a n 's w ith two o p i n i o n s concerning th is Adam M a l i k s t a t e d t h a t h e b e l i e v e d the p e r s o n a l and c o n f i d e n t i a l n e g o t i a t i o n s had been t h e most effectiv e in in itia l th e M alay sian i s s u e. d iscu ssio n s I f he had h e ld h i s w i t h t h e M a l a y s i a n s, news o f t h e m e n e v i t - a b ly would have b e en r e v e a l e d and m ig h t have d e s t r o y e d h i s e ffo rts. T h e r e f o r e, he c o n s id e r e d t h e J a p a n e se p r e s e n c e as h av in g been v a lu a b le.® ^ S econd, In d o n e s ia n Am bassador t o T h a i l a n d B. M. D i a h c o n c u r r e d w i t h Adam M a l i k a d d i n g t h a t h e thought Japan had been a p p ro p r ia te A fte r K a i's r e t u r n as a t h i r d party.® ® f r o m B a n g k o k on May 1, D e p u t y P r e m i e r R a z a k a n n o u n c e d on May 8 t h a t M a l a y s i a was p r e p a r e d to h o ld peace ta lk s w ith In d o n e sia "w ithout h e lp o f a th ir d p a rty." Adam M a l i k a g r e e d w i t h R a z a k, s a y i n g on May 12 t h a t I n d o n e s i a n e e d e d no t h i r d p a r t y n eg o tiatio n s J a p a n made c l e a r t o I n d o n e s i a t h a t, D uring th e s e as a === [PDF page 246] === 243 co n d itio n for receiv in g sh o u ld end th e S tates $30 m i l l i o n o f c r e d i t, co n fro n tatio n and s h o u ld r e t u r n to as soon as p o s s i b l e. have onerous as hoped. do n o t s e e m t o M a lik -R a z a k m e e tin g i n Bangkok en d ed on May 3 1, Prim e M i n i s t e r S a t o and t h e F oreign M in istry r e i t e r a t e d necessary, These c o n d i t i o n s th e U nited I n d o n e s i a as th e n e g o t i a t i o n s w ere p r o c e e d in g A fte r the su ccessfu lly Indonesia th e ir w illin g n ess Japanese to m ed iate, i f b u t n e i t h e r In d o n e s ia n o r M alay sia so u g h t t h e i r assista n ce. An A s s e s s m e n t o f J a p a n ' s Role in t h e J a p a n 's m ed iatio n ro le c o n f l i c t was t h e first In donesian-M alaysian o f a p o l i t i c a l n atu re p la y e d in p o stw a r S o u th e a s t A sia. 1963 t o the th at i t had p erio d from D uring th e 1966 J a p a n m a i n t a i n e d g o o d t e r m s w i t h b o t h p u tin g p a rtie s by p r o v i d i n g e c o n o m i c a i d. I n d o n e s i a from g o in g o v e r c o m p le te ly t o fin ally, in e a rlv n e s ia 's tru e effectiv e May 1 9 6 6, i t d esire fo r peace. because th e v en tio n p o l i t i c a l l y G reat B r i t a i n, J a p a n 's C o n fro n tatio n the h e lp ed keep C hinese s id e and, p ersu ad ed M alay sia o f Indo J a p a n 's ro le d isp u tin g p a rtie s a s m e d i a t o r was found J a p a n 's e x p e d i e n t and b e c a u s e t h e and th e the d i s U nited N a tio n s' in te r U nited S t a t e s, U Thant encouraged actio n. The J a p a n e s e b en efits from i t s a ll of it o b t a i n t h e maximum econom ic a i d t o I n d o n e s i a and from p e r s o n a l frie n d s h ip s w ith the econom ic a i d governm ent t r i e d In donesian lead ers. T h i s m e d i a t i o n cum c o s t J a p a n $124 m i l l i o n i n cred it (alth o u g h not was u s e d ); $12 m i l l i o n o f f e r e d a t th e Ikeda-Sukarno === [PDF page 247] === 244 talk s In Septem ber 1963; Sukarno t a l k s in A p ril S ubandrio t a l k s $20 m i l l i o n a t 1965; th e Kawashiraa- $15 m i l l i o n a t the S h iin a - i n May 1 9 6 5; a n o t h e r $ 3 7 m i l l i o n a t t h e K aw ashim a-Sukarno t a l k s i n August 1965; t h e S h i i n a - H a m e n g k u Buwono t a l k s o f $124 m i l l i o n, a n d $30 m i l l i o n a t i n May 1 9 6 6. From t h e t o t a l $ 7 2 m i l l i o n was p r o m i s e d d u r i n g t h e m onths fro m A p r i l t o A u g u st 1965. e x te n t of the e f f o r t s T his i l l u s t r a t e s a t m e d i a t i o n by t h e a lth o u g h they d id n o t r e s u l t five the Kawashima L obby, an im m e d ia te end t o the C o n fro n tatio n. The K a w a s h i m a L o b b y a n d t h e m i s s i o n s o f A m b a s s a d o r Kai and th e siv e f o r m e r d i p l o m a t S h i r a h a t a T o m o y o s h i made e x t e n use o f p e r s o n a l c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e The r e l a t i o n s h i p s th at S a ito, had w ith Sukarno p ro v ed im p o s sib le. to i s o la te th e e ffic a c y itse lf te n sio n s suggests S him izu!s tio n In donesian S h i m i z u, D e w i, a n d Kawashima t o be e f f e c t i v e. t h e m ost e f f i c i e n t of frien d sh ip A lthough i t in s o lv in g i n te r n a t i o n a l c o n ta c t s w ith Sukarno o r i g i n a t e d w a s made i n and S h i r a h a t a 's the postw ar p e rio d. of personal tie rep aratio n s lo b b ie s, w here betw een t h a t S a itô 's and occupa the f r i e n d s h i p w ith M alik The l a t t e r was a new k i n d w h i c h was u t i l i z e d S im ila r to tho se p a r t ic ip a n ts in th e postw ar is s u e s. in the P e a c e Lobby and t h e Kawashima a n d Kai p l a y e d r o l e s o f l o b b y i s t and d e c i s i o n - m a k e r. should not u n d erestim ate th e p o sitio n in n er p o l it i c a l c ir c le s, in I n d o n e s ia 's p e rs o n a l co n n ectio n, the m e rit o f th e d e v ic e. p e rio d, but K a i's lead ers. im p o rtan ce t o some One J a p a n o f D e w i's p articu larly === [PDF page 248] === 245 the tim e t h a t S u k a rn o 's C h i n a was r u m o r e d t o b e c u l t i v a t i n g second w ife. H a r tin i. I t was w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t in Japanese d ip lo m atic h is to r y t h a t a J a p a n e s e woman h a d a c te d as what j o u r n a l i s t s c a lle d a "spearhead of Japanese d ip lo m a cy." The s t y l e A sian c o n f l i c t o f J a p a n 's stan ce ro le was t o m o d e r a t e Ik e d a 's o f f e r o f $12 m i l l i o n K a w a s h i m a ' s o f f e r o f $72 m i l l i o n i n to p lacate Sukarno. end i t s as J a p a n 's in creases ardy, i t dependence up c r e d i t and c r e d i t w e r e made p r i m cred it on t h e K o n fro n tasl. th is p r e t e d as a form o f e co n o m ic p r e s s u r e. th at Under Ik e d a H o w e v e r, i n May 1 9 6 6 wh en S a t o made a n o f f e r o f $30 m i l l i o n Indonesia s w iftly co n d itio n th a t c o u l d be i n t e r T h i s may s u g g e s t econom ic in v o lv e m e n t i n S o u t h e a s t a n d wh en i t S outheast I n d o n e s ia 's m i l i to w ard M a la y s ia and to red u c e i t s on P e k i n g. a rily in th e s h i f t e d b e t w e e n 1965 a n d 1 9 6 6. and Kawashima, J a p a n ' s tan t in te rv e n tio n finds its econom ic i n t e r e s t s A sia in jeo p - may make f u r t h e r u s e o f e c o n o m i c s u a s i o n a s a m e a n s of in flu e n ce, J a p a n 's d ecisiv e. th at i t Its ro le i n e n d i n g t h e K o n f r o n t a s l was n o t in te rn a tio n a l sig n ific an c e m arks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J a p a n ' s S o u th e a s t A sian a f f a i r s. sio n of its concern ov er th e Japan in d ic a te d peace its o b serv atio n lie s in th e fact p o l i t i c a l in v o lv em en t T h i s was f o l l o w e d b y a n e x p r e s c o n f l i c t i n V i e t Nam. w illin g n ess t o s e r v e on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l team f o r I n d o c h i n a, a tte n d e d th e D ja k a r ta C onference I n 1968 a n d i n May 1 9 7 0 i t on C a m b o d i a. In th is last === [PDF page 249] === 246 co n fe ren ce, th e th ree A slan n a t i o n s K o n fro n tasi— Ind on esia, M alay sia, were s e l e c t e d as a m e d ia tio n flic t. In v o lv e d In and Ja p a n — i r o n i c a l l y team f o r t h e V ietn am ese con Not o n ly had J a p a n a g a i n e n t e r e d t h e In d o n esia, a peace-m aker. now h a d sh o w n i t s in te rests p o l i t i c a l scene i n s e r v in g as === [PDF page 250] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER VI ^ S e e t h e j o i n t communique b e t w e e n P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r Home i s s u e d o n F e b r u a r y 1 3, 1 9 6 4. The communique r e a d s i n p a r t: "The P r im e M i n i s t e r r e e m p h a s i z e d t h e U n i t e d K in g d o m s u p p o r t f o r U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y i n S o u th V ietnam. The P r e s i d e n t r e a f f i r m e d t h e s u p p o r t o f th e U n ited S t a t e s f o r th e p e a c e fu l n a ti o n a l independence ' o f M alay sia.... " See P e t e r B o y ce, e d., M a l a y s ia a n d S in g a p o re i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D iplom acy: D ocum ents and C om m entaries (Sydney: Sydney U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 6 8 ), p. 162. M ajor o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s and s c h o l a r l y w orks on th e C o n fro n tatio n in clu d e: In d o n esia, In fo rm atio n M in istry, G e l o r a K o n f r o n t a s i M engganjang " M a l a y s i a, " ( D j a k a r t a: Info rm a tio n M in is tr y, 1964); In d o n e s ia, F o re ig n M in is try, Kumpulan Bahan2 M engenai M a s a la h " M a l a y s i a " (2 4 v o l s.; m im eographed, 1 9 d 3 -6 c ); M a la y s ia, M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s, I n d o n e s i a n A g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t M a l a y s i a (2 v o l s.; K u a la Lumpur: G o v ern m en t P r i n t e r, 1 9 6 4 ); M a l a y s i a, M i n i s t r y o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i ty, In d o n e s ia n I n t e n t i o n s tow ards M a l a y s i a ( K u a l a L u m p ur: G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t e r, 1 9 6 4 ); P e t e r B o y c e, e 3. ( s e e n. 1 ); J. M. G u l l i c k, M a l a y s i a a n d I t s N e i g h b o u r s (New Y o r k: B a r n e s & N o b l e, I n c., l 9 6 7 ); D o n a l d k in d le y, " I n d o n e s ia 's C o n fro n ta tio n w ith M alay sia: S earch f o r M o t i v e s, " A s i a n S u r v e y, IV ( J u n e, 1 9 6 4 ), 9 0 4 - 1 3; G e o r g e M. K a h i n l " M a l a y s i a a n d I n d o n e s i a, " P a c i f i c A f f a i r s, XXXVII ( F a l l, 1 9 6 4 ), 2 5 3 - 7 0; J o h n 0. S u t t e r, "Two F a c e s o f K o n f r o n t a s i; ' C rush M a la y s ia ' and th e G e s ta p u, " A sian S u r v e y, VI ( O c t o b e r, 1 9 6 6 ), 5 2 3 - 4 6; a n d F r a n k B. W e i n s t e i n, I n d o n e s i a A b a n d o n s C o n f r o n t a t i o n ( I t h a c a, N. Y.: C o r n e l l M odern I n d o n e s i a P r o j e c t, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y, 1 9 6 9 ). ®In r e a l i t y, M a l a y s i a s e v e r e d d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n sh ip s w ith th e P h ilip p in e s as w e ll, over t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s on N o r t h B orneo o r S a b a h. M e d ia tin g e f f o r t s were t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t e d tow ard th e t h r e e c o u n t r i e s. A nonym ous J a p a n e s e E m b a s s y O f f i c i a l, v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, November, 1 9 70. ®A s a h i S h i n b u n, May 2 5, in te r 1963. ^A sahi S h in b u n, Ju n e 1, 1963. S u k a rn o ’ s term s t a n d s f o r M alaya, and In d o n e s ia. J a p a n e s e Embassy o f f i c i a l, 247 p riv ate th e P h ilip p in e s, in terv iew. === [PDF page 251] === 248 I k e d a was s c h e d u l e d t o v i s i t M a n ila on S e p tem b er 2 3 - 2 6, D j a k a r t a on S e p t e m b e r 2 6 - 2 8, C a n b e r r a on S e p te m b e r 2 9 - O c to b e r 3, and W e l l i n g t o n on O c to b e r 5 - 5. He f o l l o w e d t h i s schedule. S e e J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Waga g a i k o n o k ln k y o, no. 8 (1 9 6 4 ), pp. 94-95, 98-99. ^^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 19, ^ ^ I t o M asaya, S h is e id o, 1966), p. Ikeda H ayato, 158. 1963. sono s e i t o ^^A sah i S h in b u n, Septem ber 23, 1963. ^^A sah i S h in b u n, S eptem ber 23, 1963. shi (Tokyo: ^^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 25, 1963. 15 J a p a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Gaim usho P r e s s R e l e a s e s 1963, p. 69. ^^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 28, 1963. 17 A s a h i S h in b u n, S e p tem b er 28, 1963; and I t o M asaya, 205. Gaimusho P r e s s R e l e a s e s 1 9 6 3, p. 7 0. l ^ Ib id., p. 72. 20 G i l c h r i s t s t a t e d t h a t i t was a n i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g i n i t i a t e d by t h e J a p a n e s e Embassy a s a " f r i e n d l y g e s t u r e. " J o n e s rem in d ed t h e p r e s s t h a t t h e v i s i t was a c o u r t e s y c a l l and t h a t he and Ik ed a had been f r i e n d s s in c e th e tim e I k e d a was M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e (1 9 4 9 -1 9 5 3 a n d 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 5 7 ). See A s a h i S h in b u n, S ep tem b er 28, 1963. T he U n i t e d S t a t e s s u s p e n d e d a new a i d t o I n d o n e s i a o n S e p t e m b e r 2 4, 1 9 6 3. See A sah i S h in b u n, S eptem ber 24, 1963. 21K e n n e d y s t a y e d i n T o k yo f o r t h r e e d a y s b e g i n n i n g on Ja n u a ry 16. On J a n u a r y 1 7 h e m e t w i t h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r O h ira, P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o, and Prim e M i n i s t e r Ik e d a, and on J a n u a r y 18 a g a i n w i t h S u k a r n o. He t h e n v i s i t e d M a n i l a, K u a l a Lumpur, a n d D j a k a r t a. 22 23 24 A sahi S h in b u n, J a n u a r y 16, 1964. J a p a n e s e Embassy o f f i c i a l, in terv ie w. Kennedy m et w i t h S u k a rn o i n D j a k a r t a on J a n u a r y 22. The l a t t e r a g r e e d t o a c e a s e f i r e o n t h e K a l i m a n t a n M alaysian b o r d e r. The c e a s e f i r e d i d n o t l a s t l o n g. === [PDF page 252] === 249 25 On F e b r u a r y 10 a n d 11 Rahman a n d M a c a p a g a l m e t a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s o f S a b a h i n Phnom P e n g u n d er th e a u s p ic e s o f P rin c e S ih an o u k. Thai F oreign M i n i s t e r T h a n a t Khoman a r r a n g e d f o r t h e t w o M a p h i l i n d o f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s ’ m e e t i n g s i n Bangkok on F e b r u a r y 5 - 1 0 an d M arch 3 - 5. These m e e tin g s b o r e no r e s u l t s. ^ ^A sah i Shinbun, June 21, 1964. A sahi Shinbun, June 21, 1964. A sahi S hinbun, June 22, 1964. ^Asahi S h i n b u n, J u n e 2 1, 1964. 28 ^^O mori M inoru, S u k aru n o s a i g o no s h i n s o Shincho S h a, 1 9 6 7 ), p. 112. (Tokyo: ^^The o n ly s u p p o r t Sukarno r e c e i v e d f o r d e c i s i o n was fro m Com munist C h in a w h ic h a p p r o v e d S u k a r n o ' s p r o p o s a l to r e p la c e th e " c a p i t a l i s t - i m p e r i a l i s t " U nited N atio n s w ith a new w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f "new e m e r g i n g f o r c e s. " ^^A sahi S hinbun, Ja n u a ry 11, 1965. 33O m ori, p. 112; and A s a h i S h in b u n, Ja n u a ry 15, 1965. ^^A sahi S hinbun, Ja n u a ry 14, 1965. 35 O g a s a a l s o w a s a m em ber o f t h e L i b e r a l - D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y ’ s Kô yü C l u b h e a d e d b y K a w a s h i m a a n d a s a f r i e n d o f Sukarno had v i s i t e d In d o n e s ia a number o f t im e s. ^^A sah i S h inbun, Ja n u a ry 27, 1965. ^^ A n ta ra, F eb ru ary 14, 1965. R e p o rte d ly T h ailan d, Cam bodia, A l g e r i a, P a k i s t a n, an d J a p a n w e re m e n tio n e d a s p o s s i b l e members o f t h e c o m m i tt e e. See A n ta ra, F e b ru a ry 1 6, 1965. ^^ A n ta ra, F eb ru ary 14, 1965. ^ ^ A n ta r a, J a n u a ry 29, 1965. ^^A sahi S hinbun, F eb ru ary 14, 1965. ^ ^ ^ t a r a, M arch 2 6, 1 9 6 5. The j o i n t f i r m i s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e O i l R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t C o m pany, M a r u z e n O i l, N i p p o n M i n i n g, K a n s a i E l e c t r i c P o w e r, NOSODECO, a n d t h e I n d o n e s i a n S t a t e O i l Com pany, PERMINA. The f i r m w a s e s t a b l i s h e d o n May 1 4, 1 9 6 5. S e e A n t a r a, May 1 4, 1 9 6 5. === [PDF page 253] === 250 42 A sah i S h in b u n, F e b ru a ry 8, 1963. 43 S h im izu H i t o s h i, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e J a p a n e s e I n d o n e s i a n C u l t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n an d S u k a r n o 's l o n g - ti m e f r i e n d, w a s a l s o p r e s e n t a t t h e m e e t i n g o f May 2 4, 1 9 6 3, i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r m u tu a l r e l a t i o n s h i p. See I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, R e s e a r c h B u re a u, Hubungan I n d o n e s ia d e n g a n N e g a r a - N e g a r a 1 9 6 3 ( m i m e o g r a p h e d, 1 9 6 4 [ 2 J), p. 1 3. N e v e rth e le s s in p u b lic, In d o n e s ia fo llo w e d a d e f i a n t p o l i c y a g a i n s t t h e IOC a n d s p o n s o r e d a h u g e Game f o r New E m e r g i n g F o r c e s (GANEFO) i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 3, t o w h i c h Com m u n i s t C h in a was i n v i t e d. K a w a s h im a a n d t h e T o k y o O l y m p ic C o m m i t t e e l e a d e r s m e t o n May 3 0, 1 9 6 3 w i t h t h e v i s i t i n g S uk arn o p a r t y r e p r e s e n te d by S p o r ts M in is te r M a la d i, F i r s t D e p u ty P r e m ie r L eim e n a, B a s i c I n d u s t r i e s M i n i s t e r S a l e h, S t a t e S e c r e t a r y I k u s a n, J o g j a k a r t a G o v e r n o r H am engku Buwono IX, A m b a s s a d o r B a m b a n g S u g e n g a s w e l l a s t h e P re s id e n t. S e e A s a h i S h i n b u n. May 3 0, 1 9 6 3. 44 " N e a g a r i m a c h i g a i n a s h i n o D e v i f u j i n no ' Kawa s h i m a S h o j i r o k a i s o r o k u ' " S h u k a n P o s u t o, N o v e m b er 2 7, 1 9 7 0, p. 48. 45 O b a t a S h i n ' i c h i, S e i k a i i s s u n s a k i wa y a m i ( T o k y o: K5ho S h a, 1 9 7 2 ), p p. 2 0 2, 2 0 6; a n d N i h o n K e i z a i S h i n b u n, May 2, 1 9 6 4. ^ ^ T h e Kôyü C l u b, f o r m e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 2, h a d som e 25 m e m b e r s. The f o u r s e l e c t e d t o go t o I n d o n e s i a i n A p r i l 1964 w e re: O gasa K osho, A r a f u n e S e i j ü r ô, S h in o d a K o sa k u, and T e ra jim a _ R y u ta ro. S e e K o b a t a, p p. 5 1 - 5 5; a n d Kawa s h i m a S h o j i r o M e m o irs C o m m i t t e e, e d., K a w a sh im a S h o j i r o (T okyo: Koyü K u r a b u, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 3 7 8. 47 S h im izu H i t o s h i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n T okyo, A p r i l 25, 1972. The I n d o n e s i a - J a p a n F r i e n d s h i p S o c i e t y w as a n o f f i c i a l l y a c c r e d i t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n w hose c o m p a ra b le o r g a n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n was t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n h e a d e d b y K a jim a M o rin o s u k e, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e K a jim a C o n s t r u c t i o n C o m p an y. 48 M ogi M a s a, " T o n a n A j i a n o m u n a z o k o, " A s a h i J a n a r u, A p ril 4, 1965, p. 13. 49 F u jiw a ra H i r o t a ts u,, H adaka no D evi f u j i n ( T o k y o: Y agum oi S h o i n, 1 9 7 0 ), p. 8 2. ^ ^ M a s u d a A t a u, I n d o n e s h i a g e n d a i s h i ( T o k y o: C hüô K o r o n S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 16B1 51 T he T a n g g e r a n g s c h o o l, c a l l e d S e i n e n D o jo ( y o u t h t r a i n i n g c e n t e r ), t r a i n e d som e f i f t y I n d o n e s i a n y o u t h s, who l a t e r b e c a m e l e a d e r s o f t h e PETA ( P e m b e l a T a n a r === [PDF page 254] === 251 A ir. F a th e rla n d D efen se) e s ta b lis h e d in 1944. Y a n ag a w a i s a g r a d u a t e o f t h e J a p a n e s e Army i n t e l l i g e n c e s c h o o l, p o p u l a r l y c a l l e d t h e "N akano S c h o o l" d ue t o i t s l o c a t i o n i n N a k a n o o u t s i d e o f T o k y o. _ S e e Y a n ag a w a M u n e t o s h i, R ik u g u n c h o h o in Y anagaw a c h u i (T o k y o; S a n k e i S h in b u n Sha, 1 9 5 7 ), p p. 8 4 - 9 0; a n d H a ta k e y a m a S e i k o, H i r o k u R i k u s u n N a k a n o G akko ( T o k y o: B ancho Shobo, 1 9 7 1 ), p p. 1 7 9 -9 3. 52 A s a h i S h i n b u n, N o v e m b er 2, 1 9 6 3. 53 " Y a n a g a w a, B a p a k PETA" ( 3 ), B e r i t a Y u d h a. G o t o -. b e r 15, 1970. ----------------------54 Body t o BPS s t a n d s f o r B a d a n P e n d u k u n g S u k a r n o i s m e ( t h e s u p p o rt S u k a rn o ism ). 55 H a y a s h i R i s u k e, U r o t a e r u n a, N ih o n (T o k y o; J i t s u g y o no N ih o n S h a, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 72. 56 K a w a s h im a h a d a n o t h e r d i p l o m a t i c c o n c e r n d u r i n g h i s v i s i t t o D j a k a r t a, w h i c h w as t o s e t u p som e k i n d o f p r e l i m i n a r y m e e t i n g w i t h P r e m i e r Chou E n - l a i o f t h e P e o n l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a, who w a s t o h e a d t h e C h i n e s e d e l e g a t i o n t o th e cerem ony. T he tw o l e a d e r s m e t o n A p r i l 1 9, 1 9 6 5 th r o u g h S u k a r n o 's i n t r o d u c t i o n and a g r e e d t o h o ld r e g u l a r m e e tin g s a t th e m i n i s t e r i a l l e v e l. T h is w as t h e f i r s t m e e t i n g w i t h C hou E n - l a i f o r a h i g h - r a n k i n g J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m ent o f f i c i a l s i n c e S t a t e M i n i s t e r T a k a s a k i T a ts u n o s u k e had m e t w i t h h im a t t h e A f r o - A s i a n B a n d u n g C o n f e r e n c e i n A p r i l 1955. S e e K a w a s h im a M e m o irs C o m m i t t e e, p p. 3 9 9 - 4 0 3. 57 S in c e th e A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e in 1955, In d o n e s ia o c c a s io n a lly had p ro p o sed a second c o n fe re n c e. They t o o k a m o re e x p l i c i t i n i t i a t i v e i n e a r l y 1 9 6 1 a n d t h e N o n A lig n e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e i n B e lg r a d e i n S e p te m b e r 1961 d isc u sse d th e m a tte r. H o w e v e r, d u e t o t h e l a c k o f i n t e r e s t o n t h e p a r t o f m any n a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d, t h e c o n f e r e n c e w as p o stp o n e d i n d e f i n i t e l y. I n d o n e s i a 's c o n tin u e d e f f o r t s n e v e r t h e l e s s m ade p o s s i b l e t h e h o l d i n g o f a p r e p a r a t o r y m e e tin g a t t h e m i n i s t e r i a l l e v e l w h ic h w as g e a r e d to w a rd a s u m m it c o n f e r e n c e. Y e t a g a i n t h i s s u m m it c o n f e r e n c e w as p o s t p o n e d w hen t h e S i n o - I n d i a n b o r d e r i n c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d th a t y ear. I t w as o n ly i n A p r i l 1964 t h a t tw e n ty -tw o A fro A sia n c o u n t r i e s g a th e r e d i n D ja k a r ta f o r a n o th e r p r e p a r a t o r y c o n fe re n c e and d e c id e d to h o ld th e seco n d A fro -A s ia n con f e r e n c e i n A f r i c a b e g i n n i n g on M a rc h 1 0, 1 9 6 5. L a te r th e d a t e w as p o s t p o n e d u n t i l J u n e 1 9 6 5. ^^ A n ta ra, A p ril 23, ^ ^ A n t a r a, May 2, 29, ^^A n ta ra, 1965. 1965. 1965. A p ril 28, 1965; and A sa h i S h in b u n, A p ril === [PDF page 255] === 252 ^ ^A n o n y m o u s h i g h - r a n k i n g U n i t e d S t a t e s E m b a s s y o f f i c i a l, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w in D j a k a r t a, D ecem ber 1 9 7 1. A n t a r a, May 3, 63 1965. A sahi S h in b u n, Ju n e 28, 1965. ^ ^ T h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t a l s o s e n t K im u ra T a k e o t o M a l a y s i a ' s I n d e p e n d e n c e Day c e l e b r a t i o n o n A u g u s t 3 1. K i m u r a, a c o n s e r v a t i v e m em ber o f t h e L i b e r a l - D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y, em erged a s an i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e i n t h e I n d o n e s i a. lo b b y a f t e r th e G e stap u A f f a i r. 65 A sah i S h in b u n, Ju n e 24, 1965. ^^T he c o n f e r e n c e o r i g i n a l l y w as p r o p o s e d i n J u l y 1 9 6 5 i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' r e q u e s t f o r T ok yo and W a sh in g to n t o j o i n e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t S o u th e a s t A s i a 's e co n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. The r e q u e s t cam e a f t e r P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n m ade a s p e e c h i n B a l t i m o r e i n A p r i l 1 9 6 5, i n w h i c h he p ro p o sed S i b i l l i o n in a id to th e re g io n. A ll th e S o u t h e a s t A s i a n n a t i o n s b u t B u rm a, C a m b o d ia, a n d I n d o n e s i a i n i t i a l l y resp o n d ed p o s i t i v e l y to th e Ja p a n e se p r o p o s a l. See A sah i n en k an 1 9 6 6, p. 318; and J a p a n, F o re ig n M i n i s t r y, G a im u s h o n o h y a k u n e n "(2 v o l s.; T o k y o: H ara sh o b o, 1 9 6 9 ), I I, 1139. A sahi S h in b u n, A ugust 24, 1965. ^ ^A sahi S h in b u n, A ugust 24, 1965. 69 D u rin g t h e m a jo r p a r t o f t h e C o n f r o n t a t io n p e r i o d from S e p te m b e r 1963 t o S e p te m b e r 1965, t h e U n ite d S ta te s suspended a l l a id to In d o n e s ia. On S e p t e m b e r 2 4, 1963 f o llo w in g I n d o n e s i a 's d e m o n s tr a tio n s a g a i n s t t h e f o r m a tio n o f M a la y sia, th e U n ite d S t a te s r e f u s e d to c o n s id e r a n y new a p p r o p r i a t i o n s t o I n d o n e s i a. On N o v e m b e r 2 1, 1 9 6 3 i t h a l t e d i t s a n n u a l m i l i t a r y a i d o f $ 1 5 m i l l i o n a n d, on A u g u st 1 3, 1964 th e S e n a te a d o p te d a r e s o l u t i o n p r o h i b i t i n g any a id a t a l l to In d o n e sia. 70 T h is p e r io d i s d e s c r ib e d w e ll in F ran k W e in s te in, I n d o n e s i a A b a n d o n s C o n f r o n t a t i o n ( I t h a c a, N. Y.: M o d e rn In d o n e s ia P r o je c t, C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity, 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 4 3 -5 7. T he a u t h o r t o o m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t o e n d t h e c o n f r o n ta tio n d id n o t b e g in u n t i l A p ril 30, 1966. H ow ever he g iv e s v i r t u a l l y no r e f e r e n c e to th e J a p a n e s e r o l e. 71 A l i M u r t o p o w as a c o n f i d a n t o f G e n e r a l S u h a r t o a n d h a d f l o w n s e c r e t l y t o K u a l a L um p ur i n A u g u s t 1 9 6 5, b e f o r e th e G e sta p u A f f a i r t o d i s c u s s a p e a c e s e t tl e m e n t. Many a n t i - C o m m u n i s t PRRI m e m b e rs h a d l i v e d i n K u a l a L um pur a f t e r t h e i r S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n f a i l e d a n d h a d m ade c o n t a c t s w i t h === [PDF page 256] === 253 o t h e r a n t i - C o m m u n i s t I n d o n e s i a n Army l e a d e r s a s w e l l a s M a la y s ia n l e a d e r s. Z u l k i f l i L u b is, p r i v a t e in te r v ie w i n D ja k a rta, J u ly 27, 1971; and W e in ste in, p. 54. 72 S h i r a h a t a f i r s t becam e in v o lv e d i n t h e M a la y s ia n c o n f l i c t i n A u g u s t 1 9 6 5 a s a m em ber o f K im u ra T a k e o ' s d e l e g a t i o n t o M a l a y s i a ' s I n d e p e n d e n c e Day c e l e b r a t i o n. now i s t h e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e d i c a l F o u n d a tio n o f Ja p a n. May 9, '^^A n t a r a. A u g u s t 3 1, 1 9 6 5. 74 S h i r a h a t a T o m o y o s h i, p r i v a t e 1972. 75 S h ira h a ta, in te rv ie w. A n ta ra, A p ril 6, in te rv ie w i n Tokyo, 1966. 77 A m bassador K ai w as a v e r y c l o s e f r i e n d o f Tunku R ahm an, a n d h i s a f f e c t i o n f o r M a l a y s i a w a s s u c h t h a t h e h a d b e e n g iv e n t h e t i t l e o f r e s p e c t, " D a to," r a r e l y b e sto w e d upon fo r e ig n e rs. A c c o r d in g t o a n E m bassy o f f i c i a l i n K u a la L u m p u r, Rahm an h a d g o n e t o T o k y o i n 1 9 6 3 a n d 1 9 6 4 t o m e e t w ith S u k arn o, m o s tly o u t o f h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith K a i. A nonym ous h i g h - r a n k i n g J a p a n e s e E m b a s s y o f f i c i a l, p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n i n K u a l a L u m p u r, J u l y 1 9 6 7. K a i a n d Adam M a l i k a l s o h a d know n e a c h o t h e r w h e n K a i w a s J a p a n ' s C o n s u l G e n e ra l i n D ja k a r ta fro m 1952 t o 1953. F o r th e m a jo r p a r t o f t h i s p e r i o d, S h i r a h a t a s e r v e d a s C onsul u n d e r K a i. 78 A m b a s s a d o r t o T h a i l a n d B. M. D i a h, p r i v a t e i n t e r v ie w i n D j a k a r t a, J a n u a r y 11, 1972. ^ ^ S t r a i t s T i m e s, May 3. 1 9 6 6. A n t a r a, May 4 a n d 5, 1 9 6 6; S t r a i t s T i m e s, May 5, 1 9 6 6; a n d A s a h i S h i n b u n, May 5, 1 9 6 6. 81 A n t a r a, May 3 0, 1 9 6 6. Q u o te d i n W e i n s t e i n, p. 5 4, n. 176. Adam M a l i k, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, F e b r u a ry 24, 1972. ®^B. M. D i a h, ^^ S tra its in te rv ie w. T i m e s, May 9, 1966. ^ ^ T he M a la y M a i l, May 1 3, 1 9 6 6. ®^0n J u n e 3 t h e r e w a s a m e e t i n g am ong A m b a s s a d o r s i n t h e r e g i o n, n a m e ly, S a i t o S h iz u o ( D j a k a r t a ), K ai F u m ih ik o === [PDF page 257] === 254 (K u a la L u m p u r), K asu y a T ak ao (B a n g k o k ), T a k e u c h i H arum i ( M a n i l a ), U ed a T s u n e m i t s u ( S i n g a p o r e ), a n d V i c e - M i n i s t e r S h im o d a T a k e z o, a n d C o u n s e l o r U s h i b a N o b u h i k o. On J u n e 6 P rim e M i n i s t e r S a t ô c o n s u l t e d w i t h S a i t o, K a i, S h im o d a, Ogawa ( D i r e c t o r o f t h e A s i a n A f f a i r s B u r e a u ) a s w e l l a s w ith F o re ig n M in is te r S h iin a. T h e s e tw o m e e t i n g s c o n f i r m e d t h e J a p a n e s e p o s i t i o n t h a t i t w o u ld o f f e r m e d i a t i o n i f re q u e ste d. See A sa h i S h in b u n, Ju n e 4 and 6, 1 9 6 6. === [PDF page 258] === CHAPTER V II THE "SUKARNO GROUPS" IN JAPANESEINDONESIAN RELATIONS, 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 6 The p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y b e h in d S uk arn o a g a i n s t th e O u te r I s l a n d r e b e l s m ade u p t h e "p ro -S u k arn o g ro u p s," s im p ly th e " S u k a rn o is ts." tie s "S u k arn o g ro u p s" o f th e In d o n e sia n r e l a ti o n s. a c tiv itie s th e "S ukarno g r o u p s," T h is c h a p t e r t r e a t s th e a c tiv i in th e a re a of Ja p an e se c o n fin e d to i n and to w a rd J a p a n. d isc u sse d h ere a re th e o f f i c i a l s th e S u k a rn o is ts ' Among t h e S u k a r n o i s t s o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m bassy In d o n e s ia n S tu d e n ts A s s o c ia tio n (P P I) A tte n tio n in 1958 i n Tokyo a n d i n D j a k a r t a i n p r o m o tin g S u k a r n o - i s t p o lic ie s and th e f o r c e s w h ic h r a l l i e d g iv e n a ls o t h e W est I r i a n i n Tokyo. issu e and to th e K o n f r o n t a s i a g a i n s t M a l a y s i a i n w h i c h t h e I n d o n e s i a n Em b a s s y a n d t h e P P I w o r k e d w i t h t h e PNI a n d PKI i n D j a k a r t a and th e Japan S o c i a l i s t P a rty P a rty (JC P ), th e r u lin g ( J S P ), t h e J a p a n C o m m u n is t L ib e ra l-D e m o c ra tic P a r ty a n d t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s ia A s s o c ia t io n i n Tokyo. a ls o e x a m in e s t h e r o l e T he c h a p t e r o f D ew i a s a s u p p o r t e r o f S u k a r n o d u r in g h i s p r e s id e n c y and d u rin g th e p o s t-G e s ta p u c o n fu sio n. T h is s tu d y i l l u s t r a t e s th e r i s e and f a l l o f th e S ukarno g ro u p i n th e c o n te x t o f b i - n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s. 255 === [PDF page 259] === 256 a p reface, a b r ie f p ic tu re t h e S u karno l e a d e r s h i p o f th e scope and c h a r a c t e r o f i s p ro v id e d. The M e an in g o f t h e T he l e g a l b a s i s "S ukarno G ro u p s" f o r S u k a r n o 's p o w e r, e x p ressed as "G u id ed D e m o c ra c y," w as t h e 1945 c o n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h h e r e a c tiv a te d in h is m o re p o l i t i c a l tio n had. Ju ly 5, stre n g th 1 9 5 9 d e c r e e a n d w h i c h g a v e h im th a n t h e 1950 p r o v i s i o n a l c o n s t i t u P r e s i d e n t S ukarno th e n s u rro u n d e d h i m s e l f w ith a h o s t o f i d e o l o g i c a l s l o g a n s know n b y t h e i r a c r o n j o n s, w h i c h c o lle c tiv e ly s p e l l e d o u t S u k a rn o ism. D ay s p e e c h o f A u g u s t 1 9 5 9, In h i s In d ep en d en ce S ukarno a d o p te d a sy s te m c a l l e d NASAKOM i n w h i c h t h e t h r e e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s, N a tio n a lists, t h e C o m m u n ists, and r e l i g i o u s u n d e r h i s g u id a n c e c o u ld p a r t i c i p a t e d e c isio n -m a k in g p r o c e s s. o f R e p re se n ta tiv e s th e fo llo w e rs, in th e n a tio n a l He d i s s o l v e d t h e e l e c t e d H o u s e (DPR) a n d t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y, r e p l a c i n g th e m w i t h a p p o i n t i v e b o d i e s, ( M u tu al A s s i s t a n c e ) th e G o to n g -R o jo n g H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s (DPR-GR) a n d t h e P r o v i s i o n a l P e o p l e ' s C o n s u l t a t i v e A s s e m b l y (M PRS), re s p e c tiv e ly. K e e p i n g th e m w e a k, S u karn o t h e n in tr o d u c e d a n ew q u a s i - l e g i s l a t i v e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l a n d i t s t h e S u p re m e A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l, su ccesso r, i n w h ic h p o l i t i c a l p a r t y m em b ers a s w e l l a s r e g i o n a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e a p p o i n t e d t o m ake r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o th e P re s id e n t and h i s c a b i n e t. th e T h is p r o c e s s he c a l l e d " s p irit of === [PDF page 260] === 257 n a t i o n a l m ushaw arah (m u tu a l c o n s u l t a t i o n ), " a te rm w h ic h s t i l l p o p u l a r am ong t h e p o s t - S u k a m o l e a d e r s. H is s p e e c h o f A u g u st 1959 w as c o n s i d e r e d a s t a t e m ent o f I n d o n e s i a 's M a n ife sto ). sta te i d e o l o g y c a l l e d MANIPOL ( P o l i t i c a l MANIPOL l a t e r w a s d e s c r i b e d a s f i v e p i l l a r s s y m b o l i z e d b y a n o t h e r a c r o n y m, USDEK, f r o m t h e 1 9 4 5 c o n stitu tio n th e In d o n e sia n s t y l e G u id ed D em o cracy (D ), sia n p e rs o n a lity o f so c ia lism G u i d e d E cono m y ( E ), th u s and th e In d o n e The G u i d e d D e m o c r a c y, NASAKOM, MANIPOL, USDEK, p l u s S u k a r n o ' s l o n g - t i m e S ila s l o g a n o f P a n t.ja serv ed as h is id e o lo g ic a l b u ttr e s s e s.^ to d isse m in a te th e s e c o n c e p ts, In o rd er S u karno o r g a n iz e d in A u g u st i 960 a n d a l s o h e a d e d a n a t i o n - w i d e m ass o r g a n i z a t i o n c a lle d th e N a tio n a l F ro n t. In th e e n su in g y e a r s, S u k a rn o ism was e x p r e s s e d i n a d d i t i o n a l acro n y m s su c h a s s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t NEKOLIM ( n e o c o l o n i a l i s m ) a n d s u p p o r t o f t h e GANEFO (G am es o f t h e New E m e r g in g F o r c e s ) i n 1 9 6 3 a n d t h e CONEFO ( C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e New E m e r g i n g F o r c e s ) p l a n n e d f o r I 9 6 6. G iv e n i n c r e a s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p o w e r, S u karno b o l s t e r e d h i s p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e b y tw o o t h e r m e a n s; p l a c i n g h i s m en i n m a j o r g o v e r n m e n t p o s i t i o n s a n d b y h a v i n g h i s men t a p f i n a n c i a l s o u r c e s t o c o n d u c ts and p r o j e c t s. th e p o l i t i c a l sy ste m B o th m e a s u r e s h e l p e d t o s u p p o r t i n g h im. move may h a v e b e e n t o a p p o i n t h i s Suband r i o and S a le h, su p p o rt h is p o litic a l so lid ify H is m ost im p o r ta n t tw o r i g h t - h a n d m en. a s h i s d e p u ty p rim e m i n i s t e r s in I9 6 0 and 1 9 6 3, r e s p e c t i v e l y. S u b a n d r i o, who b e c a m e F o r e i g n === [PDF page 261] === 258 i n 195 7, was a m a jo r a r c h i t e c t o f I n d o n e s ia n f o r e i g n p o lic y and so u g h t pow er beyond th e F o re ig n M in is tr y by s e t t i n g up t h e C e n tr a l I n t e l l i g e n c e B o ard, I n te lid.ie n ), in I9 6 0. BPI ( B adan He a l s o w a s a p p o i n t e d a s a d e p u t y c o m m a n d e r o f t h e S u p r e m e O p e r a t i o n s Command, KOTI ( Kommand O p e r a s i T e r t i n g g i ). w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d a s a k i n d o f P^^v^be c a b in e t f o r S uk arn o, and a ls o a s a d e p u t y commsinder o f t h e S u p re m e E c o n o m ic O p e r a t i o n s Command, KOTOE (Kommand T e r t i n g g i O p e r a s i E k o n o m i). F o re ig n M in is te r b u t a ls o Thus he s e r v e d n o t o n ly a s d ire c te d e co n o m ic r e l a t i o n s an d i n t e l l i g e n c e h e ld v a rio u s c a b in e t p o s ts, I n d o n e s i a 's f o r e ig n a c tiv itie s. S a le h s e r v in g a s M in is te r o f B a sic I n d u s t r i e s a f t e r F e b r u a r y I 9 6 0 a n d i n N ovem ber 1963 w as g iv e n th e a d d itio n a l p o s i t io n o f C o o rd in a tin g M in is te r o f t h e D e v e lo p m e n t C o m p artm en t w h ic h s u p e r v i s e d s e v e n m i n i s trie s. S a l e h w as a l s o C h a i r m a n o f t h e P r o v i s i o n a l P e o p l e ' s C o n s u l t a t i v e A sse m b ly, s a t on t h e N a tio n a l D e fe n se C o u n c il, I s t e r headed th e N a tio n a l F ro n t. a u to b io g ra p h y: a triu m v ira te L e im e n a, h its, S u karno s t a t e d " I m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r n e a t h me i s o f t h e D e p u ty P rim e M i n i s t e r s and S a le h. T h e y a r e my a s s i s t a n t s. I f i r s t c a l l th e p re s id iu m th e p re s id iu m, S u b a n d rio, V/hen t r o u b l e f o r t h e i r c o m m e n ts. S uk arn o a p p e a rs t o h av e s o l i c i t e d p r i v a t e tio n s fro m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s out h is in h is c o n trib u o f s o c ie ty in o rd er to c a rry In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n. He g a i n e d t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t i o n know n a s t h e N a t i o n a l P r i v a t e E n t e r p r i s e s C o u n c il. BAMUNAS ( B a d a n M u s ja w a r a h === [PDF page 262] === 259 P e n g u s a h a N a s i o n a l S w a s t a ), w h ic h w as e s t a b l i s h e d F e b ru a ry 1964 th r o u g h S u k a r n o 's i n s t r u c t i o n and w as h e a d e d b y R. M N o to h a m ip ro d jo, a PN I l e a d e r, M in is te r o f F in a n c e b e tw e e n 1962 and 1963 and A d v is o r t o t h e P r e s i d e n t i n C h arg e o f Funds and F o r c e s.^ N o to h a m ip r o d jo w as s u c c e e d e d by a n o th e r P N I - a f f i l i a t e d b u sin e ssm a n T. D. P a r d e d e. BAMUNAS c o l l e c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e f u n d s f o r S u k a r n o 's p e r s o n a l n e e d s u n d e r t h e nam e o f t h e tio n," "M o vem ent t o D e v o t e t o t h e R e v o l u GEKEREV ( G e r a k a n K e b a k t i a n R e v o l u s i ) 1964 th e P r e s i d e n t s e t u p t h e R e v o l u t i o n F u n d ( D ana R e v o l u s i ) a n d in stru c te d o n e o f h i s PNI m en, J u s u f Muda D a la m, o f t h e C e n t r a l B ank o f I n d o n e s i a, f o r t h e F u n d.^ fo r in sta n c e, G o v ern o r to f in d f i n a n c i a l b a c k in g U sin g h i s p o w er o f i s s u i n g im p o rt l i c e n s e s, J u s u f c o l l e c t e d 2 5 0 r u p i a h s f o r e v e r y U.S. d o l l a r t h a t he a llo w e d t r a d e r s fo r th e ir im p o rte d g o o d s. ^ B e c a u s e I n d o n e s i a 's f o r e i g n r e s e r v e s h a d becom e d e p l e t e d a f t e r 1963, J u s u f s u b s t i t u t e d casO i fo re ig n c r e d i t and, in th is h e u s e d t h e J a p a n e s e c r e d i t w h i c h K a w a sh im a h a d c o m m i t t e d t o S u k a r n o i n a n e f f o r t t o p l a c a t e h im a n d t o u r g e h im n o t t o u s e f o r c e in th e M a la y sia n -In d o n e sia n con— flic t. T he R e v o l u t i o n F u n d w a s c o l l e c t e d i n r u p ia h s and u se d f o r p r o j e c t s, In d o n e sia n t h e N a t i o n a l M o n u m en t, fo r e x a m p le, w h ic h S u k a rn o h a d d e s i g n a t e d. ^ needs. S ukarno had s t i l l o t h e r s o u r c e s f o r h i s m o n e ta ry Many o f h i s t r i p s t o J a p a n w ere a t l e a s t p a r t l y f in a n c e d by J a p a n e s e t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s. A m o n g S u k a r n o 's p erso n al frie n d s i n I n d o n e s i a n b u s i n e s s w e r e A. M usi n === [PDF page 263] === 260 D a s a a d a n d M a rk a m. D asaad, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e D a s a a d M u s in C oncern, i s known t o h a v e a s s i s t e d S u k a rn o f i n a n c i a l l y sin c e th e 1930' s. H e th e w o rld, in c lu d in g O saka, opened tra d e o f f ic e s th ro u g h o u t a s e a r l y a s 1 9 5 1.^ ^ D a s a a d 's c lo s e t i e s w ith S u k arn o w ere r e v e a l e d i n h i s a p p o in tm e n t a s C h a irm an o f t h e In d o n e sia -Ja p a n F rie n d sh ip 1964 and l a t e r 1966 a s P r e s i d e n t o f th e S a r i n a h D e p a r t m ent S t o r e. M a r k a m a m u ltim illio n -d o lla r o p era i n a sp a n o f t h r e e y e a r s by m eans o f h i s r i g h t to w a s a n o b s c u r e a rm y l i e u t e n a n t who b u i l t t h e K ark am C om pany i n t o tio n S o c ie ty e x c lu siv e e x p o r t r u b b e r t o n e a rb y M a la y s ia and S in g a p o re d u rin g th e C o n fro n ta tio n p e r i o d. H e a t S u k a r n o 's P a l a c e p a r t i e s a n d w as a g e n e r o u s p a r t i c i p a n t in th e c lo se d a u c tio n s h e ld t h e r e. th e P r e s i d e n t 's sp e c ia l was a f a m i l i a r f a c e fa v o r in 15 Markam a l s o o b ta in in g w as g i v e n c e rta in im p o rt l i c e n s e s and c o n t r a c t s. I n M arch 1965 h e m e t w i t h S u k a r n o, who a s C om m ander o f t h e S u p re m e E c o n o m ic O p e r a t i o n s Command e n d o r s e d M a rk a m ' s i m p o r t a t i o n of la rg e q u a n titie s je e p s, p a rts, a n d A sano c em en t fro m J a p a n. I n Markam v i s i t e d th e p a la c e m o n o p o liz e d by S u k a rn o. Ju ly 1965 t o r e p o r t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t on th e p r o g r e s s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s a s s ig n e d 17 K ark am C om pany. The a c c e p t a n c e o f N issa n th e o f fin a n c ia l d o n a t i o n s w as n o t D ew i a l s o asked f o r c o n tr ib u tio n s fro m t h e I n d o n e s i a n - J a p a n e s e F r i e n d s h i p S o c ie ty and th e N a d e s h ik o C lu b t o b u i l d h e r a f o r e m e n t i o n e d S a r i A s ih 18 H o s p ita l. S u b a n d r i o ' s BPI a l s o a c q u i r e d f u n d s from === [PDF page 264] === 261 u n id e n tifie d so u rces, as d isc lo s e d i n h i s 1966 t r i a l. S u b a n d r io h a d $ 2 5 0,0 0 0 i n a S w iss bank f o r t h e p l a n n e d s e c o n d A s i a n - A f r i c a n c o n f e r e n c e i n A l g i e r s i n J u n e 1965 a n d a n e m e rg en c y BPI fu n d o f $ 2 5 0,0 0 0 d e p o s i t e d i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 6 u n d e r t h e nam e o f J a m e s Newman i n D a iw a S e c u r i t i e s, Tokyo. No o n e d o u b t e d S u k a r n o ' s p o l i t i c a l p o w e r. i s d i f f i c u l t to d e fin e th e and e s p e c ia lly sco p e o f th e S ukarno g ro u p s th e ir c h a ra c te r. N o t e v e r y m em b er o f t h e g ro u p s c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a s an a r d e n t, o f S u k arn o. A id it sin c e re su p p o rte d th e P r e s id e n t a s a m a tte r o f p o litic a l le a d e r s in c lu d in g S u b a n d rio, to u t i l i z e t h e b e n e f i t s o f S u k a r n o 's th e P re s id e n t to o t r i e d la te S a le h. a n d Army C h i e f o f S t a f f N a s u t i o n m u s t h a v e s u p p o r t e d S u k arn o t o p ro m o te t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a m b i t io n s. trie d su p p o rte r Many I n d o n e s i a n b u s i n e s s m e n a n d o v e r s e a s C h in ese t r a d e r s e x p e d ie n c e; H ow ever V /h ile t h e y " c o a tta ils," t o p u t th e m o f f b a l a n c e. From 1 9 6 4 S u k a r n o ' s b a l a n c i n g b e t w e e n t h e PKI a n d t h e Army c h a n g e d g r a d u a l l y t o a c o a l i t i o n b e t w e e n h im a n d t h e PKI a g a i n s t t h e Arm y. Adam M a l i k, One o f S u k a r n o ' s m en. T rad e M in i s t e r t h u s becam e c o n c e rn e d a b o u t t h e P K I 's g ro w in g in flu e n c e and a tte m p te d to o f f s e t S u k arn o ' s le a n in g w a r d t h e C o m m u n is ts b y a m o v e m e n t s t a r t e d w ith th e i n N ovem ber 1 9 64, e u p h e m i s t i c nam e o f "B ody t o S u p p o r t S u k a r n o i s m, " BPS ( B a d a n P e n d u k u n g S u k a r n o i s m e ), a m o v e m e n t w h i c h w a s e sse n tia lly c ritic iz e d an a n ti-C o m m u n ist d r i v e. T h e P IK i m m e d i a t e l y BPS a n d u n d e r t h e P K I ' s p r e s s u r e S u k a r n o h i m s e l f === [PDF page 265] === 262 denounced i t to o. M a lik w as rem o v ed fro m h i s p o s t a s T rad e M i n i s t e r b u t re m a in e d in t h e C a b in e t a s M i n i s t e r w ith o u t P o r tf o lio. S ukarno even su sp e n d e d th e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e M u rb a P a r t y w h o s e l e a d e r s, i n c l u d i n g M a lik, w ere su s p e c te d o f b e in g r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h i s m o v e m e n t. C h a iru l S a le h, su c c e e d S uk arn o, a n ti-C o m m u n ist a M u rb a P a r t y l e a d e r who h o p e d q u ic k ly renounced h is a f f i l i t a t i o n w ith th e p a r ty and p le d g e d l o y a lty to th e le a d e r o f th e G re at R e v o lu tio n. a ls o Two o f S u k a r n o ' s w i v e s, c o m p e te d f o r h i s p o l i t i c a l f a v o r and w ere c u l t i v a t e d b y m e m b e rs o f t h e K a w a sh im a L o b b y, S a ito S h iz u o, Dewi a n d H a r t i n i, e s p e c i a l l y by A m bassador F o re ig n M in is te r S u b a n d rio, and C h in ese A m b a s s a d o r Yao C h ung M i n g. ^ ^ One h a r d l y c a n c l a s s i f y a ll th e s e f ig u r e s as S u k a rn o ists, y e t each d e c la re d h im s e lf to be p ro -S u k a rn o. T h e s e e x a m p l e s a m p ly i l l u s t r a t e a c te r o f th e t h e c o m p lex c h a r "S u k a rn o g r o u p s." w h ic h c a n be d e f i n e d o n ly b r o a d l y a s t h o s e who w i s h e d t o r e m a i n w i t h S u k a r n o a n d u n d e r h i s pow er. W ith t h i s b a c k g r o u n d f o c u s c a n now b e g i v e n t o t h e w o rk o f t h e S u k a r n o i s t s i n T o k y o. T he I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n ity i n T o kyo F ro m 1 9 5 8 t h r o u g h 1 9 6 6, In d o n e sia n r e s i d e n t s. In d o n e sia n y o u th s, some 7 0 p e r c e n t, Tokyo h a d fro m 300 t o 900 They w ere com posed p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f s t u d e n t s a n d o t h e r t r a i n e e s who c o m p r i s e d a n d t h e E m b a s s y s t a f f a n d m e m b e rs o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n R e p a r a t i o n s M i s s i o n who c o m p r i s e d som e 2 0 p e r === [PDF page 266] === c e n t. th e 263 22 U n lik e t h e i r J a p a n e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s i n D ja k a r ta, I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n ity i n T o kyo h a d f e w b u s i n e s s m e n. T h e J a p a n e s e c a p i t a l a c c o m m o d a te d a v a r i e t y p o litic a l a c tiv itie s, d o m in a n t, a l t h o u g h t h e p r o —S u k a r n o g r o u p s w e r e t h e r e a l s o w e r e some a n t i - S u k a r n o g r o u p s, w h ic h w as t h e S u m a tra n r e b e l s a d d itio n o f In d o n e sia n one o f se e k in g o v e rs e a s re fu g e. t h e r e w a s t h e F r e e P a p u a n M o v e m e n t, i s a s i P ap u a M e rd ek a ), w h ic h s e c r e t l y 0PM ( O r g a n - cam p aig n ed f o r th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e P a p u a n s and o p p o se d S u k a r n o 's p o l i c y o f i n t e g r a t i n g th e m i n t o because i t In d o n e sia. Tokyo a t t r a c t e d th e m o f f e r e d th e m s o u r c e s o f m o r a l a n d f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt. T he I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y An i m p o r t a n t d u t y o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y i n Tokyo w as t o w a tc h i t s n a ti o n a l s and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s. A n o th e r t a s k a s s ig n e d t o sia n n a tio n a ls t h e E m b a ss y w a s t o u s e t h e s u p p o rt I n d o n e s ia 's p o l i t i c a l T he I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t, in th is c l o s e s t a id e s S a le h and S u b a n d rio, fo u n d i t e ffic a c io u s a p p a re n tly s e n d t h e i r own men t o and th e R e p a r a tio n s M issio n, causes. c a s e P r e s i d e n t S uk arno and h is In d o n e and a l s o t h e Em bassy se le c te d t h e i r own y o u n g m en f o r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s f e l l o w s h i p p r o g r a m, w h i c h had c o n v e n ie n tly s t a r t e d h i s men t o in I960. Tokyo t o r e i n f o r c e h i s L a te r S a le h d is p a tc h e d in f lu e n c e o v e r J a p a n 's s h a re o f th e r e p a r a t i o n s fu n d and c r e d i t. g e n e ra lly b e lie v e d th a t th e th r e e In d o n e sia n a m b a s s a d o r s f r o m 1 9 5 8 t h r o u g h e a r l y 1 9 6 6 — A sm aun ( O c t o b e r 1 9 5 8 -O c to b e r I 9 6 0 ), Bam bang S u g e n g ( O c t o b e r 1 9 6 0 - A p r i l 1 9 6 4 ), === [PDF page 267] === 264 a n d H a rso n o R e k so a tm o d jo (May 1 9 6 4 - J a n u a r y 1 9 6 6 ) w ere s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d t h e PN I o r w e r e c l o s e t o S u k a r n o. A sm aun i s know n t o h a v e b e e n a PNI m e m b e r^ ^ a n d Bam bang S u g en g w as s y m p a th e ti c t o th a t p a r t y. F o r m e r G e n e r a l S ugeng, D a id an c h o (C om m and er o f t h e D i v i s i o n ) t h e PETA d u r i n g t h e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a t i o n, M a jo r had been a p p o in te d Army C h i e f o f S t a f f i n 1 9 5 3 t h r o u g h P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o ' s s u p p o r t o f t h e PETA f a c t i o n D u tc h -tra in e d f a c tio n. o f t h e Army a g a i n s t N a s u t i o n ' s H a rso n o w as c l a s s i f i e d as a " S u b a n d r i o man" a n d t h r o u g h h im w a s c l o s e t o S u k a r n o. f o r m e r E m bassy o f f i c i a l to ld t h i s w r i t e r i n 1971 t h a t a f t e r a b o u t 1963 t h e E m bassy w as u n d e r t h e s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r 's C e n tr a l I n t e l l i g e n c e B oard (B P I). L a t e r i n 1 9 6 6 i t w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a B P I m em ber h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d t o t h e E m bassy^^ a n d t h a t t h e B P I 's $ 2 5 0,0 0 0 fu n d h a d b e e n d e p o s i t e d i n D a iw a S e c u r i t i e s w i t h t h e h e l p A b d u l H a b i r, who h a d b e e n C o u n s e l o r o f t h e E m b a s s y i n 1 9 6 2 -1 9 6 3 and i n 1963 becam e C h ie f o f th e R e p a r a ti o n s 27 M issio n. The f i r s t C h i e f o f t h e R e p a r a t i o n s M i s s i o n, B a s u k i D ja tia s m o r o, w as a r e l a t i v e o f S u k a r n o 's.^ ® The I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n The I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n, t h e P P I w h ic h n u m b e re d s i x h u n d r e d I n d o n e s i a n y o u t h s i n T okyo, w as c o n s id e r e d th e l a r g e s t and s tr o n g e s t o v e rse a s In d o n e sia n s tu d e n t g roup, second o n ly to a ll S ev eral f a c to r s c o n trib u te d to t h i s o f E u rop e. F irst, som e o f t h e l e a d e r s its c o u n t e r p a r t e n c o m p a ssin g em in en c e, o f th e PPI w ere s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and p e r s o n a l r a t h e r th a n t h e i r a c a d e m ic === [PDF page 268] === 265 Q u a lific a tio n s. p o litic a l, S o n s and. r e l a t i v e s and m i l i t a r y one s o u rc e, o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t, l e a d e r s w ere f a v o r e d. A c c o r d i n g m any m a n a g e d t o com e t o T ok yo o n l y b e c a u s e a l e a d e r o f t h e P N I ’ s l e f t - w i n g ASU g r o u p h e l d a n e x e c u t iv e p o s itio n in th e In d o n e sia -Ja p a n F rie n d sh ip S o c ie ty (L P ID ) a n d h a d b e c o m e a m em ber o f P a r l i a m e n t. T h o u g h th e y had l i t t l e a c a d e m ic i n t e r e s t, th e y w ere a c t i v e p o litic a lly. Second, th e P P I 's o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h ow ed m uch t o th e p re se n c e o f a la rg e In d o n e sia H a ll c a lle d "W isma I n d o n e s i a, " b u i l t s p e c i f i c a l l y t o a c c o m m o d a te t h e "pam pasan" y o u th s. (re p a ra tio n s) m e t r o p o li t a n Tokyo, so lid a rity, th is L iv in g t o g e th e r in huge, th e y n a t u r a l l y n u rtu re d a f e e lin g o f fa c ilita tin g a g re e m e n t on j o i n t a c t i o n s. s o l i d a r i t y a n d t h e i r s e n s e o f p o l i t i c a l m i s s i o n was e n c o u ra g e d by S u k a r n o 's f r e q u e n t v i s i t s W isma I n d o n e s i a, f o r w h ic h h e l a i d t o Tokyo a n d t o th e c o rn e rsto n e in S e p te m b e r 1961 an d w h ic h h e o f f i c i a l l y 1962. T h ird, o p e n e d i n N ovem ber T h e i r s e n s e o f p o l i t i c a l d u t y w as r e i n f o r c e d by th e p o l i t i c a l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n p ro g ra m s o f t e n p r e s e n t e d by p ro m in e n t In d o n e s ia n c a b in e t m i n i s t e r s. F o r e x a m p le, fro m P a n t j a S i l a Day o n J u n e 1 t h r o u g h P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o ' s b i r t h d a y on Ju n e 6, 1965, th e PPI p la n n e d an " i n d o c tr in a t i o n w e e k " f o r t h o s e who j u s t h a d g r a d u a t e d f r o m J a p a n e s e u n iv e rs itie s to be h e ld and c o l l e g e s. F o r in e a r ly A ugust 1965, t h e P P I 's f i f t h co n g ress P r e s i d e n t S ukarno s e n t M i n i s t e r - C o o r d i n a t o r f o r P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s a n d C h a irm a n f o r t h e G u id a n ce o f t h e R e v o lu t i o n a r y S p i r i t, R o e sla n A b d u lg a n i, === [PDF page 269] === 266 to g iv e a l e c tu r e. w ith s a t i s f a c t i o n U pon h i s r e t u r n h e i s th a t q u o te d a s sa y in g " th e In d o n e sia n s tu d e n ts in Jap an had a h ig h r e v o lu tio n a r y s p i r i t a n d t h a t t h e y kn ow t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f a l l m a t t e r s o f s t a t e and s o c ie ty o f t h e i r own c o u n t r y. " tio n a l F o u rth, and m ost im p o rta n t o f a l l, th e o rg a n iz a stru c tu re o f t h e P P I was s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e yo u ng p o l i t i c a l c a d r e s o r o r g a n i z e r s o f PN I a f f i l i a t i o n who w ere s e l e c t e d u n d e r th e r e p a r a t i o n s p ro g ram f o r th e sp e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f u s i n g t h e P P I t o p r o m o t e t h e I n d o n e s i a n go g o v e r n m e n t's p o l i c i e s. T h e r e tio n e v id e n c e t h a t t h e fo rm a o f P P I w as g u id e d by o r a t l e a s t was e n c o u ra g e d by t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m bassy i n T okyo. f o r 1961 to The E m b a s s y 's a n n u a l r e p o r t t h e home o f f i c e n o t e d t h a t: ... w e w ish In d o n e s ia n s t u d e n ts s tu d y in g i n Tokyo, w h ile a ssu m in g t h e i r t a s k o f l e a r n i n g t o be c a d r e s f o r [ n a t i o n a l ] d e v e lo p m e n t, w o u ld a l s o becom e am b assad o rs r e f l e c t i n g th e In d o n e s ia n P e r s o n a lity, w h ic h i s t o s t r u g g l e f o r th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e R e v o lu tio n. One w ay t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s i s t o b rin g u n ifo rm ity to th e a t t i t u d e s and th o u g h ts o f e v e ry In d o n e s ia n y o u th in Ja p a n.... A fte r e x a m in in g v a r i o u s and s e n s i b l e i n s t r u m e n t s f o r im p le m e n ta tio n, t h e b e s t i s t h a t w h ic h g o e s th ro u g h th e fo rm a tio n o f P P I....3 4 A n o th e r s o u r c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t b e tw e e n 1961 an d 1965 t h e r e w e r e a l t o g e t h e r som e t e n S u k a r n o i s t c a d r e s i n t h e 35 P P I. Some o f th e m o r i g i n a l l y h a d b e e n a c t i v e i n s t u d e n t m o v e m e n ts i n In d o n e sia, p a rtic u la rly in th e P N I-d ire c te d I n d o n e s i a n N a t i o n a l i s t S t u d e n t M o v e m e n t, GMNI ( G e r a k a n M ah asisw a N a s i o n a l I n d o n e s i a ), and i n t h e P K I - d i r e c t e d I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t M o vem en t C o n c e n t r a t i o n, CGMI ( C o n c e n t r a s i === [PDF page 270] === 267 G e r a k a n M a h a s iS w a I n d o n e s i a ). little B u t som e o f th e m h a d h a d c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s e m o v e m e n ts a n d b e c a m e a c t i v e p o litic a lly o n l y a f t e r t h e y h a d come t o J a p a n. W h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g some d e g r e e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e, P P I’s a c tiv itie s re c e iv e d th e o f t e n w ere c o o r d in a te d by i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m t h e E m b a s s y o r f r o m t h e hom e g o v e r n m e n t, th e l a t t e r m ost l i k e l y d i r e c t e d b y t h e P N I, t h e PKI o r e v e n S u b a n d r i o ' s B P I. The E m b a s s y h a d a S t u d e n t A f f a i r s S e c t i o n w h ic h h ad d i r e c t c o n t a c t s w ith t h e P P I. g a n i, who h a d a t t e n d e d t h e P P I ' s f i f t h 1965, s ta te d c o n g re s s in A ugust l a t e r t h a t th e In d o n e sia n s tu d e n ts had a h ig h r e v o lu tio n a r y sp irit in Japan "b e c a u se th e y h a d good g u id a n c e from I n d o n e s ia n A m bassador H arso n o and h is Ab d u l - R e k so a tm o d jo s t a f f i n Tokyo. B efo re th e r e p a r a tio n s in i 960, th e re a sso c ia tio n. s c h o la r s h ip p ro g ram s t a r t e d a lr e a d y e x is te d a sm a ll In d o n e s ia n s tu d e n t W ith t h e a r r i v a l o f th e "pam pasan" y o u th s, t h e a s s o c i a t i o n w as r e o r g a n i z e d i n S e p te m b e r 1961 a n d b e g a n t o assum e p o l i t i c a l r o l e s. W i t h i n t h e P P I w e r e tw o m a j o r id e o lo g ic a l f a c tio n s, t h e l e f t - w i n g PN I a n d t h e r i g h t - w i n g P N I. P P I C h a ir m a n i n 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 6 3, b e l o n g e d J u l S u m u rto jo, t o t h e l e f t - w i n g PNI w h i l e D a h l a n, C h a irm a n i n 1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 5, w a s i n t h e r i g h t - w i n g PNI a n d L i l y S a t a r i, 1965-1966, C h a irm a n i n w a s a g a i n i n t h e l e f t - w i n g P N I.^ ® o f th e r u lin g fa c tio n, R e g a rd le ss t h e s t u d e n t l e a d e r s a n d t h e E m bassy w o rked t o g e t h e r t o p ro m o te S u k a r n o i s t i d e a s a n d t o lo b b y w ith c o n cern ed Ja p a n e se g ro u p s. are T h e ir a c t i v i t i e s === [PDF page 271] === 268 d e sc rib e d b r i e f l y in th e fo llo w in g. S u k a r n o i s t s i n Tokyo an d t h e W est I r i a n F ro m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f C a m p a ig n t h e W e s t I r i a n C a m p a ig n, J a p a n e s e g o v e rn m e n t to o k a n e u t r a l s t a n d. th e c o n sid e re d W est I r i a n ( t h e n c a l l e d W e s t New G u i n e a ) a d i s p u t e d t e r r i to r y,th e s ta tu s p e a c e fu lly. in to o f w h ic h J a p a n B u t b e tw e e n I9 6 0 f e l t sh o u ld be a n d 1962 J a p a n w as th e c o n f l i c t f o r a v e ry s h o r t tim e. d e n t i n w h ic h J a p a n was i n v o l v e d i s K a r e l D o o rm an I n c i d e n t a n d t h e The K a r e l D o o rm an I n c i d e n t, draw n T he f i r s t referred o th e r, se ttle d in c i to as th e t h e KLM I n c i d e n t. I n J u n e I 9 6 0 t h e D u t c h A m b a s s a d o r i n T ok y o r e q u e s t e d p e r m is s io n from J a p a n f o r i t s W est I r i a n - b o u n d a i r c r a f t c a rrie r, e n te r a Japanese p o rt fo r t h e K a r e l D o o rm a n, t o o i l and w a te r s u p p l i e s. T he I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y a n d t h e PPI w ere d e te r m in e d t o o p p o s e t h e K a r e l D o o r m a n 's v i s i t. E a r l i e r i n J u n e w hen P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o h a d v i s i t e d Tokyo, t h e P P I h a d p r e s e n t e d h im w i t h a " r e s o l u t i o n " w h i c h i n c l u d e d su p p o rt o f h i s P o l i t i c a l M a n ife sto o f 1959 and a p le d g e to c a r r y o u t g o v ern m en t o r d e r s, e sp e c ia lly t o t h e W est I r i a n fo rm er PPI le a d e r t o ld i s s u e. A th o se p e r ta in in g th is w r i t e r i n 1970 t h a t th e PPI a p p ro a c h e d th e S o c i a l i s t P a r t y and o b ta in e d su p p o rt o f such le f t- w in g KÔZÔ, O k a d a H a r u o, H ozum i S h i c h i r o, He a l s o re c a lle d D e m o c ra tic P a r t y le a d e rs as S asaki a n d K atsu m ad a S e i i c h i. t h a t some m e m b e rs o f t h e r u l i n g L i b e r a l s u c h a s T okonam i T o k u ji an d Y o sh ie === [PDF page 272] === 269 270 44 Katsuyasu showed sympathy for the PPI's effo rts, and he Netherlands. stated that they fe lt that Vest New Guinea could best gain Zentaro gained the Cabinet's endorsement,^^ but the Indo independence by joining Indonesia.^ However, the nesian government became more rigid and tensions between sympathetic S ocialist Party and LiberaLDemocratic Party Tokyo and Djakarta suddenly intensified. On that day members did not work as lobbyists in the Diet or in the Ambassador Bambang Sugeng met with the leaders of the Foreign Ministry and the cabinet, Nor did the Japan Japan-Indonesia Association, the Japan Federation of Communist Party a t th is stage; a ll the parties were pre Economic Organizations (Keidanren), and the Japan Chamber occupied with the bigger issue of ratifying the revised of Commerce and I n d u s t r y. T h e longshoremen's union of security treaty between Japan and the United States. the Port of Yokohama, to which the Dutch warship was sup On September 1 Foreign Minister Kosaka More effective support came from the Japan-Indonesia posed to come, and other groups possibly directed by the Association, which wished to represent Indonesian interests S ocialist or Communist parties issued a statement of pro in Japan on this issue. On August 10, I960 the Indonesian te st and presented i t to the Mayor of Yokohama and the Embassy's M inister Marjunani talked with the A ssociation's Foreign M inistry. President Tani Masayuki, stressing the importance of Japan to refuse the M Doorman's v i s i t. O n August 27 the On September 2 the Japan-Indonesia Association held an emergency executive meeting in which i t adopted a Association received an appeal by telegram from its resolution requesting the Japanese government to postpone Indonesian counterpart, the Indonesia-Japan Friendship the Dutch ship's v is it and submitted i t to the Cabinet, Society in D j a k a r t a. T h a t day the Association o fficially conveyed its concern to the Japanese Foreign M inistry, the Foreign M inistry, the p o litic a l parties, and the Dutch 48 Embassy in Tokyo. Although Foreign Minister Kosaka de saying that i t hoped th at the Netherlands would withdraw cided in favor of permitting the warship to enter Yokohama, its request. However The Hague was adamant in its request Foreign Ministry o fficials began to doubt the wisdom of and changed the original reason for the warship's v isit, this decision. insisting that the v is it would be planned as part of the ship came to Japan the Indonesian Ambassador might leave 350th anniversary celebration of Japanese-Dutch trade 43 contacts. On August 31 Japan reluctantly consented to in protest, which might be followed by Indonesia's suspen sion of economic relations with Japan. They also saw the th is on the condition that the airc ra ft carrier would not disadvantage of Japanese-Indonesian tensions upon Japan's return to Vest Irian but would go straight back to the relations with other Afro-Asian countries. In addition, 49 They were concerned th at when the Dutch === [PDF page 273] === 271 t h e F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m o u n tin g i n t e r n a l o p p o sitio n as e x p re s s e d by th e l a b o r u n io n s and by th e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c ia t io n m ig h t i n j u r e th e f r ie n d ly r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n T ok y o a n d T he H a g u e. On S e p t e m b e r 3 t h e J a p a n e s e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y l e a r n e d t h a t t h e K a r e l D oorm an h a d l e f t W e s t I r i a n w a t e r s a n d w as h e a d e d f o r J a p a n. is s u e d a stro n g re sc in d its d e sire fo r T he J a p a n S o c i a l i s t P a r t y s t a t e m e n t d e m a n d in g t h a t t h e g o v e rn m e n t la n d in g p e rm is s io n in l i g h t o f th e p o p u la r f r i e n d s h i p and s o l i d a r i t y w ith th e A sia n and 50 A fric a n p e o p le s. T he F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y a l s o l e a r n e d f r o m its A m bassador 5da i n In d o n e sia t h a t In d o n e sia c e r t a i n l y w o u ld b r e a k o f f e c o n o m ic r e l a t i o n s w i t h J a p a n i f 51 w a r s h i p d i d e n t e r Y o k o h a m a.^ v ersed h is d e c isio n, t h e D u tc h A t t h i s p o i n t K osaka r e re m a rk in g t h a t he d id n o t w ant to t r a d e an A sia n f r i e n d f o r an a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r, and t h a t d a y i n f o r m e d t h e D u t c h A m b a s s a d o r o f h i s new d e c i s i o n. T he K a r e l D o o rm an r e t u r n e d t o H o l l a n d i a on S e p tem b er 9. (now D j a y a p u r a ) 53 T he KLM I n c i d e n t, 196 2 A s im ila r in c id e n t o ccu rred in F eb ru ary 1962. J a n u a r y 30 o f t h a t y e a r t h e D u tc h a i r l i n e KLM a s k e d t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o l a n d i n t h e T okyo a i r p o r t t h r e e KLM p l a n e s m ent p e r s o n n e l" ) ( c a r r y i n g a t o t a l o f 211 " g o v e rn c h a r t e r e d b y t h e D u tc h g o v e rn m e n t and bound f o r B ia k, W est I r i a n. Jap an re fu s e d p e rm iss io n, f e a r i n g ren ew ed t e n s i o n s w ith D j a k a r t a. Then o n F e b r u a r y === [PDF page 274] === 272 3 t h e D u tc h g o v e rn m e n t t r a n s p o r t e d its m ilita r y p erso n n el o n a r e g u l a r c o m m e r c i a l KLM f l i g h t b o u n d f o r B i a k v i a 54 Tokyo. Ja p a n h a d no l e g a l b a s i s t o s to p i t. When a s i m i l a r r e q u e s t w a s m ade b y t h e D u tc h t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d g r a n t e d, t h e A m e ric a n E m bassy i n D j a k a r t a w as a t t a c k e d b y m obs, its an d on F e b r u a r y 5 t h e J a p a n e s e E m bassy t i g h t e n e d se c u rity. A l t h o u g h J a p a n m ad e a p r o t e s t t o T h e H a g u e, la tte r ig n o red i t, (w e a rin g c i v i l i a n tra n s p o rtin g c lo th e s) th e e v e n m o re D u t c h s o l d i e r s on F e b r u a r y 6 an d 1 0.^ ^ F e b r u a r y 10 t h e PPI su b m itte d ap r o t e s t to th e F o re ig n M in is tr y and on F e b r u a r y 1 5 a n d 1 6 P P I m e m b e rs dem on stra te d i n f r o n t o f t h e D u tc h E m bassy i n To k y o. F e b r u a r y 16 t h e J a p a n e s e C o n s u l a t e i n S u ra b a y a w as s t o n e d, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e p r o t e s t m o v e m e n ts h a d b e e n c o o r d i n a t e d by In d o n e s ia n a u t h o r i t i e s b e h in d th e P a rtic u la rly c a u s e i n W est I r i a n stro n g scenes. su p p o rt f o r th e In d o n e sia n cam e f r o m t h e J a p a n e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y ( J C P ), w h i c h a f t e r 1 9 6 1 a c t e d a l m o s t a s a PKI a g e n t i n 59 Japan. I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e JC P h a d d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e PK I r a t h e r t h a n w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e E m b a s s y o r t h e P P I. PKI l e a d e r D i p a N u s a n t a r a A i d i t h a d v i s i t e d Japan in i 9 6 0 a n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r A i d i t a n d a n o t h e r m em ber o f t h e PKI P o l i t i b u r o, N jo to, cam e t o T o k y o. B y 196I t h e JC P s u p p o r t e d t h e P K I ’ s i d e o l o g i c a l s t a n d o n t h e W est I r i a n issu e. In c id e n t o ccu rred, On F e b r u a r y 1 0, 1 9 6 2 w h en t h e KLM t h e JC P C e n t r a l E x e c u t i v e C o m m i t te e === [PDF page 275] === 273 is s u e d a s p e c ia l s ta te m e n t su p p o rtin g th e " stru g g le s th e In d o n e s ia n p e o p le f o r th e l i b e r a t i o n o f W est I r i a n. Its d a il y n ew sp ap er, A k a h a ta, r e p o r te d th e P P I-sp o n so re d d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e D u t c h E m b a s s y o n F e b r u a r y 15 and th e p r o t e s t by th e J C P -c o n tro lle d A s ia -A fric a S o l i d a r i t y C o m m itte e t o t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e T oky o I n t e r n a tio n a l A irp o rt fo r a s s is tin g t h e D u tc h i n W est I r i a n. The J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n a l s o w as w o r r i e d a b o u t th e p ro b lem. On F e b r u a r y 1 7 i t h e ld a n em ergency e x e c u tiv e m e e tin g and s u b m itte d a n o te o f c o n c e rn to C a b in e t and to th e F o re ig n M i n i s t r y. T h e th e Japanese g o v e r n m e n t, h o w e v e r, h a d n o w ay t o p r e v e n t t h e B i a k - b o u n d c o m m e rc ia l f l i g h t s re g u la r p assen g ers. from c a r r y i n g D u tc h s o l d i e r s am ong t h e F i n a l l y on M arch 5 D u tc h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r J o s e p h Luns n o t i f i e d th e J a p a n e s e F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r t h a t h i s g o v e rn m e n t no l o n g e r w o u ld e m b a r r a s s Tokyo an d th e in c id e n t th u s ended. B o th i n c i d e n t s w ere s h o r t - l i v e d. They o c c u r r e d p a r t l y b ecau se th e Jap an ese F o re ig n M in is try f a i l e d to a p p re c ia te th e n a t i o n a l i s t se n tim e n t th e n p r e v a ilin g th e In d o n e s ia n s and b e c a u se i t gave th e J a p a n w as a s s i s t i n g D u tc h m i l i t a r y In r e a l i t y th e Japan tr ie d its im p re ss io n t h a t e ffo rts i n W est I r i a n. to m a in ta in a n e u tr a l p o s itio n b u t In d o n e s ia n F o re ig n M in is try, th e PPI t r i e d t h e E m bassy i n T okyo, and J a p a n e se f r i e n d s h i p m ost s e v e r e ly. w as i n t i m i d a t e d by I n d o n e s i a ’ s d e m o n s tr a ti o n s, o f su p p o rt, and t h r e a t s among Japan m o b iliz a tio n t o b r e a k o f f e c o n o m ic t i e s, and === [PDF page 276] === 274 c a u g h t b e tw e e n i t s E u ro p ea n and A s ia n f r i e n d s chose to s i d e w i t h I n d o n e s i a, w h i c h h a d t h e g r e a t e r e c o n o m i c im p o rta n c e to Japan. In d o n e s ia depended e c o n o m ic a lly upon J a p a n m uch m o re t h a n t h e r e v e r s e, I n d o n e s i a 's ( in I9 6 0, 4 per cent of e x p o r t s w e n t t o J a p a n a n d 16 p e r c e n t o f i t s i m p o r t s cam e f r o m J a p a n, w h ereas 2.7 p e r c e n t o f J a p a n 's e x p o rts w ent to In d o n e s ia and 1.5 p e r c e n t o f i t s im p o rts cam e f r o m I n d o n e s i a. See T a b le 1 - 3. ) a b le to t h r e a t s andm ade t h e d e c i s i o n t o a v o id I n d o n e s i a 's Y e t J a p a n w as v u l n e r f r i c t i o n w i t h t h e A s ia n n e ig h b o r w i t h w h ic h i t h a d n e g o tia te d tie s so lo n g on r e p a r a t i o n s and w i t h w h ic h i t s e c o n o m ic had j u s t begun to expand. The S u k a r n o i s t s i n T o k y o, NEKOLIM, a n d CONEFO T he C o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n I n d o n e s i a a n d M a l a y s i a w as a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i s s u e f o r t h e S u k a r n o i s t s i n T o k y o. I t re p re se n te d c o lo n ia lism " th e key id e o lo g y o p p o sin g B r i t i s h o r NEKOLIM. R e la te d to o f t h e new e m e r g i n g f o r c e s "neo t h i s w ere th e c o n c e p ts (N EFO ), w h i c h S u k a r n o w i s h e d c h a m p i o n b y p r o m o t i n g t h e GENEFO a n d CONEFO. The PPI a p p ro a c h e d J a p a n 's m a jo r p a r t i e s th e C o n fro n ta tio n. T he S o c i a l i s t P a r t y ' s l e f t - w i n g f a c t i o n a g re e d w ith I n d o n e s i a 's p o s i t i o n i n Ju n e 1965 e x p re s s e d f u l l stru g g le I t refu sed c o n c e rn in g to w a rd M a la y s ia and s u p p o r t f o r I n d o n e s i a 's " d e s tr o y th e n e o - c o lo n ia l p r o j e c t o f M a la y s ia. to jo in K a w a sh im a t o th e th e o f f i c i a l Ja p an e se d e le g a tio n le d by second A s ia - A f r ic a c o n fe re n c e sc h e d u le d === [PDF page 277] === 275 fo r la te Ju n e 1965 and d e c id e d to send i t s own t e a m. ^ ^ In J u ly o f t h a t y e a r a f t e r th e c o n fe ren c e had been p o s t p o n e d u n t i l N ovem ber, m ent h e a d, th e p a r t y ’s F o re ig n A f f a ir s D e p a rt K a tsu m ata S e i i c h i, v i s i te d D ja k a rta to a tte n d t h e 3 8 t h a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e PN I a n d i s s u e d a j o i n t s t a t e m e n t w i t h PNI l e a d e r, s u p p o rtin g I n d o n e s i a 's lin in g its p la n to A li S a stro a m d ijo jo "C rush M a la y s ia " p o l i c y and o u t s p o n s o r t h e CONEFO. D u rin g t h e p e r i o d from 1963 t o p e rio d from I 9 6 0 t o gave o n ly l im i te d 1962, 1966, th e Ja p a n -In d o n e sia A s so c ia tio n su p p o rt to th e P P I, as th e l a t t e r had becom e i n c r e a s i n g l y m i l i t a n t a n d d o g m a tic i n id e o lo g y. u n lik e th e its S u k a rn o ist T he A s s o c i a t i o n b e c a m e e v e n m o re a p p r e h e n s i v e o f t h e g r o w t h o f t h e PKI a n d m o re d i s i l l u s t i o n e d over S u k a r n o 's l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d o n e s i a n econom y. The A s s o c i a t i o n t h u s s to o d b e h in d t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t's a t t e m p t s t o m e d i a t e b e t w e e n D j a k a r t a a n d K u a l a L um pu r r a t h e r th a n b e h in d th e P P I 's s tr o n g a n ti- M a la y s ia p o s i t i o n. The A s s o c i a t i o n ’ s p r e s i d e n t a f t e r D ecem b er 1 9 6 2, K a jim a M o rin o su k e, a d v o c a te d J a p a n 's m e d ia tio n m ost l i k e l y because h is c o n s t r u c t i o n com pany h a d l a r g e dam p r o j e c t s in E a st Jav a u n d er th e re p a ra tio n s p r o j e c ts, and b e e is e h e h ad i n t e r e s t i n J a p a n 's A sia p o l i c y a s a s e n i o r Di m em ber o f t h e r u l i n g p a r t y, Committee.The a ls o s e r v i n g on t h e F o r e ig n A f: A s s o c ia t io n 's v i c e - p r e s i d e n t, a m em ber o f t h e D ie t in th e r u lin g p a r ty o f t h e K a w a s h im a f a c t i o n, O g a s a.. o s h o, a n d a m em ber s e r v e d a s a l i n k b e tw e e n J a p a n 's === [PDF page 278] === 276 b u s in e s s and p o l i t i c a l in te re s ts In d o n e sia, as seen in C h a p te r V I. I n t h e m e a n ti m e t h e P P I p r o m o t e d S u k a r n o • s i d e a o f t h e GANEFO. 1963, stu d e n ts When D j a k a r t a s p o n s o r e d t h e GANEFO i n N o v e m b er o rg a n iz e d th e A sia n, A fric a n, i n Tokyo i n t o a s p o r t s T he P P I a l s o a s s i s t e d in th e and L a t i n A m e ric an fe s tiv a l, a m ini-GA NEFO. f o r m a t i o n o f a J a p a n e s e te a m f o r t h e D j a k a r t a GANEFO, c o n s u l t i n g ' w i t h a y o u n g K e i5 U n iv e rs ity stu d e n t, Toyama T a t s u k u n i a n d h e a d o f K e io U n i v e r s i t y 's I n d o n e s i a S o c i e t y. f a t h e r 's fam e, Due t o h i s g r a n d Toyam a w a s s u c c e s s f u l i n c o l l e c t i n g dona t i o n s from o l d e r p e o p le t o cover th e expenses o f th e Japanese p a rtic ip a n ts. sh o u ld be n o te d t h a t th e Ja p a n e se t e a m f o r t h e GANEFO a l s o w a s a d v i s e d b y tw o w a r t i m e " I n d o n e s ia e x p e r t s, " S h im izu H i t o s h i and fo rm e r C a p ta in 70 Y anagaw a M u n e to s h i. S h im izu h ad b e e n a S u k a r n o i s t s i n c e th e o c c u p a tio n, a n d Y a n ag a w a t o l d t h i s w r ite r t h a t he g e n u in e ly f e l t t h a t th e young p e o p le o f d e v e lo p in g n a t i o n s sh o u ld a tte m p t to th e sp o rts enhance t h e i r n a t i o n a l i s t s p i r i t th ro u g h fe s tiv a l. B o th S h im iz u a n d Y anagaw a w e re m e m b e rs o f t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n ' s A d v i s o r y C o u n c il 71 V/hen i t w a s r e o r g a n i z e d A s s o c i a t i o n p l a c e d on i t s i n 1958 t h e A d v iso ry C o u n c il th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who h a d e x p e r t k n o w l e d g e o f a n d p e r s o n a l c o n c e r n f o r I n d o n e s i a n a f f a i r s b u t who h a d n o a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h a n y o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n ' s m em ber c o m p a n i e s. had l i t t l e B ecau se th e C o u n c il c o n n e c tio n w ith b u s in e s s i n t e r e s t s, to o k a === [PDF page 279] === 277 m ore m i l i t a n t, p r o - I n d o n e s i a p o s i t i o n to w a rd t h e W est Iria n is s u e th a n t h a t o f i t s sh ip. For in sta n c e, b u s i n e s s m a n —d i r e c t e d l e a d e r i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 2 w h en t h e I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n i ty i n T o kyo e s t a b l i s h e d Fund, t h e W est I r i a n S tru g g le a t y p e o f R ed C r o s s m e d i c a l s e r v i c e f o r t h o s e fig h tin g i n W est I r i a n, H ito sh i a c tiv e ly th e C o u n c il s u p p o rte d i t su p p o rte d i t s When t h e C o n f r o n t a t i o n b e g a n, d ire c te d le a d e rs h ip fu n d -ra isin g c am p aig n. th e A s s o c i a t i o n 's b u s in e s s - d e c lin e d to s u p p o rt i t w h ereas i t s A d v is o r y C o u n c il was s y m p a t h e t i c. a p p e a re d to be tw o -fa c e d, and S h im izu T he A s s o c i a t i o n t h u s m a in ta in in g c o n ta c t w ith b o th th e m i l i t a n t S u k a r n o is ts and th e c o n s e r v a tiv e J a p a n e se b u s in e s s and p o l i t i c a l g ro u p s. M o re a c t i v e en co uragem ent f o r th e S u k a r n o is ts in T o k y o cam e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 5 f r o m a l i b e r a l w i n g o f t h e ru lin g p a rty. U t s u n o m i y a T o k u m a, M a ts u m u r a K e n z o, F u j i y am a A i i c h i r o, a n d o t h e r D i e t m em b ers o f t h e LDP who h a d a d v o c a te d im p ro v ed r e l a t i o n s A fric a, b e tw e e n J a p a n and A s ia and p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith C h in a, fo rm ed t h e A s i a - A f r i c a P r o b l e m s S t u d y G ro u p o n J a n u a r y I t w as a s o r t o f " C h i n a L o b b y " i n t h e D i e t a s o p p o s e d t o t h e m uch s t r o n g e r "T aiw an L o b b y." s ta te d T h e n e w g r o u p, w h i c h n u m b e r e d 7 4 m em b ers t h a t am ong i t s and J a p a n 's p o s i t i o n c o n c e rn s w ere th e M a la y s ia i s s u e i n th e seco n d A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e. A fo rm er PPI le a d e r t o l d g r o u p 's t h i s w r i t e r i n 1970 t h a t th e i n t e r e s t i n t h e M a l a y s i a i s s u e w as t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e P P I 's lo b b y in g. L a t e r i n May 1 9 6 5, b e t w e e n K a w a s h i m a ' s === [PDF page 280] === 278 279 v is its in April and August, six members of the group headed the opening ceremony of the ïisma Indonesia on November 12, by Utsunomiya were invited to Indonesia by the government 1962, JCP Chairman Nosaka, Secretary-General Miyamoto, and and, during th eir week-long stay, met with President Executive Committee member Kurahara a ll were present, Sukarno, Subandrio, Saleh, Abdulgani, Yani, and leaders of the National F r o n t Antara, which increasingly demonstrating the Indonesian Embassy's friendly attitude 80 toward the JCP. On the 43rd anniversary of the PKI appeared to be under PKI control, called the group "a in June 1963 the JCP sent a long congratulatory message progressive-revolutionary Japanese parliamentary delega75 tion." They did show sympathy for Indonesia's withdrawal and one of its Executive Committee members, Kikunami Katsumi, to its celebration ceremony. On June 26 Kikunami from the United Nations and for its proposal of a Conference issued a jo in t statement with A idit supporting "the of New Emerging Forces (CONEFO). A member of the group, struggle of North Kalimantan people" (meaning the leaders Tamura Hajime, was reported to declare that upon his of the Brunei revolt on December 8, 1962, which became the return he would establish an "Indonesia Lobby" in the Diet. 77 f ir s t local anti-Malaysian move) and SÉ arno's and PKI's 81 anti-M alaysia policy. However, the group's anti-American remakrs were rebuffed by its own party and thus in the end i t was not able to The JCP was also occupied with ideological frictio n between the Communist parties of Moscow and Peking. The form an effective lobby within the party. The most direct support of Sukarnoism was extended JCP and the PKI acted together in shifting from a neutral by Japan's Communist Party. After A idit's and Njoto's to a pro-Peking stand. v is its to Japan in I960 and 1951, the PKI and the JCP leader Miyamoto himself visited Djakarta. His and A idit's drew closer together. In late April 1962 the JCP sent jo in t statement reaffirmed the JCP's.approval of the antiits f ir s t fraternal delegates to the PKI's seventh con gress and on May 23, 1962 its chief Japanese delegate, Malaysian campaigns, l i l e in Indonesia Miyamoto also 84 met Sukarno. The PKI's f ir s t deputy chairman, M. H. Luk- In September 1964 JCP Party Kurahara Korehito, and Aidit issued a jo in t statement which man, then came to Japan on December 1964.®^ Early in included the support of Indonesia's "anti-im perialist" 78 struggles over le s t Irian. After Kurahara's return the January 1965 the JCP supported Indonesia's withdrawal from JCP began to be more explicit in its admiration for the I t should be noted that from May 1963 through PKI's National United Front strategy and made gestures of August 1965 the JCP's Akahata made almost no mention of the 07 support for Sukarnoism and its concept of NASAKOM. 70 the United Nations.^ mediation efforts made by Prime M inister Ikeda and the === [PDF page 281] === 280 r u l i n g p a r t y ' s V i c e - P r e s i d e n t K a w a s h im a. ceeded w ith i t s In ste a d i t p ro s u p p o rt o f th e p la n n e d A lg ie r s A fro - A sia n C o n f e r e n c e. When t h e S o v i e t C o n u n u n is t p a r t y p r o p o s e d a c o n s u l t a t i o n m e e tin g i n M arch 1 9 6 5, C o m m u n is t p a r t i e s o f P e k in g, D ja k a r ta, th e A sia n H an o i, Pyongyang a s w e l l a s o f Tokyo c o n s p i c u o u s l y d i d n o t a t t e n d, th u s sh o w in g a c l e a r s i g n o f t h e A s ia n p a r t i e s s i d i n g t h e P e k in g l i n e. In sh o rt, b y A p r i l 1 9 6 5 t h e S u k a r n o i s t s i n T ok yo c o m p ris e d a c u r i o u s c o n g lo m e r a tio n i n c l u d i n g t h e E m bassy, th e P P I, P a rty, t h e JC P, t h e r a d i c a l m e m b e rs o f t h e S o c i a l i s t a n d t h e l i b e r a l m em b ers o f t h e L i b e r a l - D e m o c r a t i c P a rty, a ll e x te n d in g s u p p o r t t o S u k a rn o on v a r y in g i d e o lo g ic a l g ro u n d s. T h u s w h en K a w a sh im a v i s i t e d D j a k a r t a t h a t m o n th t o w i n o v e r S u k a r n o t o h i s t e r m s, c o m p e te w i t h t h i s g r o u p a n d t h e C h i n e s e C o m m u n is ts w h o, w ith S u b a n d r i o ' s an d t h e P K I 's h e l p, o v er S uk arno. he had to a ls o trie d B o t h K a w a sh im a a n d C hou E n - l a i, t o w in who a l s o cam e t o D j a k a r t a i n A p r i l 1 9 6 5, p l a n n e d t o a t t e n d t h e seco n d A fro -A s ia n c o n fe re n c e i n A l g i e r s. Then t h e a n t i c o m m u n ist m i l i t a r y coup to o k p l a c e t h e r e on J u n e 1 9, t o p p l i n g t h e p r o - P e k i n g B en B e l l a r e g i m e a n d c a u s i n g t h e c o n fe re n c e to be p o stp o n e d. th e P e k in g -D ja k a rta a l l i a n c e. I t was in d e e d a s e tb a c k t o A m em ber o f t h e K a w a sh im a Lobby an d a f r i e n d o f S u k a r n o 's, S h im izu H i t o s h i, who h a d gone as f a r a s C a iro to c o v e r th e A lg ie r s c o n fe re n c e f o r Japanese te le v is io n, f e a r e d t h a t a s i m i l a r b lo w a l s o c o u ld === [PDF page 282] === 281 b e d e a l t t o t h e S u k arn o r e g i m e. H e a lso sensed th a t a n a n t i - S u k a r n o mood i n T o k y o w a s g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h. W h eth er o r n o t t h e A lg e r ia n coup e n c o u ra g e d th e I n d o n e s ia n m i l i ta ry y e t to be a s c e r ta in e d. H ow ever t h e subsequent coup i n D j a k a r t a d i d r e s e m b le t h a t i n A l g i e r s. I f th e coup i n A lg e r ia d id e n c o u ra g e even th e a n t i - S u k a r n o i s t m in o r ity i n Tokyo, t h e e v id e n c e f o r i t h a s n o t y e t been e sta b lis h e d e ith e r. H ow ever, a c c o r d i n g t o A n t a r a on A ugust 2 6, 1 9 6 5, th e P P I 's fifth c o n g r e s s w h ic h to o k p l a c e i n Tokyo on A u g u s t 2, o b serv ed " s u b v e rs iv e and c o u n te r r e v o lu tio n a r y e le m e n ts" w ith in th e In d o n e sia n c o m m u n i ty. On A u g u s t 3 o f t h a t y e a r S u k a r n o s u f f e r e d a s u d d e n illn e ss, a n d A i d i t who w a s t h e n a t P e k i n g h u r r i e d b a c k w i t h a tea m o f C h in e s e d o c t o r s. S ukarn o d id r e c o v e r b u t th e i n c i d e n t g e n e r a t e d t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e Army a n d t h e P K I. A c c o rd in g t o N j o n o 's c o n f e s s i o n a t h i s t r i a l D ecem ber 1 9 65, t h e PKI l e a d e r s p l a n n e d t o s t a g e a coup a g a in s t th e m ilita r y b e fo re th e m ilita r y le a d e rs so -c a lle d "C o u n c il o f G e n e ra ls " c o u ld s t r i k e an a tte m p t to succeed th e a ilin g on th e a t th e m i n Sukarno.How m uch t h e PK I a n d t h e P e k i n g r e g i m e w o r k e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e p l a n n e d coup i s n o t y e t c le a r, re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n t h e tw o, have a s s e r t e d. F i r s t, tio n but sev eral fa c ts suggest a p o sitiv e a s a few w r i t e r s a l r e a d y C hou E n - l a i a d v o c a t e d t h e f o r m a o f a p e o p l e ' s a rm y i n I n d o n e s i a, w h ic h i n J a n u a r y 1965 A i d i t h a d u r g e d S u k a rn o t o do and w h ic h S u k a rn o === [PDF page 283] === 282 en d o rsed in A ugust 1965. Jin m in J ih p a o Second, ( P e o p l e 's d a i l y ) on S e p t e m b e r 3 t h e o f P e k in g p r i n t e d D e fen se M i n i s t e r L in P i a o ' s fam o u s a r t i c l e on w a rs o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n w h ic h a d v o c a te d an " a d v e n tu r o u s " r o a d t o r e v o l u tio n f o r h i s C o m m u n is t c o m r a d e s i n A s i a, A f r i c a, A m e ric a. and L a tin T he J a p a n e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y ' s A k a h a t a o f S e p te m b e r 17 p r i n t e d th e p o r t in g h i s v ie w s. One may s p e c u l a t e o n t h e r e b e i n g som e r e l a t i o n s h i p f u ll te x t o f h is b e tw e e n t h i s v i s i t t o P e k in g i n l a t e Ju ly, a rtic le a rtic le, and A i d i t 's sup e a rlie r a n d t o A i r M a r s h a l l Omar D h a n i 's s e c r e t f l i g h t on S e p te m b e r 16 t o P e k in g t o a r r a n g e f o r a c la n d e s tin e s h ip m e n t o f C h in e s e arm s t o In d o n e sia. T o w a rd t h e e n d o f S e p t e m b e r t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e PKI a n d t h e Army w a s h e i g h t e n e d t h r o u g h t h e i r h a r s h c r i t i c i s m o f e a c h o t h e r and w as f e l t ev en i n Tokyo. in v o lv e d in In d o n e s ia n a f f a i r s Some J a p a n e s e t o l d t h i s w r i t e r i n T ok y o i n 1972 t h a t th e y s e n s e d fro m t h e i r In d o n e sia n a c q u a in t a n c e s t h a t a coup m ig h t ta k e p la c e i n In d o n e s ia i n O c to b e r. T h ird, e a rly on S e p te m b e r 24 S u b a n d rio and C h in e se A m b a s s a d o r Yao C h u n g M in g c o n f e r r e d o n D j a k a r t a - P e k i n g c o o p e ra tio n in a l l sp h eres. T he I m p a c t o f t h e G e s t a p u u p o n t h e S u k a r n o i s t s i n T ok y o T h e News o f t h e G e s t a p u For th e f i r s t sia n s day and a h a l f o f O c to b e r, In done i n Tokyo w e re n o t a b l e t o o b t a i n new s o f t h e G e s ta p u === [PDF page 284] === 284 283 not, they planned a coup with th eir troops entering A ffair, as a ll couunications between Tokyo and Djakarta 95 had oeased. The press and radio stations relied on the Djakarta allegedly for the Armed Forces Day celebration. Therefore, i t continued, a number of generals had been radio news ooming from Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, and London, arrested, important communications media and other v ita l whioh had received broadcasts from Djakarta. Tokyo f ir s t objects had been placed under the control of the September learned of the coup in the newspapers' evening editions 30 Movement, and the President was being protected by the and in the evening radio news programs on October 1. The. Movement. The announcement then declared that following Asahi shinbun reported the news in an Associated Press the September 30 Movement would be the formation of a dispatch from Kuala Lumpur, taken from a Radio Indonesia Revolutionary Council representing levels from the national broadcast via the Malaysia Broadcasting Service. Indone dora to the village (Desa). sian Embassy o fficials were obliged to liste n to Japanese 96 radio news programs, and correspondents in Djakarta were not able to wire reports back to th eir home offices. 97 At 9:30 a.m. the Commander of the Air Force, Marshal Omar Dhani, issued a radio announcement supporting the coup,^^ thus making i t clear that the Air Force was On October 1 at 7:20 a.m. Lieutenant Colonel with the Gestapu. As revealed l a t e r, on the morning Untung, an officer in the Presidential Palace Guard who 98 was fiercely loyal to Sukarno,' had his assistan t make an announcement over Radio Indonesia (which his troops had seized earlier) which in one stroke changed the power positions of Sukarno, the PKI, and the A m y.^ This an nouncement said in b rief that the September 50 Movement headed by Untung had arrested the generals of the "CIAsponsored" and "subversive" Council of Generals who had planned a "counter-revolutionary coup" to be made prior to the Armed Forces Day on October 5. I t stated th at the Movement was a m ilitary movement within the Army but was assisted by the other armed forces. Those generals, it said, had hoped that the President would die during his illn ess in the f ir s t week of August and that when he did of October 1 President Sukarno, who had spent the night of September 30 at Dewi's ïisma Yasoo, was persuaded by his aides not to go to the Presidential Palace, as i t was in a confused state with the various troops stationed there demonstrating th eir lo y alties. He thus proceeded to Grogol, an area vest of Djakarta where his fourth wife H arjati lived. At 9 a.m. a fter contacting Air Marshall Omar Dhani, the President then le f t for the Halim Air Force Base on the southeastern outskirts of the capital. That day a t 2 p.m. the Commander of the September 30 Movement and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, Untung, announced two decrees listin g the 45 members of the Council and invalidating a ll m ilitary ranks above his === [PDF page 285] === 285 ran k, C o lo n e l. 103 T h is w as t h e l a s t by th e G e stap u g ro u p. sta te m e n t to be is s u e d Two Army l e a d e r s, b o th a n ti- P K I and r e l u c t a n t s u p p o r t e r s o f S u k a r n o who h a d m i s s e d b e i n g k i d n a p p e d b y t h e M o v e m e n t 's m e m b e r s, m ade a s w i f t c o u n t e r a tt a c k upon th o s e m i l i t a r y d i v i s i o n s im p lic a te d in th e G e sta p u. T h e s e tw o l e a d e r s w e r e G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n, M in iste r- C o o rd in a to r f o r D efense and S e c u r ity and C h ie f o f S t a f f o f t h e A rm ed F o r c e s, who b a r e l y h a d e s c a p e d h i s a s s a s s i n a t i o n p lo t; an d M a jo r G e n e r a l S u h a r t o, S t r a te g ic R e serv es a b d u c tio n l i s t. Com m ander o f t h e Army (KOSTRAD), who h a d n o t b e e n o n t h e By 8 o ' c l o c k in th e e v e n in g t h e i r tr o o p s had re g a in e d c o n tro l o f D ja k a rta, a n d S u h a r t o m ade a r a d i o a n n o u n c e m e n t c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e Army, N a v y, and P o lic e had c ru s h e d t h e G e sta p u and th e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n c il and d e nounced th e G e sta p u a s a " c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t. T h is s t a te m e n t m arked t h e tu r n in g p o in t in I n d o n e s i a 's G u id e d D em o cracy. D u rin g t h e d a y o f O c to b e r 1 t h e P K I 's r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e G e s t a p u w a s n o t m ade c l e a r, o f H a ria n R a k ja t ( P e o p l e 's d a i l y ) m ent o f th e R e v o lu tio n a ry C o u n c il. b u t th e O c to b e r 2 i s s u e su p p o rte d th e e sta b lis h On t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y th e N a s u tio n -S u h a rto g ro u p c la im e d to have e v id e n c e t h a t th e P K I-c o n tro lle d y o u th g ro u p s ( Pem uda R a k j a t ), g r o u p s (GERWANI), a n d l a b o r u n i o n s se c re t m ilita ry tra in in g w o m e n 's (S O B S I) h a d r e c e i v e d a t t h e H a l im a i r b a s e a n d t h a t t h e y w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m u rd e rin g t h e s i x a b d u c te d g e n e r a l s a n d b u r y i n g th e m i n a n o l d w e l l i n t h e a r e a o f === [PDF page 286] === 286 L ubang B u a ja ( C r o c o d i l e H o le ) n e a r H a lim. Thus t h e r i g h t - w i n g m i l i t a r y g r o u p s c o n c l u d e d t h a t PKI i n d e e d h a d b e e n b e h i n d t h e G e s t a p u a n d m oved a g a i n s t i t. On O c t o b e r 6 t h e PKI P o l i t b u r o a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t h a d n o t b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e G e s t a p u b u t t h e Army d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h i s. m essage on O c to b e r 3 a t 1:3 0 a.m., h a d g o n e t o H a l im o n h i s S ukarno s t a t e d own i n i t i a t i v e no p a r t i n th e coup a t t e m p t. B u t v in c in g. In a ra d io t h a t he b u t t h a t he had had h e w as e q u a l l y u n c o n I n t h e n e x t few m o n th s a n h y s t e r i c a l a n t i - P K I e m o tio n sw ep t t h e c o u n tr y, c a u s in g t h e d e a th s o f 1 5 0,0 0 0 t o 5 0 0, 0 0 0 PKI m e m b e rs a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s. I n Tokyo t h e P N I - a f f i l i a t e d l e a d e r s o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n S t u d e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n w e re sh o c k e d a t t h e new s o f t h e S e p t e m b e r 30 M o v e m e n t, t i o n a r y C o u n c il, o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e R e v o lu and o f th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f th e P r e s i d e n t. An i n t e r v i e w w i t h a f o r m e r P P I l e a d e r d i s c l o s e s t h a t on O c to b e r 2 w hen t h e y h e a r d on t h e r a d i o t h a t t h e R e v o lu t i o n a r y C o u n c il h ad f a i l e d, som e o f t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d a s PKI o r p r o - P K I m e m b e rs w i t h i n t h e P P I d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m T ok yo o n t h a t v e r y d a y. I t was ru m o re d t h a t t h e y h a d f l o w n t o Hong Kong e n r o u t e P e k in g o r t o o t h e r Com m u n ist o r n e u t r a l i s t c a p i t a l s. L a t e r on O c to b e r 3 upon l e a r n i n g o f S u k a r n o 's s a f e t y, th e P N I - a f f ilia te d le a d e rs o f th e PPI q u ic k ly is s u e d a s ta te m e n t p le d g in g lo y a lty to S uk arn o, "c o m p le te th e G re a t L eader o f th e R e v o lu tio n, a c l e a r m a n i f e s ta t io n o f th e P P I 's stro n g P N I-in flu e n c e. === [PDF page 287] === 287 I t t o o k tw o w e e k s f o r t h e d e c id e on i t s I n d o n e s i a n E m bassy t o p o s i t i o n r e g a r d in g th e G e sta p u. When A m b a s s a d o r H a r s o n o d i d m ake a s t a t e m e n t o n O c t o b e r 1 4, s t i l l w as a m b ig u o u s. He s t a t e d t h a t t h e In d o n e s ia n p e o p le had p r o t e c t e d P r e s i d e n t S uk arn o and t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n now w a s e v e n s t r o n g e r. T h a t in te rn a l sam e d a y t h e P P I p r e s e n t e d a m o r e s t r o n g l y p r o - S u k a r n o a n d m o re s t r o n g l y a n ti-G e s ta p u sta te m e n t, a te ly c a llin g "pu rge th e t o o l s f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t im m e d i o f th e In d o n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n f r o m t h e G e s t a p u c o u n t e r - ] ’e v o l u t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s i n a l l t h e i r m a n ife s ta tio n s." ^ * ^ ® N e i t h e r s t a t e m e n t condem ned t h e PKI n o r s u p p o r t e d t h e m i l i t a r y, situ a tio n b u t i n su ch an u n s ta b le i t w as s a f e r t o b a c k t h e P r e s i d e n t. T h e JC P a n d t h e C oup The J a p a n S o c i a l i s t P a r t y r e m a in e d s i l e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w h o le p e r i o d P a rty i n 1 9 6 5, b u t t h e J a p a n C o m m u n is t ex p ressed c o n tro lle d o f t h e coup i t s d a ily, a p p re h e n sio n. At th e o u ts e t A k a h a ta, r e p o r te d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y C o u n c il i n its O c to b e r 2 i s s u e, based o n t h e J a p a n e s e B r o a d c a s t i n g C o m p a n y 's (NHK) i n f o r m a t i o n b u t t h e n n o o t h e r n e w s w as g i v e n u n t i l its O c to b er 8 i s s u e, o b v i o u s l y an a t t e m p t t o h i d e t h e J C P 's e m b a rra s s m e n t o v e r th e a b o r tiv e R e v o lu tio n a ry C o u n c il. i s s u e A k a h ata r e p o r t e d In i t s t h e PKI P o l i t i b u r o ' s O c to b e r 6 w h ic h i n s i s t e d In i t s s t a te m e n t on t h a t th e p a r t y h ad h ad no p a r t i n t h e S e p t e m b e r 30 M ov em en t a n d t h a t i t S ukarno. O c to b e r 8 su p p o rte d P r e s id e n t O c t o b e r 10 i s s u e A k a h a t a p r i n t e d th e f i r s t === [PDF page 288] === 288 r e p o r t fro m i t s D ja k a rta c o rre sp o n d e n t S a sa k i T a k e ic h i, who i n u s u a l c o m m u n i s t t e r m i n o l o g y w r o t e t h a t t h e e t e r n a l I n d o n e s i a n R e v o l u t i o n w o u ld c o n t i n u e u n d e r S u k a r n o ' s im p e cc ab le l e a d e r s h ip. H ow ever, i n a s p e e c h b e f o r e t h e JC P f e s t i v a l o n O c t o b e r 1 7, P a r t y S e c r e t a r y M iy a m o to h a d a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r t h e v i o l e n t a s s a u l t on t h e PKI w h i c h h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d. T he A k a h a t a o f O c t o b e r 23 c o n t a i n e d a t w o - p a g e space e n t i t l e d tio n s." "D a ta M a t e r i a l C o n c e rn in g I n d o n e s ia n S i t u a I t r e p r in te d th e f u l l C o lo n e l U n tu n g ' s r a d i o a n d /o r p a r t i a l t e x t s s ta te m e n t o f O c to b e r 1, P re sid e n t S u k a r n o ' s tw o r a d i o a n n o u n c e m e n t s o n t h e m o r n i n g a n d e v e n in g o f O c to b er 3, a n d PKI p o l i t i b u r o ' s sta te m e n t o f O c to b e r 6, S u b a n d r i o 's s ta te m e n t o f O c to b e r 1 3, s a d o r H a rs o n o ' s s t a te m e n t o f O c to b e r 1 4. t h e C h in ese r e s p o n s e a n d Ambas I t a ls o re p o rte d i s s u e d b y t h e New C h i n a A g e n c y on O c to b e r 20 and t h e o f f i c i a l S o v i e t, B ritish, M a la y sia n and J a p a n e s e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e u n f o ld in g I n d o n e s ia n dram a. C h in e se r e a c t e d c r i t i c a l l y t o t h e S o v i e t l i n e w h i c h nam ed N a s u tio n "a r e v o l u t io n a r y le a d e r " M o v em en t " r e b e l s. " a n d t o t h e S e p t e m b e r 30 By m e a n s o f t h i s a rtic le th e Japanese C o m m u n is t p a p e r p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e i t s p o r t o f th e C h in ese p o s i t i o n, on O c to b er 23, a ffa ir, The sup a lth o u g h A k a h a ta ' s e d i t o r i a l t h e o n l y o n e c o m m e n tin g o n t h e G e s t a p u to o k an a m b iv a le n t p o s i t i o n. I t w as n o t u n t i l J a n u a r y 30 o f t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h a t t h e J C P ' s C e n t r a l C o m m itte e i s s u e d t h e i r f i r s t and l a s t o f f i c i a l sta te m e n t === [PDF page 289] === 289 w h ic h p r o t e s t e d th a t, d e s p i t e t h e P K I 's s t a t e m e n t on O c to b e r 6, 1965 a n d S u k a r n o 's r e p e a t e d a p p e a ls f o r p u b l i c o rd er, t h e Army a n d t h e M oslem f o r c e s w e r e t r y i n g t o p r e s s t h e PK I a n d i t s th is sta te m e n t s t i l l "d e m o c ra tic " o rg a n iz a tio n s. sup Even h i d t h e J C P 's r e a l e m o tio n s o v e r t h e l o s s e s o f t h e PK I. The A k a h a t a ' s e d i t o r i a l on F e b r u a r y 4, 1966, d is a g r e e d w i t h t h e C h i n e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o v e r t h e V i e t Nam issu e. I t arg u e d t h a t even i f w ere " r e v i s i o n i s t, " t h e S o v i e t C o m m u n is t P a r t y N o r t h V i e t Nam h a d j u s t c a u s e t o m i l i t a r y a i d fro m t h e S o v i e t U n io n. to d isc h a rg e i t s fa ilu re tic " o f th e seek The JC P seem ed t h e n p r e v io u s ly c o n c e a le d a n g e r o v e r th e coup by c r i t i c i z i n g L in P i a o 's " a d v e n tu ris advocacy o f w ars o f n a tio n a l l i b e r a t i o n, w h ic h had l e d t h e d o w n f a l l o f t h e P K I. F rom F e b r u a r y 7 t o A p r i l 4, 1 9 6 6, M iy a m o to a n d s i x o t h e r JC P l e a d e r s v i s i t e d Pyongyang, W h ile t h e y h a d c o n s t r u c t i v e m e e ti n g s and P e k in g. in th e f i r s t tv/o c a p i t a l s, th e y w ere n o t so lu c k y i n P e k in g i n t h e i r m e e t i n g w i t h C h a i r m a n Mao T s e - t u n g. ^ ^ ® a d v o c a te d g u e r r i l l a a c tiv itie s in Japan, O k in a w a, w h e r e a s t h e J a p a n e s e v i s i t o r s ta c tic s H a n o i, Mao e sp e c ia lly c o n sid e re d such a s p r e m a t u r e, w h ic h w o u ld s e r v e o n l y t o b r i n g a b o u t th e P K I 's f a t e. h ig h -h an d ed a t t i t u d e T h e y w e r e d i s a p p o i n t e d i n M a o 's to w a rd t h i s, a n d fro m t h i s p o i n t on t h e J a p a n e s e a n d C h i n e s e C o m m u n is t P a r t i e s b e c a m e a n t a g o n istic a l t h o u g h t h e i r c o n f l i c t w as k e p t c o n f i d e n t i a l. th e f a ilu r e o f th e G e sta p u m eant t o Thus t h e JC P n o t o n l y t h e === [PDF page 290] === 290 l o s s o f t h e PK I b u t a l s o th e c r e a tio n o f a r i f t w ith i t s C h in e se co m rad es. T h ere a r e som e W e s t e r n s c h o l a r s who a r g u e t h a t t h e PKI w a s i n f a c t n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e G e sta p u and t h a t i t w as u s e d o n ly a s a s c a p e g o a t b y a n ti-C o m m u n is t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a n d t h e M oslem f o r c e s. T h e y G e s ta p u was b a s i c a l l y a s s e r t t h a t th e a n i n t e r n a l a f f a i r o f t h e Army a n d t h a t t h e r e w ere e le m e n ts t o s u p p o r t t h i s p o s i t i o n. M iy a m o to a n d h i s p a r t y v i s i t e d 1966 and r e t u r n e d w ith th e p la n n e d th e coup a t th e P e k in g i n th e s p r i n g o f c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e PK I h a d s u g g e s tio n o f th e C h in ese P a r ty. A t a c l o s e d m e e t i n g o f t h e JC P o f May 4, y o sh i, Y et a m em b er o f M i y a m o t o 's r e t i n u e, 1966, Oka M a sa m ade a r e p o r t w h i c h l a t e r w as le a k e d and p r i n t e d by a n a n ti-C o m m u n is t p u b l i s h in g com pany. c o rre c t, A s s u m in g t h a t t h e l e a k e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s in te re s tin g to n o te t h a t he s ta te d th e fo llo w in g: L a s t y e a r a r o u n d M a rc h 1 9 6 5 Mao T s e - t u n g a s k e d C h a i r m a n o f t h e K o r e a n W o r k e r s P a r t y, Kim I I S u n g, t o come t o P e k i n g a n d h e r e l u c t a n t l y s e n t h i s d e p u t y, C hoe Y o n g g o n. When C hoe a r r i v e d h e w as i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e ( N o r th ) V ie tn a m e s e an d In d o n e s ia n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a l s o w ere t h e r e to d is c u s s r e v o lu tio n s in A s ia. Mao T s e - t u n g i n s t r u c t e d C hoe t o d i r e c t t h e S o u t h K o r e a n p e o p le to s t a r t t h e i r g u e r r i l l a s tr u g g le s. U pon h i s r e t u r n C hoe r e p o r t e d t h i s t o t h e P r e m i e r, who r e f u s e d t o c o m p ly w i t h t h e s e i n s t r u c I t i s t h e I n d o n e s ia n P a r t y w h ic h a c t e d a c c o r d in g t o M a o 's i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d f a i l e d. B e f o r e we l e f t [ J a p a n ] f o r P e k i n g, we c o u l d n o t b e l i e v e t h e d e a t h o f PK I C h a i r m a n A i d i t a n d D e p u t y C h a i r m a n N j o t o. H o w e v e r [ i n P e k i n g ] we l e a r n e d t h a t i t w a s in d is p u ta b le. N ot o n ly th e y, b u t t h r e e h u n d red === [PDF page 291] === 291 t h o u s a n d C o m m u n is t m e m b e rs h a d b e e n a r r e s t e d b y t h e m i l i t a r y a n d a m a j o r i t y o f th e m w e r e k i l l e d. T h e I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y d e p e n d e d s o l e l y u p on C h in a. F in a n c ia lly to o, i t r e l i e d h e a v ily u pon th e C h in e se P a r t y. We h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t i n r e c e n t y e a rs th e In d o n e sia n p a r ty has re c e iv e d $30 m i l l i o n a n n u a lly [fro m C h in a ]. Mao T s e - t u n g s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e s t h a t a S i n o A m erican w ar i s i n e v i t a b l e. B ecause o f t h i s f e a r h e w is h e d t o d i s p e r s e A m e ric an f o r c e s i n A s i a a n d s c a t t e r th e m [ t o d i f f e r e n t s p o t s ]. F rom t h i s s t a n d p o i n t h e e n v i s i o n s b e n e f i t s f r o m arm ed r e v o l t s i n I n d o n e s i a a n d S o u th K o re a. T he In d o n e s ia n P a r ty u se d t h e C h in e se d o c to r s to c o l l e c t i n f o r m a tio n [on t h e P r e s i d e n t 's c o n d i t i o n ] and r e l i e d upon t h e i r in a c c u r a te in fo rm a tio n to a s s e s s th e [re v o lu tio n a ry ] s itu a tio n. T he p a r t y s t a g e d a n a rm e d r e v o l t w i t h o u t p r e p a r a t i o n a n d fa ile d. When t h e r e v o l t f a i l e d, t h e y r e t r e a t e d i n p a n ic and t h e r e f o r e w ere [ e a s i l y ] p u rs u e d. T hus t h e y w e re d e a l t a d o u b le b lo w. In s ta g in g t h e arm ed r e v o l t t h e I n d o n e s i a n P a r t y d i d n o t even p re p a re a c la n d e s tin e o rg a n iz a tio n. How c o u ld th e y s ta g e a r e v o l t w ith o u t a c la n d e s tin e o rg a n iz a tio n in th e ready? One c a u s e f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e w as a n o v e r l y o p t i m i s t i c a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y; t o p l e a d e r s i n t h e N av y a n d t h e A i r F o r c e h a d u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e sum s o f m o n ey t h a t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d f r o m C h i n a t o b r i b e [ t h e i r s u b o rd in a te s ] and th o u g h t th e y had su c ceeded. How c o u l d a C o m m u n is t P a r t y d a r e t o i n c i t e r e v o l u t i o n b y m eans o f b r i b e r y? I t w ill ta k e f iv e to te n y e a rs f o r th e In d o n e sia n P a rty t o b e r e b u i l t. 112 ([ ] added by t h i s w r i t e r ) A lth o u g h s t u d e n t s o f In d o n e s ia n p o l i t i c s te n d to a n a ly z e th e G e sta p u A f f a i r w i t h in th e c o n te x t o f th e pow er s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e Army a n d t h e PKI v e r s u s a n i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t o f t h e Army, t h e J a p a n e s e C o m m u n is ts c o n c l u d e d i n th e s p r i n g o f 1966 t h a t t h e G e s ta p u was g e n e r a t e d b y t h e PK I a g a i n s t t h e Army a s a d i m e n s i o n o f C h i n a ' s a g a i n s t A m e ric a n i m p e r i a l i s m stra te g y in A s ia. T h e I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n ity i n T o k y o a n d t h e G e s t a p u On O c t o b e r 1 8, i n t h e m e a n tim e, I n d o n e s i a 's r i g h t - === [PDF page 292] === 292 w i n g m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p b a n n e d PKI a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e 113 D ja k a rta a re a. P e r h a p s r e l a t e d t o t h i s m ove, I n d o n e s i a 's e m b a ssy i n Tokyo b e g a n i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e id e o lo g ic a l p o s i tio n s o f I n d o n e s i a n r e s i d e n t s i n Tokyo a s a n i n i t i a l in th e "red p u r g e. I n In d o n e sia, ste p a n O c t o b e r 2 8 m e e t i n g a t W isma PPI C h a irm a n L i l y S a t a r i condem ned t h e G e s ta p u A ffa ir, c l a i m i n g t h e n e e d t o c o n t i n u e a MANIPOL o f f e n s i v e 115 a g a i n s t NEKOLIM. T h is w as s t i l l t h e S u k a r n o i s t l i n e, w h i c h w a s s a f e a t a t i m e w h e n t h e Army w a s g a i n i n g a n u p p e r h a n d o v e r t h e P K I. A lso a t t e n d i n g t h i s m e e tin g w ere A m bassador H arsono and th e v i s i t i n g M i n i s t e r f o r B e r d ik a ri,^ ^ ® T, D. P a r d e d e, su p p o rte r. v isite d S u k a r n o 's t r u s t e d fin a n c ia l The f a c t t h a t a p r o - S u k a r n o c a b i n e t m i n i s t e r t h e P P I a t t h a t t i m e may i n d i c a t e co n cern f o r th e a c t i v i t i e s S u k a r n o 's o f th e S u k a r n o is ts i n Tokyo. A n o t h e r m o d e r a t e, p r o - S u k a r n o m em ber o f t h e c a b i n e t. M i n i s t e r o f V e t e r a n A f f a i r s a n d M o b i l i z a t i o n Mas S a r b i n i M a r t o d i h a r j o, a l s o v i s i t e d T ok y o f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 8 t h r o u g h 117 25. W h ile t h e m i n i s t e r s v i s i t e d J a p a n o s t e n s i b l y t o i m p r o v e e c o n o m i c c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s, th e re reaso n to b e lie v e t h a t S u k a r n o s e n t th e m t o p l a i n d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e home c o u n t r y a n d t o w a t c h t h e m o v e s o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n c o m m u n i ty, a p p a re n tly had begun to i n c r e a s e t h e i r c o n ta c ts v /ith a n t i - S ukarno I n d o n e s ia n s and J a p a n e s e. V III.) a s Army l e a d e r s L a t e r on F e b r u a r y 2 1, (D is c u s s e d i n C h a p te r 1966 S u k a rn o, in h is d riv e === [PDF page 293] === 293 a g a in s t th e m ilita r y, D efen se, a p p o in te d S a rb in i a s M in is te r o f ta k in g N a s u tio n ’s p la c e. H ow ever, I n d o n e s i a 's m i l i t a r y n e ith e r th e S u k a rn o ist lin e le a d e rs h ip n o r t h e PKI l i n e. fav o red R e fle c tin g a n t i - P K I a n d a n t i - S u k a r n o i s t s e n t i m e n t a t ho m e, th o se s y m p a th iz in g w ith th e m i l i t a r y began to g a th e r f o r c e Tokyo. A m b a s s a d o r H a r s o n o l e f t T o k y o on F e b r u a r y 1 8, I t w as a n n o u n c e d f i r s t t h a t he had been g iv e n a new a s s i g n m e n t i n L o n d o n b u t u p o n h i s r e t u r n t o new s o f h i s a r r e s t w as ru m o red and l a t e r When t h e M a rc h 11 A f f a i r f i n a l l y S u h a rto g roup, In d o n e sia c o n firm e d. b ro u g h t v ic to ry to r i g h t - w i n g P P I m em b ers a r e th e s a id to have r o a m e d t h r o u g h t h e e m b a s s y b u i l d i n g p u l l i n g down S u k a r n o ' s p i c t u r e s fro m t h e w a l l s. S oon a f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g p o w e r, in o rd e r to " c l e a n o u t " S u k a r n o i s t a n d PKI e l e m e n t s, s e n t tw o men t o T o k y o; M a j o r G e n e r a l R u k r a ito H e n d r a n i n g r a t a s A m b assad o r on A p r i l 3, Army a t t a c h e. 1 9 6 6 a n d C o l o n e l D. H e m o ra o a s By t h e e n d o f May, C o l o n e l H ernom o h a d form ed a f iv e -m a n " in te rro g a te th e S u h a rto re g im e, in v e s tig a tio n PKI m e m b e r s, c o m m itte e w h ic h b e g a n t o PKI s y m p a t h i z e r s, Ja p an by o r g a n iz a tio n s r e l a t e d th o se s e n t to t o t h e P K I, a n d t h o s e who h a d d i s h o n o r e d t h e nam e o f I n d o n e s i a a n d h a s m i s u s e d 12 3 p u b lic fu n d s." By m i d - J u n e t h e c o m m i t t e e h a d i n v e s t i g a t e d som e 50 I n d o n e s i a n s b u sin e ssm e n, on t h e e m b a s s y s t a f f, stu d e n ts, and t h o s e w o rk in g in J a p a n e s e o f f i c e s. On July 13, 1966 an embassy information officer explained === [PDF page 294] === 294 t h a t tw o s t u d e n t s h a d a l r e a d y e s c a p e d t o C a m b o d i a. The f o r m a t io n o f t h i s c o m m itte e e n c o u ra g e d r i g h t - w i n g P P I m em b ers who m ad e u p t h e i r own l i s t w ith in th e PPI and p r e s e n te d i t T h ree o f th e l e f t - w i n g, o f 1 7 "P K I s u s p e c t s " t o th e c o m m itte e. P N I-a ffilia te d, PPI l e a d e r s w ere i n c l u d e d am ong t h e s e 1 7 m e m b e rs a n d w e r e r e t u r n e d t o D j a k a r t a on J u l y 2 9, 1966 f o r f u r t h e r i n t e r r o g a t i o n. T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o m m i t t e e i n T ok yo r e p l a c e d o v e r o n e th ird o f th e em bassy s t a f f, i n c l u d i n g a m em ber o f S u b a n d r i o ’s C e n tra l I n t e l l i g e n c e B o a r d. T h e H ernom o t e a m a ls o in c o n n e c tio n i n v e s t i g a t e d D ew i’ s p e r s o n a l a s s e t s w i t h th e p o p u l a r a l l e g a t i o n o f h e r m isu se o f I n d o n e s i a 's p u b lic fu n d s. The r i g h t - w i n g l e a d e r s o f th e PPI e s ta b lis h e d c lo s e c o n t a c t w i t h KAMI ( K e s a t u a n A k s i M a h a s is w a I n d o n e s i a ), U n i v e r s i t y S t u d e n t s Command, a s i t q u ic k ly g a in e d s tr e n g th I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s w i t h t h e A r m y 's e n c o u r a g e m e n t. KAMI w as o r g a n i z e d o n O c t o b e r 2 5, t o p p le th e S u k arn o re g im e. "stu d e n t fro n t" f o r th e th e S ukarno re g im e. 1965 an d h e l p e d t o T he P P I t h u s b e c a m e t h e S u h a rto re g im e a s i t h a d b e e n f o r On May 2 4, 1966 w hen S u h a r t o 's first e c o n o m ic m i s s i o n h e a d e d b y H am engku Buwono a n d E m i l S a l i m came t o J a p a n, th e PPI o f f e r e d to p ro v id e a body g u ard f o r th e m is s io n. T h is was i n a n s w e r t o a r e q u e s t by KAMI w h i c h h a d h e a r d t h e r u m o r i n D j a k a r t a t h a t t h e r e m ain in g p r o - S u k a r n o is t s m is sio n. i n Tokyo m ig h t t r y t o o b s t r u c t t h e === [PDF page 295] === 295 D ew i a n d t h e G e s t a p u The G e s ta p u A f f a i r t o p p l e d t h e p o s i t i o n S uk arn o had h e l d i n In d o n e sia n p o l i t i c s In d o n e sia n r e l a t i o n s. and in Ja p a n e se - No s o o n e r h a d t h e G e s t a p u A f f a i r o c c u rre d th a n she a tte m p te d to d is s o c ia te a b o rtiv e t h a t Dev/i S u k a rn o from t h e coup and t o im p ro v e h i s dam aged r e l a t i o n s w i t h N a su tio n and S u h a rto. Had h e r m a n e u v e r b e e n s u c c e s s f u l, h e r p l a c e i n I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y w o u ld b e u n c o n te ste d. B ecause sh e f a i l e d, In d o n e sia n p o l i t i c s ro le have p a id l i t t l e i n t h e p o s t - G e s t a p u m o n th s. h ere to th o u g h, stu d e n ts a tte n tio n to h er T h u s a n a t t e m p t i s m ade e l u c i d a t e how s h e a c t e d d u r i n g t h i s D ew i o n O c t o b e r 1, tra g e d y. 1965 T here h a v e b e e n c o n f l i c t i n g re p o rts on w h e th e r o r n o r P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o h a d a d v a n c e k n o w le d g e o f t h e S e p tem b e r 3 0 M o v e m e n t. The o f f i c i a l p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t, w ritte n i n 1967 b y N ugroho N o t o s u s a n t o an d I s m a i l S a l e h, c a r e f u l l y a v o id e d m e n tio n in g t h i s w rite rs o u tsid e th e issu e. But se v e ra l I n d o n e s ia n g o v ern m en t i n d i c a t e d S u k a r n o i n d e e d h a d knovm i n th a t a d v a n c e o f t h e M o v e m e n t. T hese w r i t e r s b a s e d t h e i r a s s e r t i o n s on t h e tio n s, r e p o r t s t h a t N ugroho in v e s tig a tio n s, and w itn e s s e s ' sam e i n t e r r o g a and S a le h had u s e d in t h e i r bo o k. T he m i l i t a r y d e c is io n n o t t o h a v e S ukarno t r i e d by i t s a u th o ritie s' sp e c ia l m ilita ry t r i b u n a l M a h m il u b, M ahkam ah M i l i t e r L u a r B i a s a. d e s p i t e s t r o n g dem ands by t h e s tu d e n t g ro u p s, w a n ted t o a v o id t h e m o st s e n s i t i v e s u g g e s ts t h a t th e y and m ost e m b a rra s s in g === [PDF page 296] === 296 issu e in th e a f f a i r. re m a in s u n e x p la in e d i s T h is i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le, t h a t D e w i, who a s S u k a r n o ' s w i f e c o u l d be c o n sid e re d th e c lo s e s t p e rso n m oned t o th e t r i a l y e t w hat t o h i m, w a s n e v e r sum as a w itn e s s o r as a d e fe n d a n t. Dew i w r o t e a n a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t s f r o m O c t o b e r 1 th r o u g h 1 4, w h ic h w as t r a n s l a t e d in to p e a re d in a r a d ic a l a n ti-S u k a rn o KAMI n e w s p a p e r, K a m i, f r o m O c t o b e r 12 t o w ritin g th is 14, In d o n e sia n and ap H er in te n tio n account is n o t c le a r to th is w rite r; o b v io u s t h a t a t l e a s t in p a r t she t r i e d P r e s i d e n t's H a ria n in n o c e n c e. how ever to p ro v e th e N ugroho a n d S a le h w r o te t h a t: t h e n i g h t o f S e p tem b er 3 0, P r e s i d e n t S u k a rn o h a d gone t o s p e n d t h e n i g h t a t Madame D e w i ' s h o u s e i n D j a l a n S l i p i. A t 6:0 0 t h a t m o rn in g t h e P r e s i d e n t w as in f o r m e d b y one o f h is a i d e s t h a t s e v e r a l Army g e n e r a l s h a d b e e n a b d u c t e d d u rin g th e n ig h t. P a la c e. The P r e s i d e n t i m m e d ia te l y l e f t f o r t h e D ew i \ n r 'o t e: "We w oke a t 6: 0 0 a. m. w i t h o u t k n o w in g w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d P r e s i d e n t ] was a b o u t t o l e a v e a t 6: 4 0, f r o m C om m ander S a b u r, th e g u ard s, . When h e as u su a l, [th e he re c e iv e d r e p o r ts and P o l i c e C h ie f M a n g il. T h e P r e s i d e n t l o o k e d t e n s e f o r a m o m en t b u t t h e n r e l a x e d 135 and l e f t f o r th e P a la c e." D ew i s e e m s t o h a v e t r i e d t o e s t a b l i s h n o t o n ly th e P r e s i d e n t 's in n o c e n c e b u t a ls o her ow n. S i n c e D e w i ' s h o u s e w a s on t h e m a i n r o a d l e a d i n g t o H a lim, A rn o ld B rackm an, In d o n e sia n a f f a i r s, a jo u rn a lis t sp e c ia liz in g w o nd ered i n h i s book i f S u k a rn o m ig h t === [PDF page 297] === 297 h a v e " c o n f e r r e d a t h e r h o u s e w i t h a n y c o u r i e r o r m em ber o f t h e c o n s p i r a c y who w a s e n r o u t e t o H a l i m t h a t e a r l y 136 m o rn in g." O m o ri M i n o r u, a M a i n i c h i S h i n b u n c o r r e s p o n d en t and o n e -tim e c lo s e f r ie n d o f D e w i's, g iv e s an a c c o u n t i n w h i c h D ew i d i d n o t g e t u p u n t i l 1 0 o ' c l o c k. I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t O m o r i ' s a c c o u n t i s m o re a c c u r a t e D e w i 's b e c a u s e, la te she had p la y e d c a rd s u n t i l v e ry on t h e n i g h t o f S e p te m b e r 3 0, m ak in g i t she s l e p t l a t e first, in to th a n lik e ly th a t th e fo llo w in g m o r n i n g. S e c o n d, ®Tie h a d w a k e d u p a t 6: 0 0 a. m. as she c la im e d, sh e m ust h a v e s e e n t h a t Com m ander S a b u r o f t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l P a l a c e G u a r d, who u s u a l l y cam e t o p i c k up t h e P r e s i d e n t, come t o Wisma Y a s o o t h a t m o r n i n g. T h e o f O c to b e r 3, d id n o t A s a h i S h in b u n 1965 r e p o r t e d t h a t D e w i 's f r i e n d h a d in f o r m e d new sp aperm en o f t h e rum o r t h a t upon h e a r i n g o f t h e coup Suk arn o f le w t o p o ss ib le th e P a la c e by h e l i c o p t e r d a n g e r on t h e n i g h t r o a d. " S u k arn o h a d l e f t w h ile i t flic tin g still " to a v o id th e T h is im p lie s t h a t w as d a r k. T hese con a c c o u n ts s e rv e o n ly to c lo u d th e a c t u a l e v e n ts a t D e w i's h o u s e t h a t e a r l y m o rn in g o f O c to b e r 1. N o n e th e le s s a f t e r th e G e sta p u A f f a i r had o c c u r r e d, sh e b e g a n t o p l a y an i n te r m e d i a r y r o l e b e tw e e n S u k arn o and N a s u tio n. On t h e m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 1 w h en S u h a r t o ' s and N a s u t i o n 's tr o o p s b eg an t o c o u n te ra tta c k re b e ls, t h e r e w ere f r e q u e n t te le p h o n e c a l l s Y asoo, in q u irin g h is in to s a f e t y. A b o u t th e G e sta p u t o Wisma th e w h e re a b o u ts o f th e P r e s i d e n t and 10 o 'c l o c k t h e f i r s t c o n t a c t man f r o m === [PDF page 298] === 298 t h e P r e s i d e n t cam e t o W isma Y a s o o t o D ew i f r o m S u k a r n o i n w h i c h h e s a i d d e liv e r a l e t t e r t h a t h e w a s now a t t h e H a lim A i r F o r c e B a s e an d t h a t s h e d i d n o t n e e d t o w o r r y. L e a r n i n g t h e l a t e s t d e v e l o p m e n t s f r o m t h e c o n t a c t m an, she "saw t h e w h o le t h i n g a s a n i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t i n t h e A rm y." 142 re p ly to A c c o r d i n g t o O m o ri, S ukarno and gave i t she u rg ed th e P r e s id e n t to a s soon a s p o s s i b l e. Dewi i m m e d i a t e l y t y p e d a t h e c o n t a c t m a n.^ ^ ^ In i t in fo rm th e n a ti o n o f h i s sa fe ty V / h e th e r h e r u r g i n g d i r e c t l y in flu e n c e d S uk arn o i s n o t know n y e t b u t t h a t a f t e r n o o n S a b u r, who w as a t H a lim, is s u e d an announcem ent to 10 o 'c l o c k, O ffic e Dewi w r o t e. th a t e f f e c t. A f t e r G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n ' s S u p re m e War ( P e r v / i r a T i n g g i ) s e n t a s e c r e t c o n t a c t man t o ask D ewi a b o u t t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n d i t i o n t e l l i n g h e r t h a t N a s u tio n w ish e d t o O m o r i's a c c o u n t, c o n ta c t th e P r e s i d e n t. A c c o r d i n g t h e c o n t a c t man u r g e d h e r t o c o n ta c t th e P r e s i d e n t f o r N a s u tio n im m e d ia te ly, "b efo re he f e l l C o m m u n is t h a n d s, " " i t w a s y o u [ D e w i] who e m p h a siz in g t h a t c o u l d c o n t a c t t h e P r e s i d e n t n o w." ^ ^ ® w ro te, th e P r e s i d e n t 's m essage: " I w o u ld l i k e in to A t 5: 0 0 p. m. D ew i c o n t a c t man r e t u r n e d w i t h a n o t h e r to se e you a s soon a s p o s s ib l e about s o m e th in g w h ic h c a n n o t be m e n tio n e d i n t h i s l e t t e r. She im m e d ia te ly s e n t an a n sw e r an d a t 8 o 'c l o c k th a t n ig h t S u k a r n o s e n t a j e e p t o Wisma Y a s o o a n d D ew i w e n t t o H a l im d is g u is e d in a b la c k s u i t and s c a r f. D ewi w r o t e t h a t a t 9: 0 0 p. m. s h e a r r i v e d a t H a l im a n d sa w h e r h u s b a n d a c c o m p a n i e d b y som e t e n men i n c l u d i n g === [PDF page 299] === 299 C a b i n e t m em ber L e i m e n a a n d A i r F o r c e C om m ander Omar D h a n i, ( S u b a n d r i o t h e n was i n N o r t h S u m a tr a, w as i n P e k i n g. ) D ew i a n d S u k a r n o e x c u s e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d ta lk e d f o r an h o u r in p r iv a te. in siste d D ew i r e c a l l e d t h a t s h e t h a t t h e p e o p le w ere w o r r ie d a b o u t t h e P r e s i d e n t 's w a n ted t o h e a r h i s v o i c e, t o h im t o issu e and o rd e r. and t h a t she a p p e a le d P re sid e n tia l o rd ers re s to rin g L e a rn in g o f h i s p la n t o f l y a C o m m u n is t s t r o n g h o l d i n E a s t J a v a, and C h a iru l S a le h go a l o n g b u t S u k a rn o r e p l i e d: se c u rity a t o n c e t o M adium, she w ro te, she ask ed "W h ile I w o u ld b e t h a n k - l o i ’ y o u r c o m p a n y, p l e a s e w a i t f o r me u n t i l t h e becom es o r d e r l y once m o re." ^ ^ ^ When t h e i r t a l k situ a tio n th u s ended t h e l e a d e r s who h a d g a t h e r e d a t H a l i m b e g a n t o g e t i n t o th e ir c a r s t o d r i v e up t o O m o r i's a c c o u n t, th e a irp la n e s; D ew i m a n a g e d t o c a r and once in s id e ste p sa id i n t o D r. L e im e n a 's s h e p l e a d e d w i t h L e im e n a t o p e r s u a d e S u k a rn o n o t t o go t o E a s t J a v a.^ ^ ^ (L e im e n a ), a c c o rd in g to to h e r, A c c o r d i n g t o D e w i, h e " D o n 't w o r r y. I 'l l ta k e c a re o f h im f o r y o u. D ew i w e n t hom e a n d d i d n o t know u n t i l t h e n e x t m o r n i n g t h a t a f t e r 15 m i n u t e s i n t h e a i r P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o changed h is m in d a n d r e t u r n e d t o H a l i m. a n o th e r P r e s id e n tia l p a la c e o f D ja k a rta. Dewi w r i t e s i n B o g o r, 30 m i l e s s o u t h t h a t s h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s was due to L e i m i n e 's u r g i n g. I f tru e, i t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t on t h e Coup s h e p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l He w a s t h e n d r i v e n ro le w hat she h as d e s c rib e d i s f i r s t d a y o f t h e U n tu n g a s an i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n === [PDF page 300] === 300 th e P r e s id e n t and th e N a su tio n -S u h a rto m i l i t a r y g ro u p, t h a t s h e h a d h a d som e i n f l u e n c e and i n S u k a r n o 's d e c i s i o n n o t t o f l y t o M adium. T he D e v i - S u b a n d r i o R i v a l r y, O c to b e r 1965-M arch 1966 P r e s i d e n t S u k arn o s ta y e d i n B ogor u n t i l O c to b e r 9, w i t h som e o f h i s C a b i n e t m e m b e rs, m o s t n o t a b l y S u b a n d r i o. H is se c o n d w i f e. M a rtin i, a l s o was l i v i n g i n B ogor. S u b a n d r io r e t u r n e d t o D j a k a r t a fro m N o r th S u m a tra on O c to b e r 2 an d S a l e h a r r i v e d fro m P e k in g on O c to b e r 7. W isma Y a s o o, a c c o rd in g to O m o ri, Dewi now b e l i e v e d t h a t i t w a s S u b a n d r i o who h a d t r i e d d r a w S u k a r n o a w ay f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y a n d t o w a r d t h e C o m m u n i s ts, and th u s sh e f e l t th e n e c e s s i t y t o b r i n g a b o u t a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e tw e e n th e m.^ ^ ^ I n o r d e r t o c o m m u n ic a te s e c r e t l y w i t h N a s u t i o n, Dewi b o ld ly t o c a l l on s e n t one o f h e r c lo s e M rs. N a s u t i o n. T h r o u g h In d o n e sia n f r ie n d s h e r f r i e n d D ew i l e a r n e d t h a t G e n e ra l N a s u tio n w ish e d t o b r i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t from B ogor back to th e c a p i t a l. and f o r t h s e v e r a l t i m e s b e t w e e n N a s u t i o n ' s a n d D e w i 's re sid e n c e s, th a t th e A f t e r D e w i 's c o u r i e r h a d g o n e b a c k N a s u t i o n s e n t a man o n t h i s m i s s i o n, j o b w a s t o o d a n g e r o u s f o r a w om an. m e a n ti m e Dewi w r o t e s e v e r a l l e t t e r s on O c to b e r 3, In th e to S ukarno, t h e n on O c to b e r 7 an d 9, d e c la rin g th e f i r s t e x p la in in g th e d ev elo p m e n ts i n D ja k a r ta. S u k a r n o cam e b a c k t o D j a k a r t a o n O c t o b e r 9 f o r t h e first tim e s i n c e h e h a d l e f t on O c to b e r 1. Dewi w r i t e s t h a t on O c to b e r 9 s h e l e a r n e d o f S u k a r n o 's r e t u r n t h r o u g h a === [PDF page 301] === 301 c o u r i e r from th e P r e s i d e n t i a l p a l a c e. S h e a g a in u rg ed t h a t S u k a r n o m ake a s e t t l e m e n t w i t h N a s u t i o n. ^ ^ ^ eg reed, S uk arn o s u g g e s t i n g t h a t h e a n d D ew i m e e t w i t h G e n e r a l a n d M r s. N a s u t i o n on O c t o b e r 1 1, w h i c h t h e y d i d. ^ ^ l O c to b e r 14 t h e y i n v i t e d M rs. Y a n i, Army C h i e f o f S t a f f, s la in, w hose h u sb a n d, th e h a d b e e n am on g t h o s e s i x g e n e r a l s com e a n d s e e t h e m. T h e r e a f t e r Dewi s e e m s a l s o to have t r i e d o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n S u k a rn o an d S u h a r to. d ay s a f t e r S u k arn o and N a s u tio n m et, sm o o th A few a c c o r d i n g t o O m o r i, Dew i a n d S u h a r t o p l a y e d g o l f t o g e t h e r e a r l y i n t h e m o rn in g, O m ori r e a s o n s t h a t Dewi h a d s e n s e d t h a t S u h a r t o w a n t e d t o make a r a p p r o c h e m e n t w i t h t h e O m o ri, D ew i c l a i m e d t h a t President.A ccording "sh e and S u h a rto fa c e d a common e n e m y, S u b a n d r i o. I t w a s know n t h a t S u b a n d r i o had c u ltiv a te d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith H a r t i n i and th ro u g h h e r h a d b e c o m e c l o s e t o B un g K a r n o. T h e re w as f u r t h e r sp e c u la tio n t h a t a n o t h e r wom an, H a r j a t i, fo u rth w ife, was g a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e, w a n ted t o c irc le. a i d e d b y S a b u r w^ho i n c r e a s e h i s pow er w i t h in th e P r e s i d e n t i a l i s n o t s tra n g e t h a t u n d er th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s Dewi f o u n d t h e G e s t a p u a g r a v e t h r e a t, S u k a r n o 's r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t, fa ilu re th e P r e s i d e n t 's o f th e t h a t she s tro v e f o r and t h a t she t r i e d to use th e coup t o c r u s h th e S u b a n d r io - H a r tin i- Y a o C h ung M ing a l l i a n c e. One a l s o may s p e c u l a t e t h a t S u k a r n o a s w e l l w i s h e d t o u s e t h e a n t i —C o m m u n is t Dewi t o i m p r e s s upon th e a n ti-C o m m u n ist m i l i t a r y t h a t h e t o o w as === [PDF page 302] === 302 n o n -C o m m u n ist, i f n o t a n ti-C o m m u n ist. On O c t o b e r 19 S ukarno h e ld a p r e s s c o n fe r e n c e w ith a gro u p o f J a p a n e s e j o u r n a l i s t s, a t w h i c h Dewi w a s c o n s p i c u o u s l y p r e s e n t. On D e c e m b e r 1 0, 1 9 6 5 S u k a r n o a n d Dewi h e l d a c o r n e r s t o n e l a y i n g c e r e m o n y f o r t h e S a r i A s i h H o s p i t a l w h i c h s h e w as b u i l d i n g w i t h c o n t r i b u t i o n s from v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s in c lu d in g th e In d o n e sia -Ja p a n F rie n d sh ip S o c ie ty. D e c e m b e r 23 a t t h e M e r d e k a P a l a c e, S u h a rto, S ukarno, N a su tio n, and t h e i r w iv e s gave a C h ristm a s p a r t y, a c c o rd in g t o O m o ri. T h e s e m a n e u v e r s o f D e w i ' s o f f e n d e d S u b a n d r i o who f e l t t h a t S u k arn o and t h e m i l i t a r y a g a i n s t h im. f o r c e s w ere j o i n i n g O m ori i n f e r s t h a t S u b a n d r i o t h e n w o r k e d t o s e p a r a t e D ew i f r o m S u k a r n o. A t ( w h i c h Dewi l a t e r S u k a r n o 's s u g g e s t i o n deem ed w as p ro m p te d by S u b a n d r io ) she v i s i t e d J a p a n i n e a r l y J a n u a r y 1966 on b e h a l f o f t h e In d o n e s ia n g o v ern m en t t o r e q u e s t J a p a n e s e g o v ern m en t a id to b u ild h er h o s p ita ly D ew i w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n, B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l S j a r i e f T h a j e b, who w as c o n s id e re d sy m p a th e tic th e r i s i n g s p e c u l a t e d t h a t D ew i' s t r i p schem e t o o u st th e p r o - m ilita r y n e s i a n g o v e rn m e n t. stu d e n t u n re s t. w as p a r t o f S u b a n d r i o ' s e le m e n ts fro m t h e In d o F o llo w in g h e r s ta y i n Ja p a n, Dewi t r a v e l e d to E urope t o o b s e rv e h o s p i t a l f a c i l i t i e s and c o n d itio n s th e re. V /h ile i n Rome s h e w a s t o l d b y t h e I n d o n e s i a n E m b a s s y t h a t s h e s h o u l d n o t r e t u r n home t o === [PDF page 303] === 303 D ja k a r ta and t h i s a g a in, S u b a n d rio ' s f o llo w e r s. she th o u g h t, w as c o n s p i r e d by 170 W h i l e s h e w a s a w ay S u k a r n o b e c a m e c r i t i c a l o f t h e m i l i t a r y and w ith S u b a n d rio becam e s y m p a th e tic to w a rd t h e PK I. O m o ri w r i t e s to w a rd th e m i l i t a r y t h a t S u k a r n o 's ch an g e i n a t t i t u d e a n d t o w a r d t h e PKI d u r i n g J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y o f 1 966 w as a f f e c t e d b y S u b a n d r i o a n d t h a t S u b a n d r i o a p p e a r e d t o h a v e s p i r i t e d D ew i o u t o f I n d o n e s i a so t h a t he c o u ld c u r t a i l h e r in f lu e n c e The a c c u r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p o v erS u k arn o. 171 o f S u b a n d r io t o D ew i' s t r i p s J a p a n and E urope re m a in s t o be c l a r i f i e d. S u k arn o ' s change o f a t t i t u d e N e v e rth e le ss, to w a rd th e m i l i t a r y d id c o i n c i d e w i t h th em. T he m i l i t a r y - b a c k e d s tu d e n t d e m o n s tra tio n s in te n sifie d i n m id -J a n u a ry, p ro te s tin g e c o n o m ic i n f l a t i o n c a llin g f o r th e rem o v al o f S u b a n d rio and C h a ir u l S a le h. The s t u d e n t s a l s o dem anded t h a t S u k a rn o b e t r i e d c o n n e c tio n w ith h is a lle g e d and c o m p lic ity w ith th e G e stap u. B u t i n a m e m o r a b l e J a n u a r y 15 c a b i n e t s e s s i o n w h i c h s t u d e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w ere i n v i t e d d e fe n d e d S u b a n d rio and S a le h, th e one to th e re ite ra tin g 172 In resp o n se S a l e h a n d S u b a n d r i o m oved t o "S ukarno F ro n t" th e P r e s id e n t." S ukarno t h a t h e w as t a k e f u l l command o f t h e n a t i o n. S u k a r n o 's a p p e a l, lis h to a tte n d, and t o " d e s tro y th e e sta b e n e m ie s o f By J a n u a r y 2 1 i t w a s d e c i d e d t h a t t h e S u k a r n o F r o n t w o u l d b e com m anded b y S a l e h, who a l s o w a s a c tin g c h a irm a n o f th e N a t io n a l F r o n t. T he S u k a r n o F r o n t === [PDF page 304] === 304 e x p e c te d to g a th e r i t s f o r c e s p r i m a r i l y from t h e l e f t - w i n g PNI a n d t h e p r o - C o m m u n i s t, p r o - S u k a r n o I n d o n e s i a n P a rty (P a rtin d o ), and i t s fo rm a tio n q u ic k ly a ro u se d th e o p p o s itio n o f th e Is la m ic p re s s as w e ll as o f th e m il i ta r y le a d e rs h ip. On J a n u a r y 2 7 S u b a n d r i o ' s F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y a n n o u n c e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a h a d r e c e i v e d some 1 0, 0 0 0 t o n s o f ric e from C h in a, i n t i m a t i n g t h a t i t w o u ld c o n t i n u e t o en co u rag e In d o n e sia n -C h in e se r e l a t i o n s, and in a F e b ru a ry 13 m ass m e e tin g S u k a rn o o p e n ly s u p p o r t e d t h e P K I. Dewi r e t u r n e d la te t o D j a k a r t a on F e b ru a ry 2 2, e x e r t f u r t h e r i n f l u e n c e on S u k a rn o. 21 S u k arn o h ad r e s h u f f l e d h i s c a b in e t, N a su tio n a s h i s D efen se M in is te r. in c lu d e d S u b a n d rio, S a le h, to o On F e b r u a r y o u s tin g G en eral T he new c a b i n e t s t i l l a n d e v e n Omar D h a n i, who h a d b e en a c c u se d o f s u p p o r tin g th e G e sta p u. M in iste r o f E d u c a ti o n S j a r i e f T h a je b h a d b e e n p ro m o te d t o th e p o s t o f D e p u ty C h a irm a n o f t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s. S u karno a g a in e x p re ssed h is w i l l to c o n tin u e th e C o n fro n ta tio n p o l i c y a g a i n s t M a l a y s i a a n d t h u s o n F e b r u a r y 23 r e n a m e d t h e S u p r e m e O p e r a t i o n s Command ( KO TI) a s t h e S u p re m e C r u s h M a l a y s i a Command (KOGAM) w h i c h h e h i m s e l f h e a d e d. was a d e f i a n t c h a l l e n g e t o and s tu d e n t g ro u p s. S u karn o m i l i t a r y, p ress a tta c k T h is th e rig h t-w in g m ilita r y le a d e rs The s t u d e n t s, w e r e now o n t h e e n co u rag e d by th e a n t i stre e ts ev ery day to t h e i r dem ands an d w e re e v en b o a s t i n g o f a p l a n t o t h e r e s i d e n c e s o f S u k a r n o ’ s w i v e s, D e w i, H a r t i n i, 17 5 and H a r ja t i. ^ T he S u h a r t o - N a s u t i o n g r o u p f i n a l l y s t a g e d === [PDF page 305] === 305 a b l o o d l e s s co u p a g a i n s t S u k a rn o on M arch 1 1, S u k a r n o, who h a d f l e d i n w h ic h t o B o g o r i n t h e w ake o f s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s an d m i l i t a r y m a n e u v e r s, w as f o r c e d t o sig n a d ecree c e r tif y in g th e t r a n s f e r o f pow er to S u h a rto exchange f o r S u h a r t o 's g u a ra n te e o f h i s D ew i' s L a s t A tte m p t t o S u rv iv e, sa fe ty. M a rc h 1 9 6 6 T h e M a rc h 11 A f f a i r c h a n g e d t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n th e rig h t-w in g m ilita r y and th e S u k a rn o -S u b a n d rio f o r c e s, and t h i s d e c isiv e ly tim e c h an g e d i t in th e f o r m e r 's f a v o r. T h e PKI w a s b a n n e d o n M a r c h 1 2. In th e o f pow er, a g a in t o b r i n g S ukarno D ew i i m m e d i a t e l y t r i e d and th e m i l i t a r y c lo s e r to g e th e r. face o f th is sh ift On M a r c h 1 4 s h e p l a n n e d a p a r t y w ith w iv e s o f p ro m in e n t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a t W isma Y a s o o " i n c o m m e m o r a ti o n o f t h e d i s s o l u t i o n T h i s i m p r u d e n t p e r f o r m a n c e r e p o r t e d l y a n g e r e d S u k a r n o, who o rd ered h e r to c an c el th e p a rty. 177 L a t e r on M arch 19 she e x p la in e d to th e p r e s s t h a t th e p a r ty had been p la n n e d s q u a s h t h e ru m o r t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t and th e m i l i t a r y 1 fJQ w ere n o t on good te r m s. S u b a n d rio and S a le h, S u k a r n o ' s tv/o r i g h t - h a n d m en, w ere a r r e s t e d o n M a r c h 1 8, b u t D ew i c o n t i n u e d t o w ork to w a r d a S u h a r t o - S u k a r n o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n. On M a rc h 2 0 s h e p l a y e d g o l f w i t h S u h a r t o who s u p p o s e d l y su g g e ste d t h a t she p ro p o se to to Japan. 179 S u k a r n o t h a t h e m ake a t r i p T h is s u g g e s ts a s th e b a s i s f o r t h e rum o r t h a t th e P r e s i d e n t m ig h t s e e k r e f u g e a b ro a d and r e f l e c t s th e p e o p l e 's f e e l i n g s and a ls o to w a rd S u k a r n o 's im m in en t d o w n f a ll t h a t o f D e w i 's. === [PDF page 306] === 306 D ew i f a i l e d re p e a te d ly in h e r a tte m p ts to th e p o l i t i c a l tu rm o il. When S u k a r n o f i n a l l y su rv iv e l o s t po w er, sh e to o l o s t a f o u n d a t i o n from w h ic h t o w o rk. Novem ber 1966 s h e l e f t of th e ir d a u g h te r, f o r Japan f o r th e b i r t h w h ile S u k a rn o re m a in e d c o n f in e d i n B o g o r. d id n o t m eet a g a in u n t i l June 19, th e f i r s t 1970, They one day b e fo re I n d o n e s ia n P r e s i d e n t ended h i s 69 y e a r s. An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e S u k a r n o i s t s i n Ja p a n e se -In d o n e s ia n R e la tio n s The S u k a r n o i s t s w e re a g ro u p w i t h d i s p a r a t e m o t i v a tio n s. T hey e m e rg e d i n Tokyo a b o u t I 9 6 0 t h r o u g h t h e In d o n e sia n S tu d e n ts A s s o c ia tio n serv ed as f r o n ts f o r t h e PN I. (P P I) a n d t h e E m bassy w h ic h F ro m I 9 6 0 t o a n d t h e E m bassy h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e n ese su p p o rt, W est I r i a n. a lb e it in d ire c t, 1962 th e PPI su c c e ss in b lo c k in g Ja p a o f D u tc h e f f o r t s re ta in A f t e r 1962 th e S u k a r n o i s t s, w ith i n c r e a s e d i n f l u e n c e b y PK I d o c t r i n e s, b e c a m e m o re r a d i c a l. T h e ir s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t e r am ong t h e J a p a n e s e w a s t h e J a p a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y, and c o n s e q u e n tly t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o p ro m o te th e a n ti-M a la y sia p o lic y, d iffic u lty t h e GANEFO, a n d t h e CONEFO f a c e d and g a in e d s u p p o rt o n ly o u ts id e th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t. As a m o d u s o p e r a n d i t h e S u k a r n o i s t s r e s o r t e d m o s t l y s t r e e t d e m o n s tra tio n s and n o t to q u i e t p e r s u a s io n th ro u g h p e rs o n a l c o n ta c ts. In th is se n se th e y c a n n o t be te rm e d t h e S u k a r n o i s t Lobby an d a r e b e t t e r c a l l e d th e === [PDF page 307] === 307 S u k a rn o is t p re s s u r e group. re p a ra tio n s U n lik e t h e P e a c e Lobby and lo b b ie s o b se rv e d in C h a p te rs I I I a n d V, th e S u k a r n o i s t g r o u p s i n c l u d e d few " J a p a n e x p e r t s " and w ere a b l e t o g a t h e r o n l y a few " I n d o n e s i a e x p e r t s " from th e Japanese. The s p a r s e u s e o f p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s p l u s t h e la c k o f lo b b y in g e x p la in in p a r t t h e i r lim ite d success i n g a in i n g J a p a n e s e g o v ern m en t s u p p o r t f o r t h e i r a n t i M a la y s ia and o t h e r p o s t-1 9 6 3 p o l i c i e s. S u k a r n o 's c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p w as s u p p o r te d la rg e ly by h is fa v o ritism in a p p o in tm e n ts t o im p o rta n t g o v e rn m e n t p o s t s and by h i s m a n ip u la tio n o f c o m p e tin g p o litic a l fo rces. O n ly i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r c o u ld th e s e f o r c e s se e th e b e n e f i t o f s u p p o r tin g S uk arno. T h is w as m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e i r im m e d ia te r e a c t i o n s t o G e sta p u, as l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n w as a v a i l a b l e S u k a r n o i s t s h a d no c h o ic e b u t t o t h e Army l e a d e r s, p o r te d S u k arn o, who a f t e r still trie d th e i n Tokyo, su p p o rt S uk arn o. th e Even O c to b e r 1965 no l o n g e r s u p to m a i n t a i n o r d e r i n h i s nam e. B u t l a t e r w h e n t h e Army c h a l l e n g e d S u k a r n o ' s p o w e r, th e S u k a rn o ists q u ic k ly c o lla p s e d. T h e m a j o r m em b ers o f t h e S u k a r n o i s t g r o u p, rio, S a le h, H arso n o, S a b u r, N jo n o, N j o t o, L uk m an, J u s u f Muda D a le m, a n d M arkam, w e r e a r r e s t e d a n d s e n t e n c e d. o f th e I n d o n e s i a n Em bassy o f f i c i a l s w e re d i s m i s s e d. le ft In d o n e sia. When t h e PKI f e l l, s u p p o rt o f S ukarno. tria ls, Suband O n e -th ird Dewi t h e JC P e n d e d i t s In th e a fte rm a th o f th e p o st-G e sta p u a l l e g e d m o n e t a r y c o r r u p t i o n am on g S u k a r n o i s t === [PDF page 308] === 308 l e a d e r s w as r e v e a l e d. H e r e o n e may i m a g i n e t h a t p a r t o f t h e J a p a n e s e r e p a r a t i o n s f u n d s and K a w a sh im a ' s c r e d i t s m ig h t h a v e b e e n u s e d t o fin a n c e th e S u k a rn o is ts ' p o l i t i c a l and p e rs o n a l n e ed s. I n l i g h t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n Tokyo a n d D ja k a rta, t h e P P I a n d D ew i b e c o m e s i g n i f i c a n t. B o th r o s e t o p ro m in e n c e a s a r e s u l t o f J a p a n 's r e p a r a t i o n s p ro g ra m s. The P P I 's e s s e n tia l id e o lo g y; and u sin g to and a m b itio n, p o litic s. advance S u k a rn o ist a d v a n ta g e h e r b e a u ty, in te llig e n c e, D ew i i n v o l v e d h e r s e l f i n S u k a r n o ' s p o w e r F o r a s h o r t p e r i o d from e a r l y S e p tem b er 1 9 6 5, lin k f u n c t i o n w as t o 1964 th ro u g h a s s e e n i n C h a p t e r V I, D ew i s e r v e d a s a b e tw e e n t h e J a p a n e s e and t h e I n d o n e s i a n g o v e rn m e n ts, c o m p e tin g w i t h H a r j a t i and S u b a n d rio t o p ro m o te J a p a n e s e in te re s ts S u k a r n o 's fo re ig n p o lic y. In th e p o s t- G e s t a p u m o n t h s D ew i c o n t i n u e d t o c o m p e t e w i t h S u b a n d r i o, try in g to a c c o m p lis h a ra p p ro c h e m e n t b e tw e e n S u k arn o and th e m ilita r y b u t w as n o t s u c c e s s f u l. S u k a r n o 's d e p a r t u r e o b lig e d to U pon D e w i ' s a n d fro m I n d o n e s i a n p o l i t i c s, r e p l a c e t h e K a w a sh im a L o b b y, J a p a n w as a d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r. === [PDF page 309] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER V II ^In Ind o n esian th ey a re r e s p e c tiv e ly: UndangU n d a n g D a s a r 194-5 ( U ), S o s i a l i s m a l a I n d o n e s i a ( S ), D em o k ra si T e rp im p in (D ), Ekcnomi T e rp im p in (E ), and K e p rih a d ia n I n d o n e s ia (K ). P a n t.ja S i l a means t h e " f i v e p r i n c i p l e s " w h ic h S u k a rn o f ra m e d i n J u n e 1945 a s b a s i c p i l l a r s o f t h e I n d o n esian c o n stitu tio n. They a r e: n a tio n alism, in te rn a t i o n a l i s m, d e m o c r a c y, s o c i a l j u s t i c e, a n d b e l i e f i n God. ^ S u k a r n o, S u k a r n o: An A u t o b i o g r a p h y a s T o ld t o C i n d y Adams ( I n d i a n a p o l i s, I n d.: The B o b b s - M e r r i l l C o., 19651, p. 283. "BAMUNAS A l a t M a n i p u l a s i S u k a r n o, " H a r i a n K a m i, F e b ru ary 28, 1967. Dewi w r o t e i n 1 9 6 9: "D uring th e Sukarno p e r i o d... t h e r e w e r e t h o s e I n d o n e s i a n s who c h a r g e d 3 p e r c e n t com m ission f o r a s s i s t i n g e v e r y b u s i n e s s d e a l w ith w hich t h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d a n d who v o l u n t a r i l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s t a t e fund. They w e re u s e d f o r t h e o v e r s e a s t r a v e l c o s t s o f s t a t e d i g n i t a r i e s, t h e ex p en se s f o r h o l d in g th e A sian Games a n d t h e l i k e, l e s t t h e n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e b e i m p a ire d." S e e Dewi S u k a r n o, " D a i t o r y o f u j i n e n o k e t s u b e s t su " ( 1 ), Shukan G e n d a i, December 11, 1969, p. 49. ^ In d o n esia, A tto rn ey -G en eral, P roses P e ra d ila n J u s u f Muda D a l a m ( D j a k a r t a: P e m b i m b i n g M a s a, 1 9 6 7 ), p. k o r h is b io g ra p h y, see i b i d., pp. 117-18. 78. ^ I b id., p. 84. I b i d., p. 86. In th e t r i a l Ju s u f ex p lain ed th a t f o r t h e R e v o l u t i o n Fund he had u s e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t r a d e r s who w e r e l i c e n s e d t o u s e $ 6 m i l l i o n o f c r e d i t e a r m a r k e d f o r t e x t i l e i m p o r t from J a p a n. T h is $6 m i l l i o n was p a r t o f K a w a sh im a 's l o a n o f $37 m i l l i o n c o m m itte d i n A u g u s t 1 965. See C h a p te r V I. ^ I b id.. pp. 92, 149. ^ * ^ " S u k a r u n o o me g u t t a N i h o n j i n, " S h u k a n S h i n c h o, A p r il 2, 1966, pp. 3 6 -37. ^^Anonymous f o r m e r I n d u s t r y M i n i s t r y o f f i c i a l, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, November 1 9 7 1. 309 === [PDF page 310] === 310 An a d v e r t i s e m e n t p a g e i n I n d o n e s i a R e v i e w, V o l. 1 (Ja n u a ry, 1951). ^ ^ A n ta ra, A ugust 26, 1965; and A sa h i S h in b u n, Feb r u a r y 11, 1967. A nother i n d i c a t i o n o f th e c lo s e a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n S ukarno and D asaad was t h e rum or s p r e a d i n 1967 t h a t th e l a t t e r m ight be a rra n g in g f o r S u k a rn o ' s e x i l e to Japan. See A sah i S h in b u n, F e b r u a r y 11, 1967. ^^S t r a i t s T i m e s, May 1 2, 1966. ^^Sukarno h e ld p r i v a t e a u c tio n s i n th e P r e s i d e n t i a l P a la c e t o s e l l h i s h a t s, p a i n t i n g s, e t c., t o w hich he i n v i t e d w ea lth y businessm en. From a n A n t a r a s t a f f member, p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n i n D j a k a r t a, F e b r u a r y, '1 9 7 2. ^^A ntara I c h t i s a r 1965, p. 1097. ^ ^ I b i d., p. 1154. He w a s a r r e s t e d o n M a r c h. 2 3, 1 9 6 6 a n d d e t a i n e d by t h e m i l i t a r y o n t h e c h a r g e o f m i s u s e of p u b lic funds. H is company was t a k e n o v e r by t h e m i l i t a r y a n d r e n a m e d t h e B e r d i k a r i Company. See M e rd e k a, M arch 11, 19 7 1; a n d H a r i a n A b a d i, M arch 1 5, 1 9 7 1. ^^Anonymous E x e c u t i v e c o m m i t t e e member o f t h e N a d e s h i k o C lu b, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, F e b r u a r y 1971. ^ ^ I n d o n e s i a n Army, J u s t i c e E d u c a t i o n O f f i c e, G - 5 0 - S d ih a d a o a n M ahm illub 3 d i D j a k a r t a ( P e r k a r a D r. S u b a n d r io j (D jak arta; Pem bim bing H a s a, 1 9 6 7 ), I I, p p. 2 2 1 - 2 3, 2 6 6 - 6 7. ^ ^ F o r a b a c k g r o u n d o f t h i s m ovem ent, s e e Howard P. Jo n es, Indonesi a; The P o s s i b l e Dream (New Y o r k; H arcourt B race JovanovicK, I n c., 1 971), pp. 352-58. ^^Ib id., p. 395. ^^A t t h e end o f 1959 t h e t o t a l o f 257 I n d o n e s i a n r e s i d e n t s i n c l u d e d 90 g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s, 6 5 s t u d e n t s a n d t r a i n e e s, a n d 14 b u s i n e s s m e n. See J a p a n, F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y, I n d o n e s h i a K y ôw ako k u b e n r a n ( T o k y o; N ihon K o k u s a i M o n d a i K e n k y ü j o, I 9 6 0 ), p i ^ - As o f J u l y 1 9 6 3, t h e t o t a l o f 851 r e s i d e n t s w ere c o m p r is e d o f 127 Embassy and C o n s u la r o f f i c i a l s, 28 R e p a r a ti o n s M is s io n o f f i c i a l s, 130 t r a d e r s and s t u d e n t s on p r i v a t e e x p e n s e s, 3 6 8 r e p a r a t i o n s s t u d e n t s, and 1 9 8 r e p a r a t i o n s t r a i n e e s. See Japan, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, I n d o n e s h i a Kyowakoku b e n r a n (T o k y o; N ih o n K o k u s a i Mondai K e n k y u jo, 1 9 6 4 ), p i 1 7 1. A v ailab le I n d o n e s i a n r e c o r d s sh o w t h a t u n d e r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s p r o g r a m s 95 s t u d e n t s cam e t o J a p a n i n 1 9 6 0 - 6 1, 1 0 0 i n 1 9 6 1 - 6 2, 1 15 i n 1 9 6 2 - 6 3, a n d 58 i n 1 9 6 3 - 6 4. See I n d o n e s i a n Embassy, Tokyo, L aooran Tahunan 1961, p. 119; 1 9 6 2, p. 133, and 1 9 6 3. s e c t i o n V, p. 191 No r e c o r d s w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s w r i t e r f o r th e number o f s t u d e n ts i n 1 9 6 4 -6 5. A nother === [PDF page 311] === 311 s o u r c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a t o t a l o f 378 s t u d e n t s an d 474 t r a i n e e s came. S e e C h a p t e r IV o f t h i s t h e s i s. 23 T he S u m a t r a n r e b e l s who a t t e m p t e d t o a s s a s s i n a t e t h e v i s i t i n g P r e s i d e n t Sukarno i n F e b r u a r y 1958 h av e b een m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r V. 24 D jak arta, A n on y m ou s P P I l e a d e r, November 1970. p riv ate in te rv ie w ^ ^ H e r b e r t F e i t h, T he D e c l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D em ocracy i n I n d o n e s i a ( I t h a c a, N. Y.; C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P ris s 7 T 9 5 2 7 T 'p p T " T 6 5 7 272. ^ ^ Y o m i u r i S h i n b u n, May 3 1, ^ ^ I n d o n e s i a n Army, p p. 28 D jak arta, 1966. 219-26, A no n ym ou s J a p a n e s e b a n k e r, J u ly 1970. 239-41, p riv ate 266-74. in terv iew 29 M arzuki A r i f i n, "0rang2 In d o n e s ia d i D je p an g," H a r i a n Kam i, A p r i l 1 8, 1 9 6 7. ASU s t a n d s f o r t h e A l i S a s t r o a m i d j o j o S u r a c h m a n l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e PNI w h i c h, b e c a u s e o f i t s c l o s e i d e o l o g i c a l t i e w i t h t h e PKI, was o r d e r e d t o d i s s o l v e a f t e r th e G estapu. ^ ^ A n t a r a, May 1 2, 1965. ^^A n ta ra, A ugust 14, 1965. 33 An a n t i - S u k a r n o, c l a n d e s t i n e, a n o n y m o u s pam p h l e t w h ic h was p u b l i s h e d by N ak ajim a S h in z a b u r o i n J a p a n e s e i n Tokyo i n Novem ber 1967 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r s o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n and S c ie n c e from I9 6 0 th r o u g h 1965 w ere l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s t u d e n t s and t r a i n e e s. T h is h y p o t h e s i s i s y e t t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d by th is v /riter. H o w e v e r, P r i j o n o, who v/as M i n i s t e r o f H i g h e r E d u c a ti o n and S c ie n c e from J u l y 1959 t o F e b r u a r y I9 6 0, M i n i s t e r o f B a s ic E d u c a tio n and C u l t u r e from F e b r u a r y i9 6 0 t o A ugust 1964, and M i n i s t e r C o o r d in a to r o f th e E d u c a ti o n and C u l t u r e C om partm ent from A u g u st 1964 t o M arch 196 6, was a r r e s t e d an d d e t a i n e d by t h e m i l i t a r y i n 1966. He w a s a l s o a S t a l i n P e a c e P r i z e w i n n e r. See A n ta ra, F e b ru ary 7, 1958. For an ti-S u k arn o a c t i v i t i e s in Tokyo, s e e C h a p te r V I I I. 34 I n d o n e s i a n Em bassy, Tokyo, 110-11. 35 PPI l e a d e r, i n te r v ie w. L aporan Tahunan 1 9 6 1, === [PDF page 312] === 312 36 PPI l e a d e r, in te rv ie w. A n ta ra, A ugust 14, ^®PPI l e a d e r, ^^A n tara, 1965. in terv iew. June 4, I960. 40 B o th Tokonami and Y o sh ie s e r v e d i n t h e J a p a n e s e o c c u p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e P a c i f i c W ar. Tokonam i was G o v e r n o r o f th e P ro v in c e o f Pekalongan and D i r e c t o r o f I n t e r n a l A ffa irs in th e Japanese M ilita ry A d m in istratio n. Y oshie was G o v e rn o r o f D j a k a r t a C i t y. B oth m a in ta in e d t h e i r c o n c e r n i n I n d o n e s i a n a f f a i r s a f t e r t h e W ar. Tokonam i was am o ng t h o s e who f o r m e d t h e J a p a n - I n d o n e s i a A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1 9 4 7. He h e l p e d s e v e r a l I n d o n e s i a n y o u t h s whom h e h a d a r r a n g e d t o s e n d t o J a p a n f o r s t u d y w h i l e h e was D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n t e r n a l A f f a i r s a n d whom h e sa w i n J a p a n a f t e r h e retu rn ed. Among t h o s e I n d o n e s i a n s w e r e Omar T u s i n ( o n e t i m e C h a irm an o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n Chamber o f I n d u s t r y ), A r i f i n Bey ( C o u n s e l o r i n t h e I n d o n e s i a n Em bassy i n Tokyo, I 9 6 7 - I 9 7 O;, a n d Omar B a r r a k ( C h a i r m a n o f t h e I n d o n e s i a Japan F rien d sh ip S o c ie ty ). From 1 9 5 1 t o 1 9 5 7 T o k o n a m i a n d Y o sh ie a tte m p te d to pro m o te an e a r l y p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t b e tw e e n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a. B oth a t t e n d e d t h e c e re m o n ie s f o r th e s ig n in g o f th e p eace t r e a t y and th e r e p a r a t i o n s a g r e e m e n t on J a n u a r y 20, 195 8. Fro m T o k o n a m i T o k u j i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n Tokyo, A p r i l 24, 1972. Jap an -In d o n e sia A sso c ia tio n, Jigyo n a ra b in i k a ik e i h o k o k u s h o, 1 9 6 0 -1 9 6 1 (m im eo g rap h ed, no p a g e n u m b e r s ), s e c t i o n on t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e p o r t o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n ' s a c tiv itie s. ^^I b i d. benran J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, I n d o n e s h i a Kyow akoku (Tokyo: K o k u s a i Mondai K e n k y ü jo, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 7 2. ^ ^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 1, I960. ^^A sa h i S h in b u n, S ep tem b er 3, I960. Jap an-In d o n esia A sso ciatio n, k e i hokokusho, I 96O -I96I. Jijy o ^^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 1, I960. 48 Jijy o narabi ni ^^A sahi S h in b u n, Septem ber 3, I960. ^^A sahi Shinbun, I960. Jap an -In do n esia A sso ciatio n, k a i k e i hokokusho, 196O -I96I. S ep tem b er 3, narabi n i k a i === [PDF page 313] === 313 51 Asahi Shinbun, September 4, I960. ^ ^ 1A s a h i S h i n b u n. Septem ber 4, I960. ^^A sahi S h in b u n. Septem ber 10, I9 6 0. 54 A sah i S h in b u n, F e b r u a r y 4, 1962. ^^Asahi S hinbun. F e b ru ary 6, 1962. ^^A sahi S hinbun, F e b ru ary 7, F e b r u a r y 111 1 9 6 2. 1962; ^^A k ah ata, F eb ru ary 16, and A k a h a ta, 1962. ^ ^A sahi S h in b u n, F e b ru a ry 17, 1962. S i n c e 1958 t h e JCP, u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f S e c r e t a r y M iyamoto K e n j i, h a d b e g u n t o show a n a f f i n i t y f o r t h e PKI b e c a u s e i t w a s i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e P K I ' s s w i f t p o l i t i c a l c o m e b a c k s u b s e q u e n t t o i t s a b o r t i v e Madium R e v o l t o f 1 9 4 8 a n d t h e new l e a d e r A i d i t 's N a tio n a l U nited F ronts tra te g y. T he JC P t r a n s l a t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d A i d i t ' s w o rk s u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f A t a r a s h i i I n d o n e s h i a (Tokyo: S hin N ih o n S h upp an S h a) i n March l 9 5 8, b e f o r e i t h e l d t h e s e v e n t h p a r t y c o n g r e s s i n J u l y 1 9 5 8, w h i c h s e l e c t e d Miyamoto a s P arty S e c retary. In I960 th e p a r t y in tr o d u c e d a n o th e r PKI p u b l i c a t i o n u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f Y a k u s h i n s u r u h y a k u - g o j ü man n o k y o s a n t o ( T o k y o: N ihon K y o san to, I 9 6 0 ). The f o l l o w in g y e ar the p a r t y 's e ig h th p a rg re s s firm ly e s ta b lis h e d M iy a m o to 's pow er i n t h e p a r t y. The U n i t e d F r o n t s t r a t e g y c a l l s f o r t h e u n i t y o f p r o g r e s s i v e f o r c e s w h ic h w ould p r o v i d e a b a s i s to s e i z e pow er by p e a c e f u l m eans. A id it d evelop ed t h i s s t r a t e g y i n 1951-1952. See D onald H in d le y, The Com munist P a r t y o f I n d o n e s i a, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 3 ( B e r k e l e y, C a lif.: U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s, 1 5 64), p. 298. ^ ^ T h e i r v i s i t s a r e r e f e r r e d t o i n M iy a m o to 's s p e e c h on D ecem ber 1 8, 1964, w h ic h w elcom ed L u k m an 's v i s i t t o Japan. See A k a h a ta, December 30, 1964. ^^A k a h ata, F e b ru a ry 10, 1962. ^^A k a h ata, F e b ru a ry 11, 1962. ^ ^ J a p a n -In d o n e sia A s s o c i a t i o n, J ig y o n a r a b in i k a i k e i h o k o k u s h o 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 6 2 (m im e o g r a p h e d, n o p a g e n u m b e r s ), s e c t i o n on t h e A s s o c i a x i o n ' s a c t i v i t i e s. 64 Japan, F oreign M in istry, ^^Antara, June 16, 1965. 73. === [PDF page 314] === 314 ^^Antara, June 16, 1965. ^ '^ A n t a r a, J u l y 2 6, 1 9 6 5. Up on h i s r e t u r n home K a tsu m ad a e x p r e s s e d h i s h o p e f o r c l o s e r t i e s w i t h t h e PNI. S e e "A-A s h o k o k u j i n m i n t o n e r e n t a i k y ô k a n o t a m e n i, " Gekkan S h a k a i t o, J u l y 1965, p. 39. ^®At t h e D i e t s e s s i o n o n J a n u a r y 2 8, 1 9 6 5, K a j i m a s tr o n g ly ad v o cated J a p a n 's effort f o r m e d i a t i o n. H is rem arks a re p r i n te d in h i s N ih o n no g a ik o, k ak o t o g e n z a i (Tokyo; K ajim a K enkyujo S h u p p a n k a i, 1 9 6 7 ), p p. 3 0 0 -0 1. 69 PPI l e a d e r, in te r v ie w. 70 Yanagawa M u n e to s h i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, J u l y 2 6, 1 9 7 1; an d A s a h i S h i n b u n. November 2, 1 9 6 3. 71 V/hen t h e A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d on M arch 2 0, 1 9 59, i t num bered 28 m em bers. See Ja p a n -In d o n e s i a A s s o c ia tio n, J ig y o n a r a b i n i k a ik e i hokokusho 1958-1959 (m im eographed, no p ag e num bers ). 72 L a t e r i n May 1 9 6 3 w h e n W e s t I r i a n cam e f o r m a l l y u n d e r I n d o n e s i a ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n, S h i m i z u was i n v i t e d t o S u k a rn o p u ra ( f o r m e r l y H o lla n d ia ) to a t t e n d th e cerem ony. S h im izu H i t o s h i, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n Tokyo, A p r i l 25, 1972. ^ ^A sahi S h in b u n, Ja n u a ry 28, May 7, 1965. '^^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, May 7 a n d 1 4, 1965. '^^A n t a r a, May 7, 1965. '^^ A n t a r a, May 8, 1965. '^'^ A n t a r a, May 1 3, 1965. '^^ A k a h a r a, May 2 6, was d e s c r i b e d l a t e r i n h i s N ihon Shuppan Sha, 1 9 6 4 ). 1965; and A n ta ra, 1962. H is t r i p to I n d o n e s i a I n d o n e s h i a k i k o (Tokyo: S hin 79 See K u ra h ara K o r e h ito, " In d o n e s h ia K yosanto t a i k a i n o b u n k e n k a r a n a n i o m a n a b u k a, " Akaha^to, J u l y 6, 1 9 6 2; K u ra h a ra, " I n d o n e s h i a no m inzoku t o i t s u s e n s e n, " Z e n ' e i, n o. 200 (A u g u st 1 9 6 2 ), p p. 4 7 -5 3; and I d e J u n ' i c h i r o, " I n d o n e s h i a K y o san to no t o k e n s e t s u n i m anabu," i b i d., p p. 5 4 -6 2. 1962 t h e J C P - a f f i l i a t e d p u b l i s h e r, R ir o n Sha, p u t o u t a c o l l e c t i o n o f S u k a r n o ' s s p e e c h e s u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f Waga kakum ei no s a i h a k k e n. Akahata, November 12, 1962. === [PDF page 315] === 315 ^^Akahata, July 3, 1963. 82 A i d i t v i s i t e d Moscow i n J u l y 1 9 6 3 i n a n a t t e m p t t o s m o o t h o u t t h e M o s c o w - P e k i n g r i f t s. V/hen t h i s d i d n o t h e l p, t h e J C P 's M iyamoto i n November o f t h a t y e a r s u p p o r t e d P e k i n g 's p o s i t i o n and v i s i t e d C h in a from F e b r u a r y th r o u g h May 1 9 6 4. A f t e r J u l y 1964 when t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n t h e JCP a n d t h e Com munist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union i n t e n s i f i e d, Miyamoto h i m s e l f t r a v e l e d t o D j a k a r t a i n S e p te m b e r 1964, and he and A i d i t c o n firm ed t h e i r le a n in g to w ard th e C hinese P a r ty. S e e S h e l d o n W. S i m o n, T h e B r o k e n T r i a n g l e;. P e k i n g, D j a k a r t a, a n d t h e PKI ( B a l t i m o r e: J o h n s H o p k i n s U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1 9 6 9 ),pp. 89-90. ^ ^ Z e n ' e i, n o. 228 (N ovem ber-1 9 6 4 ), p p. 2 - 5. 84 A k a h a ta, S e p tem b er 2, 1964. ^ ^ A k a h a ta, December 30, 1964. Anonymous, " I n d o n e s h i a no K o k u re n d a t t a i, " 233 (M arch 1 9 6 5 ), p p. 1 3 1 - 3 7. Shim izu, i n t e r v i e w. A n ta ra, A ugust 26, 1965. 89 A r n o l d B ra c k m a n, The C om m unist C o l l a p s e i n Ind o n esia (New Y o r k: W. W. N o r t o n & C o., 1 9 6 9 ), 3 31 Howard J o n e s, p. 3 7 9. Zen' e i, ^ ^ A sah i S h in b u n, December 2, 91 F o r exam ple s e e B rackm an, C h ap ters 3-5. 92 Jo n e s, pp. 378, 380. 93 Brackm an, p. 67; Jones, 94 ^Ant A n ta r a, Septem ber 24, 236, n. 8, 9^ 5^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, 1965. C h a p te r 12; 1965. O c to b e r 2, 54- Sim on, 381. Q uoted i n Brackman, 1965. ^ ^ A sah i S h in b u n, O c to b e r 2, 1965. 97 An A s a h i S h i n b u n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s e n t h i s f i r s t d i s p a t c h on O c to b e r 6. See A s a h i S h i n b u n, O c to b e r 8, 1965. 98 Brackm an, p. 6 2. 99 The t e x t o f t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t i s r e p r i n t e d i n I n d o n e s i a n Army, I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r, F a k t a 2 P e r s o a l a n S e k i t a r === [PDF page 316] === 316 " G e r a k a n 30 S e p t e m b e r " (D jakarta: The Army, n. d. ), 19- ^ ° ° I b l d., pp. 26-27. ^ ^ ^ N u g r o h o N o t o s u s a n t o a n d I s m a i l S a l e h, The Coup A t t e m p t o f t h e " S e p t e m b e r 30 Movement" i n I n d o n e s i a ( D j a k a r t a: Pem bim bing M asa, 1 9 6 8 ), p. 3 5. 35. ^ ^ ^ I n d o n e s i a n Army, Jones, 104; Jones, 388. F ak ta2. pp. 22-26. a n d I n d o n e s i a n Army, F a k t a 2. 30. ^^^A n ta r a, O ctober 14, 1965. ^^'^A k a h a t a, O c t o b e r 2 3, 1965. ^^® A ntara, O ctober 14, 1965. ^^^A k a h a ta, O cto b er 20, 1965. ^^*^0ka M a s a y o s h i ' s o r a l r e p o r t t o a JC P m e e t i n g o f May 4, 1 9 6 6, p r i n t e d a s " M i y a m o t o M o t a k u t o k a i d a n n o u c h i m a k u, " i n Nihon K y o s a n to h o nbu; k okode n a n i ga okonaw arete i r u k a, ed. by th e I n s t i t u t e o f I d e o l o g i c a l M ovem ent ( T o k y o: Zenbo S h a, 1 9 6 7 ), p p. 9 2 - 1 0 7. ^^^A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c a s e i n p o i n t may b e R u t h McVey and B e n e d ic t A nderson, A P r e l im i n a r y A n a ly s is o f th e O c t o b e r 1, 1 9 6 5, Couo i n I n d o n e s i a ( I t h a c a, I'j.Y.: M o d e r n In d o n e sia P r o je c t, C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity, 1971). 112"M iyam oto M o ta k u to 103-04. ^^^A sahi S h in b u n, O ctober 19, 1965. A sahi S hinbun on O c t o b e r $ 7, 1 9 6 5 r e p o r t s a n i n c r e a s e d " r e d " p u r g e t a k i n g p l a c e in governm ent and s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e o f f i c e s. ^^^Anonymous J a p a n e s e Em bassy o f f i c i a l, i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, November 1 9 7 1. p riv ate ^ ^ ^ A n t a r a, November 1, 196 5. ^ ^ ^ B e r d i k a r i i s a n a c r o n y m f o r B e r d i r i A t a s PCaki S e n d e r i o r " s t a n d o n [ y o u r ] ov/n f e e t, " w h i c h was S u k a r n o ' s f a v o r i t e term. ^^^Antara, November 18, 1965; and November 25, 1965 === [PDF page 317] === 317 118 A sahi S hinbun, F ebruary 22, 1 1 9^. A n t a r a, F e b ru a ry 19, 1966. 120 A p r il 16, 1966. Y om iuri S h in b u n. A p r i l 1, 1966. 1966; A sahi S hin b un. 121 Anonym ous A n t a r a s t a f f m e m b e r, p r i v a t e i n D j a k a r t a, November 1971. in terv iew 122 On A p r i l 7, 1 9 6 6 t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y s e t u p a D i s c i p l i n a r y Team ( Team P e n e r t i b ) t o c l e a n u p i t s own a p p a r a t u s f r o m PKI i n f l u e n c e. See I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, Dua P u l u h Lim a T a h u n D e n a r t m e n L u a r N e g e r i 1 9 4 5 1970 ( D j a k a r t a: J a j a s a n K e s e d j a h t e r a a n Karyawan D e p lu, 1971), p. 341. 123 Y o m i u r i S h i n b u n, May 31 a n d J u n e 1 8, 1 9 6 6; a n d A sahi S h in b u n, Ju n e 1. 1965. 124 Y om iuri S h in b u n, Ju n e 18, 1966. ^ ^^ Y om iuri S h in b u n, J u l y 14, 1966. ^^^ Y om iuri S h in b u n. Ju n e 18, 1966. 127 Y om iuri S h in b u n, A ugust 5, 1966. (Tokyo: ^ ^ ^ Y o m i u r i S h i n b u n. May 3 1, a n d J u l y 2 0, 1 9 6 6. 129 F u j i w a r a H i r o t a t s u, a t a l., Hadaka no D evi f u j i n Yagumoi S h o i n, 1 9 7 0 ), p p. 1 8 9 - 9 1. ^ ^ ^ A n i s I b r a h i m, f o r m e r KAT-TI l e a d e r, view i n D j a k a r t a, December 22, 1971. p riv ate in te r ^ ^ ^ T he Coup A t t e m p t o f t h e " S e p t e m b e r 30 M o v e m e n t " Indonesia (D jak a rta: Pem bim bing M asa, 1 9 6 8 ). 132 Jones, 382-83, and Brackm an, 133 35. " T j a t a t a n N j. Dewi S u k a r n o: S e k i t a r I n s i d e n 30 S e p t ' 6 5, " H a r i a n Kam i, O c t o b e r 1 2 - 1 4, 1 9 6 6. H a r i a n Kami o n O c t o b e r l 2 v n r ' i t e s t h a t Dewi ' s a c c o u n t h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d f r o m S h u k a n A s a h i t h r o u g h a man n a m e d S u e o O m o r i. N e i t h e r h e r a c c o u n t o r O m o ri's have b e en i d e n t i f i e d i n t h a t m agazine. 134 1 35 Nugroho and S a l e h, 35. H a r i a n Kam i, O c to b e r 1 2, ^^^Brackman, p. 86. 1966. === [PDF page 318] === 318 137O m ori M i n o r u, S u l ^ a r u n o s a i g o n o s h i n s o Shincho Sha, 1 9 6 7 ), p p. 2 0 ] 66. ^^^Anonymous J a p a n e s e E m bassy o f f i c i a l, c o n v e r s a t i o n i n D j a k a r t a, November 1 970. 139 62. S a b u r was i n Bandung t h a t m o rn in g. ^^^D m ori, (Tokyo: p riv ate See Brackm an, 67. ^ ^ ^ H a r i a n Kam i, O c t o b e r 1 3, 14P H a r i a n K a m i, O c t o b e r 1 3, ^^^O m ori, p. 6 7. 144 I44j Nugroho and S a l e h, 1966. 1966. 68. 145. H a r i a n Kam i, O c t o b e r 1 3, 1 9 6 6. O m ori w r i t e s t h a t i t w a s _ a t 1 p.m. when N a s u t i o n s e n t h i s c o u r i e r t o Dewi. S e e Omori, p. 6 9. ^^^O m ori, 69. ^ ^ " ^ H a r i a n K a m i, O ctober 13, 1966. ^^® H arian Kam i, O c t o b e r 1 3, 149 H a r i a n Kam i, O c to b e r 1 3, 150 H a r i a n K a m i, O c t o b e r 1 3, 1966. 1966. ^ ^ ^ H a r i a n K am i, O c to b e r 13, 1966. ^ H a r i a n Kam i, O c t o b e r 13, 1966. ^^^O m ori, 82. ^ ^ ^ H a r i a n Kam i, ^^^O m ori, 1966. O c to b e r 13, 1966. 92, 1 0 3. 108 * 125. ^ ^ ^ H a r i a n K am i, O c t o b e r 13;a n d 1 4 ^ ^ ^ H a r ia n Kam i, O c t o b e r 14, 1 9 6 6. t h a t S u k a r n o r e t u r n e d t o W is am a Y a s o o d i r e c t l y f r o m B o g o r a n d t h a t h e was w e a r i n g s a n d a l s. See O m ori, p. 126. ^^^Omori, p. 126. === [PDF page 319] === 319 Om ori, p. 128; H a r i a n K am i. O c to b e r 14, ^ ^ ^ H a r i a n Kam i, O c t o b e r 14, ^^^Ô m ori, p p. 138, 145. 22. 166 1966. 145. A sahi S h in b u n, O ctober 20, 148. 150. 1966. 1965. 1 6 9 KAI^I w a s o r g a n i z e d w i t h t h e a d v i c e a n d e n c o u r a g e m ent o f S j a r i f T h aje b. S e e S t e p h e n A. D o u g l a s, P o l i t i c a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n and S tu d e n t A c tiv ism i n I n d o n e s ia (U rbana, 1 1 1.: U n iv e rs ity o f I l l i n o i s P re s s, 1970), p. 155. ^'^°6 m o ri, p. 172. 148. ^'^^A sahi S h i n b u n, Ja n u ary 17, 1966. ^ "^^ A sah i S h i n b u n, Jan u ary 23, 1966. ^ '^^A sahi S h i n b u n, J a n u a ry 29 and F e b ru a ry ^ '^^A sahi S h i n b u n, M a r c h 12, 1 9 6 6. ^ " ^^ A s ah i S h i n b u n, M a r c h 15, 1 9 6 6. ^"^"^Asahi S h i n b u n, M a r c h 15, 1 9 6 6. ^"^^Asahi S h i n b u n, M a r c h 23, 1 9 6 6. ^ ’^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, M a r c h 23, 1 9 6 6. === [PDF page 320] === CHAPTER V III THE INDONESIAN MILITARY FORCES AND JAPAN, 1955 -1 9 66 D u r i n g t h e War, for train in g the Japanese m ilita r y In d o n e s ia 's v o lu n teer groups, G i y u g u n i n S u m a t r a, w h i c h a r e now t h e current m ilitary le a d e rsh ip.^ c o n s t it u t io n has lim ite d i t s co n tact to the was r e s p o n s i b l e FETA i n core o f I n d o n e s ia 's S ince th e n, how ever, J a p a n 's S elf-D efense F o rc e s' U nited S t a t e s. I960 J a p a n ' s n am ely, em b assies, T h aila n d.^ fo reig n arm ed f o r c e s, n u m b e r in g 250 t h o u s a n d, h a d o n ly n i n e m i l i t a r y seven o f J a p a n 's J a v a and attach es o n l y o n e o f w h i c h was i n A s i a, A lth o u g h an I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y had been In Japan s in c e 1962, h is s e n t to D ja k a r ta only a f t e r the attach e J a p a n e s e c o u n t e r p a r t was G estapu. N ev erth eless, t h e r e was some c o n t a c t b e t w e e n J a p a n a n d t h e In d o n esian m ili tary A ccording to both a t the fo rm al and in f o r m a l l e v e l s. Japanese im m igration s t a t i s t i c s, th e number o f I n d o n e s ia n m ilita ry men e n t e r i n g t h e 1963 t o 1 9 6 4, as se e n i n T ab le V I I l - i. Japan in 1963 w h i l e c o u n t r y more t h a n t r i p l e d 226 e n t e r e d in 1964. from S ix ty -eig h t came t o How ever, a f t e r 1 96 4 t h e n u m b e r f e l l b a c k t o b e t w e e n 40 a n d 70 a n n u a l l y. cause o f the increase b e tw e e n I 963 and 1964 i s th is but i t d iffic u lt w riter, ian m ilita ry were i n J a p a n to im agine t h a t to purchase m il i ta r y 320 not The c l e a r to th e Indones equipm ent === [PDF page 321] === 321 TABLE V I I I - 1 N U M B E R OF FOREIGN MILITARY PERSONNEL ENTERING JAPAN, 1963-1970 Countries 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 Aus trali a 19 25 25 28 34 31 39 Burma 23 29 14 57 10 13 Cambodia India 83 46 11 67 35 12 Indonesia 68 226 41 53 71 59 43 51 Laos Malaysia 11 New Zealand 12 32 52 57 75 Pakistan 41 13 39 Philippines 36 48 33 161 46 24 19 22 Singapore 178 163 116 312 792 556 558 387 South Viet Nam 80 94 35 43 84 67 82 406 Taiwan 51 79 44 95 84 80 93 114 Tailand 115 188 108 127 93 97 142 95 United Kingdom 54 62 60 83 40 30 158 147 1,396 2,267 2,264 2,421 2,113 1,815 1,826 2,161 South Korea United States Source; Japan, Justice M i n i s t r y, Shuts unyugoku kànri t okei n e m o o, 1963- 1970. === [PDF page 322] === 322 or to undergo m i l i t a r y centage train in g. o f the m ilita r y Nor i s c l e a r what p e r men c o m i n g t o J a p a n w e r e a n t i - P K I o r pro-PK I. T his w r i t e r o f f e r s th ese m ilita ry rep aratio n s men v i s i t e d ex p lan atio n th a t Japan in c o n n ec tio n w ith the s ta te m e n t has been is s u e d amount o f r e p a r a t i o n s 1958 so o n a f t e r funds giv en to the R ep a ra tio n s in r e f e r r in g to the A rm y 's p o s i t i o n to put i t s share o f the d ev elo pm en t and e l e c t r i c in to th at an a l l o c a t i o n u n ifo rm s, ^ 1958, th e o f $1 m i l l i o n a p p ro p riatio n in d ic ate th a t rep aratio n s comb a t i v e asp ects of th is would l i k e econom ic A rm y 's com m uni A c c o r d i n g t o a d o c u m e n t p r e p a r e d by t h e Armv r e q u e s t e d c o n sid e rin g the o f $30 m i l l i o n, b u t i t m ilita ry. h a s b e e n made s p o r a d i c a l l y, O ther m ention though e x a c t evidence has not y e t been e s ta b lis h e d. For exam ple, May 2 8, i 960 r e p o r t e d I n d o n e s i a n Navy C h i e f o f S taff, V i c e A d m i r a l E. co n n ec tio n w ith ment t h r o u g h t h e the does fu n d s were u s e d t o s u p p o r t no n of I n d o n e s ia 's th at f o r s t e e l h e lm e ts and T h i s was a m o d est r e q u e s t, annual rep a ra tio n s power p r o j e c t s w hich were n e c e s s a r y Jap an -In d o n esia A sso ciatio n Ju ly o f how t h e the n a ti o n 's f o r g e n e r a l eco n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t and t h e purposes. ^ In June A greem ent became e f f e c t i v e, fu n d s h o u l d be u s e d, s t a t e d funds concerning th e the m il i ta r y. rep aratio n s c atio n s some o f p ro g ram s and econom ic c o o p e r a t i o n p r o j e c t s, a l t h o u g h no p u b l i c N asution, the the M artad in ata, A n t a r a on would be v i s i t i n g. J a p a n N a v y 's p r o c u r e m e n t o f v a r i o u s rep aratio n s program s, am ounting to e q u ip $17 === [PDF page 323] === 323 m illio n.^ I n S e p t e m b e r i 960 a t h r e e - m a n I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n came t o J a p a n r e p o r t e d l y m aterial"^ though t h e r e the re p a ra tio n s "to purchase m ilita r y was n o r e f e r e n c e program s. to i t s A nother p u b l i c a t i o n rela tio n sta te s th at ap p ro x im ately 1, 3 0 0 j e e p s a n d 1, 5 0 0 t r u c k s w e r e p r o v i d e d by the re p a ra tio n s. T his w r i t e r s u s p e c t s t h a t a m ajo r p r o p o r tio n o f t h e m was u s e d b y t h e D uring t h i s some c o n t a c t s p erio d m ilita ry fro m 1958 t o betw een p r i v a t e Indo nesian m il i ta r y, fo rces.® Japanese p articu larly 1966 t h e r e in d iv id u als have been and t h e th e a r e a o f p rom oting a n t i - S u k a r n o m ovem ents i n In d o n esia. an im p o rta n t l in k p o s t- G e s ta p u p e r io d betw een th e the These c o n t a c t s provided J a p a n e s e g o v e rn m e n t and th e S u h a r t o r e g im e and fo rm ed t h e c o r e o f a new I n d o n e s i a L obby t o s u c c e e d t h e K a w a s h i m a Lobby. The d a t a on t h i s s u b je c t are s t i l l o f the in d iv id u a ls in v o lv ed are Yet w i t h o u t a d i s c u s s i o n of it, sparse, a n d many relu c ta n t about i t. the study o f the b e tw e e n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a fro m 1951 t o talk in te rac tio n s 1 9 6 6 w o u l d be in com p lete. Sources of Japanese J a p a n e s e R igh t-W in g o f 1958^ One o f t h e b e g a n i n 1955 a s S u p p o r t f o r t h e A n t i - S u k a r n o L obby Support f o r the a n ti-S u k a rn o ists' the outcom e o f t h e and th e I n d o n e s ia n R e p u b lic ’s f i r s t Bandung C o n fe re n c e m arked th e a n d Chou E n - l a i, and the o f the the PKI a f t e r failu re first m oves i n J a p a n A fro -A sia n C onference general e le c tio n s. clo ser tie s e le ctio n s Sum atra R e b e llio n The betw een Sukarno e v i d e n c e d a s w i f t comeback o f t h e Madium R e v o l t i n 1 9 4 8. === [PDF page 324] === 324 In a d d i t i o n, t h e r e were i n t e r n a l c o n flicts a risin g from the O uter I s l a n d s ’ o p p o s itio n to S ukarno’s J a v a -c e n te re d l e a d e r s h ip and to h is e m p h a s is on p o l i t i c a l rath er than econom ic p r o g r e s s. Among S u k a r n o ’ s l e a d i n g c ritic s were V i c e - P r e s i d e n t Mohammed H a t t a, a S u m a t r a n who h a d b e e n p r e s s i n g developm ent, and D eputy C h i e f o f S t a f f ( I 949- I 9 5 6 ), a w e ll-train ed sen ted t h e A rm y's N asu tio n group. tacts sent o f whom was T a k a i J u i c h i, had ch o sen to rem ain i n name o f B u d i m a n. those a s o ld ie r in th e Ind on esia, the I n d o n e s i a n a rm y, Budiman Sukarno had assum ed l e f t i s t lean in g s. and N akajim a S h i n z a b u r o, a l l P a c ific PETA o f f i c e r s a t o n e t i m e h e was a s k e d t o d u rin g th e th o se Among Kaneko Tom okazu, o f whom War a n d w e r e w e r e w ith the Ja p a n -In d o n e sia A s s o c ia tio n. who h a d t r a i n e d Indonesian to a l e r t had been in In d o n e s ia d u r in g th e one P a c i f i c War who ad o p tin g the h e c o n t a c t e d w e r e Y a n ag a w a M u n e t o s h i, a ffilia te d men t o J a p a n, Bandung C o n f e r e n c e N ishiJim a S h ig e ta d a, con su p p o rters. sev eral of his A captain Japan a f t e r the concerned th a t o f f i c e r who r e p r e I t was C o l o n e l L u b i s who i n i t i a t e d L ubis s e c r e t l y L ubis opposing the D u tc h -tra in e d w ith th e p o t e n t i a l Jap an ese v isite d C olonel Z u l k i f l i in te llig en c e PETA f a c t i o n f o r econom ic, Yanagawa, W ar, r e c a l l s come t o O s a k a t o a t t e n d th at an a n t i - S u k a r n o m e e t i n g w h i c h h e t h o u g h t was s p o n s o r e d by o n e o f Ja p a n ’s larg e an a c t i v e trad in g companies.Kaneko s u p p o r te r o f I n d o n e s i a ’s youth in d e p e n d e n c e and h ad worked i n t h e Propa Tomokazu h a d b e e n ovem ents f o r îa S e c t i o n o f === [PDF page 325] === 325 th e Japanese M ilita ry C h ap ter I I I, referred N is h iJ im a had been a p r i n c i p a l Peace Lobby; i t may b e r e c a l l e d t h a t h e made a c l a n d e s t i n e th e A d m in istratio n, v isit to in fig u re the in June and J u ly 1956 L ubis i n D j a k a r t a. D uring War N a k a j i m a h a d b e e n a Navy m e d i c a l c o r p s m a n i n M oluccas and s i n c e h a s opened f lo w e r s h o p s and t h e restau ran t, L u b is’s c r itic is m th at Indonesian " I n d o n e s i a R a y a, " i n d o w n t o w n T o ky o w i t h n e sia n as w ell as Japanese alleg ed ly Ambon, ex te n siv ely on A u g u s t Indo frien d s, o f I n d o n e s i a ’s PN I-dom inated and corrupt g o v e rn m e n t became so v e h em e n t 13» 1956 h e o r d e r e d t h e arrest o f th e F o reig n M in ister but sta ff f a i l e d, and t h e n r e s i g n e d a s D eputy C h i e f o f 12 on A u g u s t 2 0. L u b i s s u b s e q u e n t l y was t o go t o N o r t h S u m a tra t o assum e a p o s t a s N o rth S u m a t r a ’s r e g i o n a l d e r b u t r e m a in e d i n W est J a v a. c o lleag u e. C olonel J, That y e a r a sy m p a th e tic F. W arrouw, th e I n d o n e s ia n embassy in P e k in g, th e "In d o n esian e x p e rts " v isite d a ttach e Japan.Through of S eiyukai who h a d e x e r t e d J a p a n ’s postw ar p o l i t i c s, then a m il i ta r y W arrouw m e t K u h a r a F u s a n o s u k e a form er p r e s id e n t p o litic a l p arty ) comman in d ire ct (a m ajor p rew ar in flu en ce to req u e st a s s is ta n c e over the a n t i - K uhara a g r e e d and a sse m b le d s e v e r a l o f h i s fo llo w ers S u k a rn o m ovem ent, a lso concerned about J a p a n ’ s r e l a t i o n s w ith In do n esia. Among t h e m w e r e I w a k u r o T a k e o, O b a t a T a d a y o s h i, N a k a t a F usahide, and Tanaka T a t s u e, T h e assistan ce th at K uhara and h i s amount and ty p e group a c t u a l l y gave t o the === [PDF page 326] === 326 a n tl-S u k arn o ists a r e n o t know n, b u t i n November 1956 L u b is l e d an u n s u c c e s s f u l c o u p.^ ^ c o n tin u ed to m o b ilize V ice-P resid ent D espite su p p o rters. H atta re s ig n e d, an ti-S u k arn o ists th is failu re, L ubis In December o f t h a t y e a r a n d on D ecem ber 2 1, 1956 t h e o rg a n iz e d th e B anteng C o un cil (B uffalo C o u n c il) w hich assum ed power i n C e n t r a l S u m a tra. 1957 d i s s i d e n t m i l i t a r y W arrouw’s f o l l o w e r s elem en ts in c lu d in g L ieu ten an t Sum ual, p r o c la im e d a " p e r m e s ta " Just I n d o n e s i a, T h i s o f the in M akassar, On M a rch 2, l e d by C o l o n e l C olonel V in tje (etern al) stru g g le a n t i - S u k a r n o move l e d t o second A ll S a s tro a m id jo jo for the fall C ab in et. Prim e M i n i s t e r D J u a n d a 's s u c c e e d i n g c a b i n e t in v ain to re c o n c ile Sukarno and H a t t a. trie d Soon a f t e r, i n May 1 9 5 7 | S u m itr o D J o J o h a d ik u s u m o, an I n d o n e s i a n S o c i a l i s t (PSI) l e a d e r who h a d s e r v e d a s M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e, P arty ( 1952- 1953 a n d 1955- 1 9 5 6 ), l e f t D j a k a r t a and J o i n e d t h e d i s s i d e n t 17 Sum atran g ro u p, S u m i t r o was t h e n a m em ber o f P a r l i a m e n t and in th a t cap acity v isite d i a t i o n h e was i n t r o d u c e d t o S o c ia lis t P arty. C hairm an, Japan. Through h i s p a r t y se v e ra l lead ers o f the Jap an N a k a j i m a, who knew t h e S o c i a l i s t Kawakami J o t o r o, S uraitro m e e tin g as t h e i r was a s k e d t o in te rp re te r. P arty s e r v e t h e KawakamiS u m itro 's in tro d u c tio n t o N akajim a le d i n t u r n t o an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o K uhara. th e n in tr o d u c e d S u m itro to Pukuda Takeo, th e then know n m em ber o f t h e a ffil ru lin g p a r t y. F r o m th is Kuhara little - m aze o f i n t r o d u c t i o n s, t h e m e e tin g b etw een S u m itro and Fukuda p ro v e d t o be th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e la tio n s === [PDF page 327] === 327 th e 1960's. I n 1957 S u m i t r o v o l u n t e e r e d t o r a i s e pro m o te th e a n t i —S u k a r n o g r o u p s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d S in g a p o re and p o s s i b l y had s t u d i e d buted h is funds to b u sin esses i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w here he e a r l i e r e c o n o m ic s.I t known t h a t F u k u d a c o n t r i f in a n c ia l su p p o rt. In O c t o b e r 1957 H a t t a v i s i t e d a c c o m p a n i e d by Omar T u s i n, b er o f In d u stry, Peking and th e n Tokyo, P re sid e n t o f the I n d o n e s i a n Cham The l a t t e r was a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e B anteng C o u n cil. I n P e k i n g C o l o n e l W arrouw J o i n e d H a t t a on h i s way Omar T u s i n r e c a l l s Tokyo, t h a t w h ile H a tta and h i s d i s c u s s e d ways i n w h ic h t o s e t t l e the r e p a r a tio n s th e y a ls o ta l k e d w ith prom inent i n d u s t r i a l i s t s d irectio n o f d e v e lo p in g S um atra r a t h e r issu e, and p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s w ith th e hope o f t u r n i n g th e r e p a r a t i o n s the p arty funds in than Ja v a, the scene o f in c ip ie n t C om m u n is t u p r i s i n g s. O m a r recalls M its u jir o o f the r u l i n g p a rty and T akasugi that Ish ii S h i n ' i c h i w e r e among t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s th etic the tow ard I n d o n e s ia 's p articu larly sympa an ti-S u k arn o ist d r i v e. A w a r e i n c r e a s e d t e n s i o n b etw een S u k a rn o and t h e a n t i - S u k a r n o forces, N i s h ijim a s to p p e d in S in g a p o re en r o u t e and s e c r e t l y a te, T usin a l s o met w i t h £, as d isc u sse d Pohan o f th e I n d o n e s i a n C h ap ter I I, P o h a n was lead ersh ip su p p o rters and th e Su m atra g r o u p. N i s h i j i m a th at p o litic a l v isit, the and a c t e d as a l i n k b e tw e e n f o r e i g n On N o v e m b e r 3 0, K is h i's C onsul c ritic a l S u k a rn o 's he f e l t to D ja k a rta changes in Indonesia recalls th at w e r e i m m i n e n t. ^^ 1 9 57, two d a y s a f t e r Prim e M i n i s t e r T Jik in i In ciden t occurred, an u n s u c c e s s f u l === [PDF page 328] === 326 p lo t to assa ssin a te yard in D ja k a rta. P r e s id e n t Sukarno a t R e sp o n sib ility the T Jik in i sch o o l f o r t h e p l o t was a t t r i b u t e d t o L u b is a f t e r t h e g o v e rn m e n t d i s c o v e r e d on J a n u a r y 6, 1958 a docum ent d a t e d Ju n e 6, and P ro s p e ro u s 1957, e n t i t l e d "Towards a J u s t I n d o n e s i a " w h i c h h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d by L u b i s. A lth o u g h he h a d f a i l e d not r e tr e a t. ag ain, On J a n u a r y the a n t i - S u k a r n o m ov em en t d i d 1 95 8 a s e c r e t m e e t i n g t o o k p l a c e i n S u n g e i D a e r a h, W est S u m a t r a a n d was a t t e n d e d by t h e d i s sid e n t reg io n al commanders o f S u m a tr a: Z. L u b i s, M aludin Sim bolon, D a h l a n DJambek a n d Achmad H u s s e i n, V i n t j e as w e ll as f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r Mohammed N a t s i r o f t h e M asjum i P a r t y; th e S Jafruddin P raw iranegara, Bank o f I n d o n e s i a; F inance M in is te r sta rtin g 25 Sum ual; form er G overnor o f and S u m itr o D Jo Jo h a d ik u s u m o, T his m e e tin g, form er a s so o n known, became a p o i n t o f th e S um atra R e b e l l i o n. From J a n u a r y 2 6, Army C h i e f o f S t a f f N a s u t i o n t o u r e d E a s t and N orth S um atra and S t a t e in o rd er to P o lice g ain the But t h e i r e f f o r t s C h ie f Suraantro v i s i t e d lo y alty of the were u s e l e s s 23 t o W est S u m a t r a lo cal m ilita ry lead ers. Pfi and r e b e l l i o n became in ev itab le. Soon a f t e r J a n u a r y 2 0, 1 9 5 8 when t h e A g r e e m e n t w i t h J a p a n was s i g n e d, Japan, try A rum or a r o s e t h a t the R ep aratio n s S u k a r n o made p l a n s Sum atran r e b e l t o e n t e r T okyo a n d a s s a s s i n a t e Sukarno. 27 v isit l e a d e r s m ight E a r l i e r th ey h a d dem anded t o m eet w i t h him b u t he h a d r e f u s e d. P resid en t Sukarno and h i s 29, A day e a r l i e r party a rriv e d C olonel V in tje i n T o k y o on J a n u a r y Sumual and f i v e 1958. men d r e s s e d === [PDF page 329] === 329 as businessm en had s e c r e t l y come t o Tokyo a n d r e s e r v e d rooms a t t h e c lo se to the N lk k atsu H o te l, w h e r e t h e S u k a r n o p a r t y was t o s t a y. Im p e ria l H otel S u mu a l carried B ritish p a s s p o r t w h i c h g a v e h i s name a s " H e r m a n N i c h o l a s 29 S um ual." H i s p r e s e n c e i n T o k y o was n o t kn own p u b l i c l y u n til Ant a r a, o n F e b r u a r y 1959, re p o rte d from Bangkok t h a t ' S u m u a l h a d f l o w n t o T okyo v i a S i n g a p o r e a n d B a n g k o k. sa m e d a y C o l o n e l Warro uw f l e w s e c r e t l y m e d ia te b e tw e e n Sumual and S u k a r n o. H e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t's Tokyo i n On t h a t order to met S u k a rn o a t th e g u e st house but ach iev ed n o th in g. was b e l i e v e d t h e n t h a t e i t h e r W arro uw o r S u m u a l h a d p r e s e n t e d S u k a rn o w i t h an u l t i m a t u m, b u t i n th is w r ite r 's in terv iew w i t h M a l u d i n S i m b o l o n h e d i s c l o s e d t h a t n o u l t i m a t u m was s u b m itted to Sukarno a t t h a t t i m e. A f t e r th is attem p t, W arrouw a n d S u m u a l m e t i n N a k a j i m a ' s o f f i c e and on F e b r u a r y W arrouw s e c r e t l y 6 "Herman left T o k y o. O n February N i c h o la s Sum ual" h e l d an u n e x p e c t e d p r e s s conference he r e v e a l e d h i s t h a t h e w a s on a tru e id e n tity and s t a t e d m issio n r e p r e s e n tin g th e an ti-g o v ern m en t p e rs u a d e Sukarno his th e i n w hich Padang to DJuanda C a b in e t and change pro-C oram unist p o l i c i e s, S u m u a l February its to d i s s o l v e forces added th a t 10 t h e p r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t i n P a d a n g w o u l d d e c l a r e indep en d en ce. A f t e r S u m u a l's s ta te m e n t, he and P r e s id e n t S u k a rn o 's p a r ty exchanged m essages, th e d e t a i l s n o t y e t known. The B r i t i s h o f w hich a r e J o u r n a l i s t J a m e s Mossm an com m e n te d on t h e m a t t e r t h u s. S e v e r a l d a y s J a k a r t a was s i l e n t w h i l e a s o m e w h a t f a r c i c a l e x c h a n g e o f m e s s a g e s t o o k p l a c e i n T okyo === [PDF page 330] === 530 b e t w e e n arm y o f f i c e r s t r a v e l l i n g i n S u k a r n o ' s e n t o u r a g e a n d r e b e l army o f f i c e r s who h a d b e e n d i s p a t c h e d to Ja p an to sound o u t th e P r e s i d e n t ' s r e a c tio n s to th e u ltim atum. Sukarno and h i s e n t o u r a g e w e r e s a v o u r i n g t h e many d e l i g h t s o f Tokyo a n d s p e n t a good d e a l o f t h e i r tim e i n g e i s h a h o u se s and v a r i o u s o f t h e ste am b a t h s f o r w hich J a p a n i s J u s t l y fam ous. So d i d t h e r e b e l o f f i c e r s, t o whom t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o m ix b u s i n e s s w i t h p l e a s u r e had seem ed t o o good t o m is s. C o n s e q u e n t l y, t h e r e e n s u e d what one s e n i o r Ja p a n e se s e c u r i t y o f f i c i a l d e s c r ib e d as a " fa n t a s t i c t r a f f i c ' i n s e c r e t n o t e s and v e r b a l mes s a g e s b e tw e e n one p l a c e o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t and an o th er. The J a p a n e s e p o l i c e w e r e t e r r i f i e d l e s t S u k a r n o be a s s a s s i n a t e d w h i l e t h e g u e s t o f t h e i r Em peror, so th e y to o s p e n t days and n i g h t s b e in g s c r u b b e d a n d p o m m e l l e d by d a i n t y m a s s a g u e s e s a lo n g sid e the Indonesian re b e l o f f i c e r s, o r y a w n i n g i n t o t h e s m a l l h o u r s w i t h t h e m i n smoky, n ig h t clu b s or t a s t e f u l l y ap p o in ted b r o t h e l s.., ^ The r e b e l l e a d e r s, m o s t o f whom i n D ja k a rta, have d e c lin e d to d is c u s s th is 1972 w ere i n in cid en t in L u b is o n ly w ould e x p l a i n in g e n e r a l te rm s th at a p p e a le d to Ja p a n e s e b u sin essm en and p o l i t i c a l to use the r e p a r a t i o n s d e ta il. th ey had lead ers funds to s tr e n g th e n S u k a rn o 's t i c a l.p o sitio n. N akajim a t o l d K uhara had a s s i s t e d the reb els and th e p o li w r i t e r t h a t he and fact th at o ffice w rite r sp ecu lates t h a t T anaka and Fukuda a l s o were a p p r o a c h e d, h elp th e re b e ls some d i s t i n c t i o n W arrouw a n d S u m u a l m et i n h i s a lth o u g h b ein g p a r t th is not of K is h i's o p en ly, M i n i s t r y were t r y i n g t o factio n support to S u m a tra 's th e K ish i C abinet and th e F o re ig n power p o s i t i o n funds. H o w e v e r, N i s h i j i m a S i g e t a d a a n d Adam M a l i k, sy m p ath etic T his th e y were n o t a b l e c o n s o lid a te S u k a rn o 's by m eans o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s of th is. once a n ti-S u k a rn o g ro u p, w ithdrew t h e i r a f te r learn in g th a t t h e r e b e l s meant t o form a === [PDF page 331] === 331 sep arate g overnm ent i n S um atra r a t h e r Sukarno re g im e, than to re p la c e the a n d o p p o s e d t h e move t o b r e a k up t h e t o r i a l u n ity o f the n a t i o n. A t N is h ijim a 's te rri su g g estio n, Adam M a l i k i n M a r c h o f t h a t y e a r w r o t e s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s lish ed in J a p a n e s e n e w s p a p e rs, w hich c r i t i c i z e d se c e ss io n is t stan d. The w i t h d r a w a l o f h i s the r e b e l s ' an ti-S u k arn o ist s u p p o rt p ro v ed t o s t r e n g th e n S u k a rn o 's p o s i t i o n. 1959 Adam M a l i k was a p p o i n t e d a s Moscow a n d t h e r e he w a s a b l e Sukarno u se d a g a in s t Irian In O ctober A m b a s s a d o r t o Warsaw a n d to p ro cu re m ilita r y th e Sum atran r e b e l s a i d w hich and f o r h i s W e st cam paign. On F e b r u a r y "au th o rita tiv e freig h ters 1 95 8 A n t a r a r e p o r t e d Indonesian s o u rc e s," from J a p a n and t h a t the th at, accordin g reb els were b u y in g th e y were m a i n t a i n i n g a g e n t s i n Tokyo a n d O sak a. A M ainich i Shlnbun c o r r e s p o n d e n t, G e n z o, saw t h e talk in g com panies tary reb els equipment.Sukarno retu rn and s t a t e d on M a r c h 14 t h a t Sumual had f a i l e d sp ecu lato rs Ja p a n e se and C hinese t r a d i n g sh ip s. appeared to from J a p a n, the the re b e l: hav in g M akassar show ing t h a t weapons from shady had n e g o t i a t e d i n J a p a n 1 5, 1958 t h e gone t o Soon an i n t e r v i e w w ith L ubis i n 1971, b ut were r a t h. r By F e b r u a r y v isite d he h a d e v i d e n c e H o w e v e r, he d e n i fo r war purposes a g re e w ith him. P resident to p u rch a se m i l i t a r y in J a p a n. I n he a d m i t t e d t h a t rep o rted ly Oku a n d f e l t t h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o bu y w e a p o n s a n d m i l i a f t e r his chase pub th at the to p u r s h i p s were i n t e n d e d to e x p o rt S u la w e s i's r e b e l s had l e f t copra. Tokyo, vario us d e s tin a tio n s.^ ^ T hat day === [PDF page 332] === 332 th e ir h ead q u arters o f the PRRI In Padang announced th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t R ev o lu tio n ary (P em erin tah evening, Government o f t h e R epublic o f In d o n e s ia, R e v o l u s i o n e r Repub I l k c u rta ilin g his I n d o n e s i a ). That v i s i t by on e d a y, S u k a r n o l e f t for Ind o n esia. The J a p a n e s e R i g h t - W i n g N a t i o n a l i s t s and A n ti- S u k a r n o is ts D e sp ite th e d ra m a tic b e g in n in g and i n i t i a l overseas s u p p o r t o f th e S um atra R e b e l l i o n, by e a r l y g u e rilla a c tiv itie s. 1959 h a d d i m i n i s h e d i n t o was n o t s u c c e s s f u l and June 1 95 9 S u k a r n o made a n o t h e r v i s i t arose th e.r u m o r t h a t th e r e b e l s m ight t r y matum t o h i m a n d, were r e j e c t e d, But t h e r e w ere no i n c i d e n t s S ud ib jo, sta te d the retu rn m a i n t a i n good r e l a t i o n s On J u n e 1 7, w h i l e S u k a r n o was i n Yanagawa t h e r e f o r e ficu lt learn ed th a t Yanagawa M i n e t o s h i. the r e b e l s, see th at a s L ubis cen ter. to L ubis and a sk ed th e i t was d e l i v e r e d t o h i m, L ubis had n e v e r r e c e i v e d i t. l e t t e r has n o t been re v e a le d b u t i t im agine t h a t n o r oo m T o k y o, h e m et w i t h th e Tanggerang t r a i n i n g w rote a l e t t e r secretary w ith I n d o n e s i a. ^ h a d b e e n u n d e r Yanagawa a t c o n te n t o f the "There th e Ja p an e se governm ent d e s i r e s S u k a rn o a s k e d i f he w ould m e d ia te w ith bu t he l a t e r him. tw o-w eek s o j o u r n and 19 t h a t: o ld w artim e a c q u a i n t a n c e s, P r e s id e n t's to d e l i v e r an u l t i to a s s a s s in a te during h is on J u n e in Japan sin c e one o f h i s and a g a in t h e r e M i n i s t e r o f I n f o r m a t i o n who a c c o m p a n i e d S u k a r n o, upon h i s fo r reb els to Japan, could have had a s i g n i f i c a n t The d if === [PDF page 333] === 333 Im p act. Y a n a g a w a o p p o s e d Communism b u t Sukarno co u ld m a in ta in I n d o n e s i a 's That y e a r, com m unist, only u n ity. leaders m et i n T o ky o t o d i s c u s s w a y s i n w hich t o a s s i s t th e S um atran r e b e l s. Inoue A kira Inoue N is s h o ), H i r o a k i ), M iura G i i c h i, Shinzaburo, th at a c c o r d i n g t o Yanagawa, J a p a n e s e a n t i rig h t-w in g (alias felt Onuma T a d a s h i Migami T a k u, .Fujiw ara I w a i c h i, T h e s e men w e r e (alias Tamai K e n j i, N akajim a and Y a n a g a w a. I n o u e, M i g a m i, T a m a i, a n d Onuma w e r e e x t r e m e n a t i o n a l i s t s had had a p a r t in p l o t t i n g and b u s in e s s lead ers, th e assassin atio n s Junnosuke and P r e s i d e n t Corps attem p t who a l l of p o litic a l ( K etsum eidan) r e s p o n s ib le 1932 o f F i n a n c e M i n i s t e r I n o u e of M itsui, Dan T a k u r a a. ^ ^ <1 8 9 8 - 1 9 7 0 ) h a d b e e n c o n v i c t e d o f c o m p l i c i t y in atio n M iura in th e assass o f N akajim a C h ik u h e i, a fo rm e r p r e s i d e n t S eiy u k ai. fig u res M ig a m i ( 1 9 0 5 - 1 9 7 0 ) was o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l t h e May 1 5 t h I n c i d e n t i n 1 9 32 i n w h i c h P r i m e M i n i s t e r I n u k a i T s u y o s h i was s h o t t o d e a t h. T a m a i in v o lv ed in the July 15th I n c id e n t i n Onuma, M i g a m i, T a m a i, a n d o t h e r s Corps M iura, I n o u e a n d Onuma h a d b e e n am on g t h e l4-m em ber B lood B r o th e rh o o d fo r the assassin atio n s Onuma form ed t h e had been 1954 I n o u e, N a t io n a l G uardian an a n ti-C o m m u n is t sh o c k f o r c e. F ujiw ara h a d b e e n a c e l e b r a t e d a rm y i n t e l l i g e n c e m a j o r i n B u r m a, and N o rth S um atra and had h ead ed th e in te llig en c e kn ow n a s t h e "F A g e n c y, " a f t e r t h e f i r s t i n i t i a l 50 name. He h a d o r g a n i z e d l o c a l a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s t p e n d e n c e m ovem ents a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e In d ia, o rg an izatio n of h is and in d e P acific War a n d === [PDF page 334] === 334 c r e a te d in d ig en o u s arm ies a g a in s t th e B r i t i s h Burma, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e A tjeh, I n d i a and I n d i a n N a t i o n a l Army ( I N A ). N orth S u m atra, F u jiw a ra had d i r e c t e d lo c a l an ti-D u tch u n d e r g r o u n d m ovem ents and i n t h e p o s t w a r p e r i o d s e r v e d a s a D i v i s i o n Commander o f t h e S e l f - D e f e n s e tain in g F o rc es w h ile m ain c o n t a c t w i t h t h o s e who h a d w o r k e d f o r h i m i n t h e p ast. I n 19 5 9 t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a C o m m u n i s t I n d o n e s i a a p p e a re d im m inent t o these r i g h t i s t s, posed a g r e a t t h r e a t the r e s t and th ey f e l t o f A sia. th at A lthough th e y a g r e e d on t h i s c o n v i c t i o n, t h e i r g r o u p was n o t u n i f i e d. Y a n ag a w a t o l d th is ib ility w r i t e r t h a t he had s t r e s s e d of assistin g the r e b e ls and i n d e e d, ize d out of t h i s s e c r e t m eetin g. sig n ific an t th at th ese w ith th e prom inent r a d i c a l n a t i o n a l i s t s m et a Japanese o f f i c e r met and fo rm er w artim e o f f i c e r s t o exam ine w ith r i g h t i s t fig u res the and m i l i t a r y p o litic a l the in f e a s n o th in g m a te r ia l N evertheless " In d o n e s ia e x p e r ts " and t h a t situ atio n o f a n o t h e r A sian co u n try, the A nti-C om m unist M i l i t a r y L eaders in Japan, The S u m a t r a R e b e l l i o n failed a n d by raid- 1 9 6 1 e v e n g u e rilla s surrendered. L u b is, H u ssein, 196I -1965 and Sim bolon w e r e i m p r i s o n e d u n t i l A u g u s t 1966 when t h e y w e r e r e l e a s e d by S u h arto. in S ingapore, K uala L u m p u r, Hong K o n g, a n d T o k y o. N akajim a gave s h e l t e r in T okyo t o some o f t h e a n ti - S u k a r n o p a m p h le ts and assisted S u m itro and o t h e r s reb els, issu ed chose e x il e t h e a n t i - S u k a r n o i s t members o f t h e Indonesian === [PDF page 335] === 335 S tu d en ts A sso c ia tio n.^ ^ Fukuda m a in ta in e d c o n t a c t w ith S u m itr o and a s s i s t e d him f i n a n c i a l l y. ^ ^ When S u k a r n o ' s p r o —C o m m u n i s t l e a n i n g s b e c a m e e v e n more p r o n o u n c e d d u r i n g h i s com m unist m i l i t a r y W est I r i a n cam paign, the a n t i l e a d e r s who h a d p u t down t h e a n t i - C o m m u n - i s t S u m a tr a R e b e l l i o n a l s o became a l a r m e d a n d s o u g h t assistan ce from t h e J a p a n e s e, N a k a jim a 's claim s ato rs a n ti- S u k a r n o pam phlet p u b lis h e d in th a t an ti-S u k arn o m ilita ry in Japan d u rin g the le a d e rs had sought 1965^^ co llab o r G uided Democracy p e r i o d an d t h a t b e t w e e n 19 6 1 a n d 1 9 6 5 M a j o r G e n e r a l Achmad Y a n i, S t a f f o f t h e Army, a n d G e n e r a l N a s u t i o n, C hief of C hief o f S t a f f o f t h e Armed F o r c e s a n d M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e a n d S e c u r i t y, Japan s e v e r a l tim es e i t h e r in d ependently d e n tia l en to u rag e. certain v isite d or w ith the P r e s i t h a t Y a n i came t o T okyo i n 1961, 1962, 1964, and 1 9 6 5, and t h a t N asution came i n 1961, 1 96 2, 1 9 6 3, and 1 9 6 4.^ ^ pam phlet i n d i c a t e s th at N a k a jim a 's Y a n i s e n t a s p e c i a l e n v o y t o T o ky o i n A u g u s t h e h i m s e l f came i n May I 9 Ô5, a l t h o u g n e s t a b l i s h e d by any o t n e r s o u r c e. knew t h a t also has n o t been sta te s t h a t Yani 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e Army w e r e C o m m u n i s t m e m b e r s o r sy m p ath izers, and t h a t d u r i n g h i s J a p a n he h ad s e c r e t l y em ergency. th is 1 96 4 a n d t h a t so licited 1964 a n d 1 9 6 5 v i s i t s c o llab o rato rs The p a m p h l e t a d d s t h a t in case of Y a n i' s w ish to se e M i n i s t e r S a t o p r i v a t e l y was r e f u s e d b e c a u s e t h e so s e n s i t i v e, o th er sources. alth o u g h t h i s Prim e. i s s u e was t o o h a s n o t b e e n c o n f i r m e d by === [PDF page 336] === 336 A lth o u g h most o f t h e had been t r a i n e d a f t e r t h e War a t a n d Command S c h o o l i n overt the le a d in g Indo n esian g e n e ra ls the U n ited S t a t e s, t h e y c o n t a c t w i t h U.S. a id. little p erio d, U nited S t a te s frien d ly rela tio n s I n d o n e s i a m ight have afte r suspended B e c a u s e J a p a n was t h e W e s t e r n n a t i o n who r e t a i n e d during th is had l i t t l e D efense D epartm ent o f f i c i a l s C o n f r o n t a t io n began and th e econom ic and m i l i t a r y th e F o r t L eavenw orth S t a f f felt only p ro - w ith In d onesia th at i t c h o i c e b u t t o go t o J a p a n f o r a s s i s t a n c e. had F ujiw ara rev ealed in 19 66 t h a t h e h a d h a d o c c a sio n to spend ev ening w ith G eneral N asution in 1 9 61 a n d t h a t h i s a c q u a i n tances I n d o n e s i a h a d k e p t him developm ents th at tic a l forces took p lac e d ealin g s no d o u b t b e t w e e n T okyo a n d D j a k a r t a. o fficer t h a t he had been t o l d by I n d o n e s i a n m i l i t a r y rela te d s o m e t i m e i n S e p t e m b e r I 965 t h a t latin g, the O ctober. The J a p a n e s e men i n 1972 T okyo t h e r e m ig h t be arm ed c o n f l i c t As t h e s e rum ors w ere c i r c u G o v e rn m e n t's R e a c ti o n t o t h e first t h r e e weeks Embassy i n D j a k a r t a and th e stru g g led to analyze banker clo se the w r ite r in The S a t o G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e D uring th e th at to t h is A for G estapu s t r u c k, th at among v a r i o u s p o l i mer w a r tim e m i l i t a r y in D jakarta in e a rly p riv ate inform ed o f the p o l i t i c a l c o u n try.T h e re b e t w e e n 1 9 6 3 a n d I 965 i n t r i c a t e the In d o n esian u p h eav al. t o Embassy o f f i c i a l s Embassy h a d r e a c t e d to ld p a ssiv e ly G estapu ' O ctober the F oreign M in istry th is G estaou Japanese Tokyo A Japanese w rite r in 1 97 0 C o lo n e l U n tu n g 's === [PDF page 337] === 337 rad io a n n o u n c e m e n t on t h e m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 1 a n d t h a t t h e y 57 w e re p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e e m e r g i n g Communist r e g i m e. when t h e r i g h t - w i n g m i l i t a r y J a p a n e s e Embassy b e l i e v e d g overnm ent. c ru s h e d U n tu n g 's coup, But the t h a t t h e y were i n c o n t r o l o f th e On O c t o b e r 2 t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y e x p r e s s e d t h e view t h a t S u k a rn o h a d l o s t power and t h a t th e m i l i t a r y w ould l e a d t h e n a t i o n u n d e r some s o r t a lso sta te d th at change I n d o n e s i a 's the sh o rt, th at th a t th e lead ersh ip. m ilita ry G estapu A f f a ir as a lo s s c o n s id e r the and th e The F o r e i g n tak en The M i n i s t r y betw een th e S u k a rn o - Only a f t e r the an ti-P K I c ap ita l to th e O c to b er 3, d id th e F o re ig n M in is tr y beg in upheaval as a c o n f lic t betw een th e m i l i t a r y Sukarno-PK I group. On O c t o b e r 9 S u k a r n o r e t u r n e d O c t o b e r 13 A m b a s s a d o r S a i t o h is change had a lr e a d y d e m o n s t r a t i o n s e x p a n d e d, p r o c e e d i n g from th e afte r o f c o n t r o l by S u k a r n o and n o t as a c o n f l i c t PKI g r o u p a n d t h e m i l i t a r y. In d o n esia. o r d e r w o u ld so o n be r e s t o r e d. over th e m ilita r y co u n try sid e and added t h a t e x p e c t e d no m a j o r p o l i c y change in th e M i n i s t r y seemed t o t h i n k c o n tr o l and t h a t b e tw e e n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a w ould n o t the F o re ig n M in is try view ed th e d ra stic a lly v e r y much b y t h e new s i t u a t i o n occur except lead ersh ip. m i l i t a r y w o u ld n o t be l i k e l y fo reig n p o licy th e econom ic r e l a t i o n s be a f f e c t e d of c o llec tiv e palace. Th i s fo r the Shizuo v i s i t e d the P resid en t at v i s i t was made p o s s i b l e m o s t l i k e l y t h r o u g h D e w i's a s s i s t a n c e p o litica lly t o D j a k a r t a a n d on and b ecau se was n o t d a n g e r o u s P r e s i d e n t to m eet w ith a n e u t r a l n a t i o n 's === [PDF page 338] === 338 am bassador.Salto's fa c ilita te d h is lo n g a s s o c i a t i o n w ith Sukarno had d ip lo m atic a c tiv itie s D jak arta sin ce h is term began in S eptem ber 1964, b u t a t th e same t i m e t h i s a sso c iatio n appears t o h a v e made h i m m i s j u d g e the in S u k a rn o 's favor. A fte r t h e i r m eetin g, Japanese F o reign th e situ atio n M in istry tary ceased t o ta k e f o r g ra n te d the advance o f the m i l l S2 group. A l t h o u g h S a i t o made n o com m ent o n h i s m e e t i n g w ith Sukarno, was b e l i e v e d by t h e p r e s s t h a t h e was s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d S u k a rn o and h i s group. a p o litic a l th e F oreign M in istry com m entator, w rote had r e c e iv e d a r e p o r t would r e g a i n th at Kusayanagi T aizo, from Am bassador S a i t o t h a t c o n tr o l o f the situ atio n "w ith in th ree An A s a h i S h l n b u n c o r r e s p o n d e n t, H a y a s h i R i s u k e, t h a t th e Embassy h a d f e l t u n t i l the e n d o f N o v e m b e r 1 96 5 p a m p h le t w r i t t e n by N a k a jim a S i n z a b u r o ' s th at m onths. a ls o w rote t h a t S u k a rn o w o uld overcom e t h e m i l i t a r y. A n sta te d Sukarno an ti-S u k arn o group in 1 96 9 A m b a s s a d o r S a i t o h a d b e l i e v e d S u k a r n o w hen h e t o l d h i m d u r i n g t h e i r m e e t i n g on O c t o b e r 1 3 t h a t h e w o u l d gain c o n tro l o f th e The J a p a n e s e situ atio n " w ith in s i x m onths. governm ent had s u p p o r te d regim e s in c e th e In d o n esia in 1958 a n d h a d c o m m itte d a l a r g e o m ic a i d in cep tio n through th e in v estm en t, co n v in ced t h a t so ciety. Sukarno w ith amount o f e c o n funds, p riv ate payment im p o rt c re d its. J a p a n was ch arism atic l e a d e r who S u k a r n o was t h e o n l y could m a in ta in p o l i t i c a l geneous o f d ip lo m atic r e l a ti o n s rep aratio n s and d e f e r r e d the u n ity w ith in In a d d itio n, c a p ita l I n d o n e s ia 's larg e homo w o u l d be v e r y d i f f i c u l t === [PDF page 339] === 339 fo r Japan to assist a group o p posing th e w hich i t had m a in ta in e d c lo s e (though le a n in g tow ard Sukarno) least su p e rfic ially governm ent w ith rela tio n s. T his n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n was m a i n t a i n e d a t u n t i l m id-January 1966. I n t h e autum n o f 1965 I n d o n e s i a h a d a s e v e r e age o f food and c l o t h i n g due to S u k a r n o 's p o lic ies. B oth S u k a rn o and t h e group r e a l i z e d o rd er to th at co n tro l the i n a d e q u a t e econom ic - N asu tio n -S u h arto m ilita r y reso lu tio n of th is u n r e s t and t o c risis and m i l i t a r y ten sio n co n tin u ed, p eted o btain a id. T h e r e was a r e p o r t th at I n d o n e s i a n e e d e d an e m e rg e n c y s u p p l y 350,000 t o n s early of rice as O ctober 13, rev ealed th at assistan ce. 67 the was v i t a l gain p o p u la r s u p p o rt. p o litic a l fo reig n sh o rt to assuage its the W hile tw o s i d e s of at com in d icatin g least 250,000 food c r i s i s. A s M a l a y s i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r A b d u l Rahman I n d o n e s i a n Army h a d r e q u e s t e d A nother r e p o r t s t a t e d th at fo reig n the m i l i t a r y was c o n s i d e r i n g an em ergency p ro c u re m e n t o f r i c e from Burma, T h ailan d, r e g i m e s. ^^ and South K orea— a l l Under t h e s e Japanese under m ilita r y circu m stan ces was n e c e s s a r y fo r the governm ent t o re -e x a m in e th e situ atio n In donesia. K iuchi A k ita n e, C h ief o f th e S o u th e a s t A sia S e c tio n F oreign M in istry, v isite d and Am bassador S a i t o In do n esia from O c to b e r l 8. t o was sum m oned b a c k t o They i s s u e d s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s ences; c i v i l w a r was n o t lik e ly fav orab ly to I n d o n e s ia 's 21, T okyo o n O c t o b e r in t h e ir press to occur, p o l i c y w ould n o t change d r a s t i c a l l y, o f the I n d o n e s ia 's confer fo reig n and Japan sh o u ld resp o n d econom ic a i d r e q u e s t s. On N o v e m b e r 1 === [PDF page 340] === 340 the F o re ig n M in istry req u ested, T his p o l ic y d ecided to p ro v id e "from a p u r e ly h u m a n ita r ia n s t a n d p o i n t. trie d t o be n e u t r a l i s t b u t in p r a c t i c e a s s i s t th e Sukarno group as have to n e g o ti a t e w ith h is of T ex tile the Japanese governm ent. would g o v e rn m e n t would As e x p e c t e d. M i n i s t r y I n d u s t r y B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l D. A s h a r i came t o J a p a n on D e c e m b e r 4 a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t th e end o f the y e a r. request food and c l o t h i n g, T h i s was I n d o n e s i a ' s to Japan in the How ever, t h e r e are c l o t h i n g be s u p p l i e d b e f o r e first post-coup p e rio d. Japan ag reed. g r o u n d s on w h ic h t o b e l i e v e Sukarno funds jo u rn alist, Omori M i n o r u, w r o t e t h a t S u b a n d r i o was t r y i n g o b tain $10 m i l l i o n in em ergency c r e d i t of clo th in g s uppl i es. T a iz o, w rote t h a t, s e l f again soon, p o l i t i c a l needs. th at used th e s e for h is o fficial A p o litic a l A M a in ic h i Shinbun under th e guise com m entât o r, K u s a y a n a g i a ssu m in g S u k a rn o would r e - e s t a b l i s h J a p a n e x t e n d e d $6 m i l l i o n b u t t h a t Sukarno used t h i s not to purchase arm t h e S u k a rn o F r o n t o r g a n i z e d on J a n u a r y him c lo th in g a id clo th in g but The 196 6.^3 S u k a r n o i s t s a l s o n e g o t i a t e d w i t h Communist C h in a f o r r i c e su p p lies. On J a n u a r y n e s i a w ould r e c e i v e K usayanagi w rite s 27» 1 96 6 S u k a r n o a n n o u n c e d t h a t 1 0,000 tons of rice from C h in a. t h a t S uharto s e n t a s e c r e t Japan to appeal fo r ric e su p p lies. But em issary to the J a p a n e se g o v ern m e n t w a s r e l u c t a n t on a c c o u n t o f S u k a r n o ' s n e g a t i v e A cco rd in g to him, not id en tify ) "a p r i v a t e arranged Indo Japanese group" reactio n. (w h ic h he d o e s f o r an em ergency s u p p ly o f r i c e b e s e n t v i a Hong Kong a n d B a n g k o k. A c c o r d i n g t o O m ori, === [PDF page 341] === 341 S u h a rto o b t a i n e d an a d d i t i o n a l 250,000 to n s o f r i c e Burma b u t r e f u s e d a n o f f e r by U n i t e d S t a t e s because i t from A m bassador Green was c l e a r t h a t i t w ould i n c l u d e a p r o v i s i o n 76 t h e im m ediate o u s t e r o f S ukarno. D uring t h i s ex trem ely p e r i o d t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t was cau tio u s. d elay ed a l l Except fo r th e $6 m i l l i o n c r e d i t, o th e r h um anitarian a id l e s t i t g estu re. c re d its I n d o n e s i a m ig h t harm J a p a n ' s w ith M alaysia. fo reig n 77 a lso On D e c e m b e r 2 8, s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e te d as a p a r t i s a n and g r a n t s for feared th at ad d itio n al rela tio n s 1 9 6 5, when I n d o n e s i a ' s c u r r e n c y r e s e r v e s were gone and I n d o n e s i a ' s overdue trad e d e b t t o J a p a n h a d m o u n t e d t o some $2 m i l l i o n and t o t a l trad e and r e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d lo a n d e b ts $200 m i l l i o n, J a p a n su sp e n d e d governm ent in s u r a n c e f o r e x p o r t i n g to t h a t 98 co u n try.^ T his h a l t e d a l l e x p o r t s t o I n d o n e s i a, i n c l u d i n g bu siness r e la te d to th e In d o n esia th is rep aratio n s-secu red was a d o u b l e b l o w, a s i t was c l e a r w ould resum e t r a d e and e x t e n d l a r g e - s c a l e p o litic a l sta b ility were a c h i e v e d. P ro -M ilitary L o b b y is ts and th e F irst, th e For th a t Japan a id only i f March 1 1, At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1966 t h e r e moves. loans. 1966 A f f a i r w e r e tw o s i g n i f i c a n t J a p a n e s e gov ern m en t began to use econom ic power as a l e v e r t o h e lp a c h ie v e p o l i t i c a l sta b ility Ind o n esia. sh u ttle d Second, p r o - m ilita r y T okyo a n d D j a k a r t a. n a tio n al On J a n u a r y Trade and I n d u s t r y f o r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l lo b b y ists betw een 1 96 6 M i n i s t e r o f I n t e r M iki Takeo i n i t i a t e d co n so rtiu m to r e - f in a n c e a proposal In donesian === [PDF page 342] === 342 trade d eb ts the W est, am ounting a p p ro x im te ly T h en M i k i d i s c u s s e d t h e n e c e s s i t y econom y. T h i s was p r o b a b l y t h e r a n k in g governm ent o f f i c i a l a i d a s an e x p l i c i t p o litic s. step s first tim e t h a t a hig h - t o J a p a n e s e econom ic governm ent began to ta k e p o s i t i v e proposed a d is c u s s io n o f the N eth erlan d s, The J a n u a r y 27 C a b i n e t m e e t i n g id ea of a c re d ito rs an d W est Germany. 27 S u k a r n o r e j e c t e d c o n so rtiu m as i t o f p r o p p i n g up I n d o n e s i a ' s had r e f e r r e d tow ard lo n g -ra n g e a i d. January $1 b i l l i o n, m ea ns o f c o n t r o l l i n g a n o t h e r c o u n t r y ' s The J a p a n e s e among J a p a n, 81 conference B u t on any p r o p o s a l o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l w ould o ppose h i s c o n c e p t o f NEFOS. 82 T h en N ishiyaraa A k ir a, D i r e c t o r o f th e Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n B u r e a u o f th e In d o n esia in F oreign M in is try, and u rg e d t h e v isite d In d o n e sia n Finance M in is te r to late January d r a w up a n eco n o m ic c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro g ra m, w hich J a p a n r e g a r d e d as a p r e req u isite Japanese a id.^ ^ On J a n u a r y "Japan should p lay a le a d in g r o le 30 M i k i s t a t e d in r e c o n s tr u c tin g th at I n d o n e s ia 's e co n o m y a n d t o do t h a t J a p a n w o u l d h a v e t o make a b o l d p o l i 84 t i c a l jud gm ent." M i k i d i d n o t e l a b o r a t e w h a t h e m e a n t by "a b o ld p o l i t i c a l ju d g m en t." Japanese n e s ia 's However i n r e t r o s p e c t g o v e rn m e n t must h a v e f o r e s e e n power s t r u c t u r e, the forces. A study re v e a ls about th is cap acity change in Indo even though S u k a rn o, S u b a n d r io, and S a le h were r e - g r o u p i n g t h e i r se v era l in d iv id u als the th at at w orking b e h in d th e t o prom ote S u h a r t o. tim e t h e r e were scenes Up t o t h a t p o i n t governm ent had a g re e d w ith Am bassador S a i t o in a p riv a te the th at Japanese Sukarno === [PDF page 343] === 343 a n d N a s u t i o n w o u l d w o r k o u t some k i n d o f p o l i t i c a l com prom ise, An a n t i - S u k a r n o p a m p h l e t t h a t w a s p u b l i s h e d 1967 s t a t e s Indonesia sin ce th at Y a n a g a w a, who h a d b e e n i n 1 9 6 3, h ad prom oted a S u k a r n o - N a s u tio n c o a l i t i o n Tokyo i n late in In d o n esia t h r o u g h h i s PETA s t u d e n t, S u d i r g o, Com mander o f t h e M i l i t a r y P o lice. Yanagawa r e t u r n e d t o J a p a n i n J a n u a r y an d February 1966. The p a m p h l e t a c c u s e s h i m o f g o i n g b a c k t o T o k yo t o lobby fo r the part co alitio n, o f such a m aneuver. Iw aich i appears b u t Yanagawa d e n i e s On t h e o t h e r h a n d, S um atran p e o p le, the a re a c o n ta c ts w ith th e N orth from w hich N a s u tio n h a i l e d, b e c a u s e t h e y h a d met i n J a p a n i n he had b een in fo rm e d t h a t t h e 196I. and F u jiw a ra w rote t h a t In d o n esian m i l i t a r y 's p la n to o v e r p o w e r f r o m S u k a r n o h a d b e e n f o r m u l a t e d o n Decem b e r 20, 1965.^ ^ Forces in January th e F u jiw ara t o h a v e p r o m o t e d N a s u t i o n a s a new P r e s i d e n t, p robably because F u jiw ara had c lo s e take bein g He h i m s e l f r e t i r e d 1966 a n d became an e x e c u t i v e F oreign M in is tr y - s u b s id iz e d iatio n ( Kokum in G a i k o K y o k a i ). P e o p le 's o f t e n s i o n b e tw e e n S u k a rn o and t h e F u jiw ara v i s i t e d receiv ed at m ilita ry In d o n esia. d ire c to r of D iplom atic A ssoc- In F e b ru a ry, the h e ig h t N asu tio n -S u h arto He d e s c r i b e d forces, l a t e r how h e was t h e H o t e l I n d o n e s i a by t h e y o u n g o f f i c e r s KAMI l e a d e r s. and spoke to from th e S e lf - D e f e n s e They w e r e d e s i r o u s and o f a coup a g a i n s t S u k arn o F u j i w a r a o f t h e i r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t when t h e d id not stag e one, p articu larly on F e b r u a r y s tu d e n t d e m o n stra tio n s had rea ch e d a clim ax. 25 when === [PDF page 344] === 344 N akajim a S h in z a b u rô a l s o v isite d D ja k a rta in F e b ru ary 1966. N akajim a t o l d he had prom oted th e claim s t h a t 1972 t h a t and N a s u tio n f o r a long tim e the governm ent hoped f o r a N a su tio n reg im s o n l y a f t e r a m em b er o f t h e W alandow, w r i t e r in id e a of S uharto as P re s id e n t as V i c e - P r e s i d e n t. H e U nited S t a te s th is v isite d and t h a t fo rm e r Sum atra R e b e l l i o n, Jan W ash in g to n and a d v o c a te d S u h a r to as d i d W a s h i n g t o n move b e h i n d h i m. A lso in F e b ru a ry a lead er, 1966 S u m itro D JoJohadikusum o, a n o t h e r l e a d e r o f th e S u m a tra R e b e l lio n, se cre tly v isite d T o k yo f r o m h i s h i d e o u t i n t a l k e d w ith Fukuda Takeo, N a k a jim a 's then J a p a n 's pam phlet e x p l a i n s Ja p a n e se governm ent t o v isit Finance M in is te r. t h a t S um itro a p p ea le d to re fra in from e x t e n d i n g any a i d S u k a r n o r e g i m e, A n t a r a on March 2, form er r e b e l 's and r e p o r te d lead ers a p p e a l i n g t h a t J a p a n w ould s t o p h e l p i n g F in ally fig u res and In d o n esia prom oting a n t i - I n 1 9 5 8 he h a d d i s e n g a g e d h i m s e l f f r o m t h e a n t i - S u k a r n o movement a n d w o rk ed f o r S u k a r n o b u t h a d a g a i n become c r i t i c a l C a b in e t, M alik a t t e n d e d o f Sukarno. on J a n u a r y I n d o n e s i a n e c o n o m y s p o n s o r e d by t h e and s c h o l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s, a n d c o u r a g e o u s move. S h ig etad e b e lie v e s the Indonesian R ev o lu tio n. Adam M a l i k a s s i s t e d Sukarno d r i v e s. t h a t S um itro a tte m p te d t o make c o n t a c t w i t h t o p J a p a n e s e lo n g as Sukarno le d th e the 1 9 66 c o n f i r m e d t h e activ e ly Bangkok and 20, W hile s t i l l 1964 in S u k a rn o 's 1 9 6 6, a s e m i n a r on t h e an ti-S u k a rn o KAMI a n d K A S I. ^ ^ A Japanese jo u r n a lis t th at in l a t e through Jap an ese stu d en t I t was a d e f i a n t c lo se frien d s to N ish ijim a the fu tu re === [PDF page 345] === 345 fo reig n m in iste r se c re tly ment a s t o w h e th e r i t governm ent in the Japanese would r e c o g n i z e In d o n esia, le d M alik t o e n c o u ra g e lik e ly sounded out and s u p p o r t a m i l i t a r y and t h a t T o k y o 's p o s i t i v e the S u h a rto group. t h a t M alik had t h e a s s i s t a n c e of h is o f the observe i t s response is h ig h ly old f rie n d N i s h i j i m a, who h a d b e e n b a c k i n J a p a n f o r a s h o r t th e tim e govern v isit at G estapu but h u r r i e d back to D ja k a r ta to afterm ath. H ayashi R isuke, An A s a h i S h i n b u n c o r r e s p o n d e n t, l a t e r o b serv ed t h a t he and h is press co l le a g u e s i n D j a k a r t a had c o n s id e r e d N is h ijim a and Am bassador S a i t o a s th e m ost r e l i a b l e sources of p riv ate about th e p o l i t i c a l d ev elo p m en ts.^ ^ in fo rm atio n H ayashi w rote th at N i s h i j i m a seem ed t o have had a d v a n c e know ledge o f t h e s c e n ario le a d in g to the make a c c u r a t e stra tio n s ab le to M a r c h 1 1, 1966 A f f a i r, an alyses and p r e d i c t i o n s and m i l i t a r y id en tify m o v e s. T o e x a c t l y what r o l e s F u jiw ara, S a ito, effectiv e they w ere. o f t h e s t u d e n t demon d ate th is w riter is N ish ijim a, N akajim a, Y e t t h e s e m ov es b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s must p r e p a r e d th e J a p a n e s e governm ent f o r th e March 1 1, 1966 A f f a i r. A gain, a lth o u g h h is are not q u ite c le ar, the im p licatio n s v isite d D jak arta from M a rc h 5 t o 1 0, j u s t b e f o r e t h e M a r c h 11 A f f a i r. I n spect are grounds to b e liev e r a n k i n g m em b e r s o f t h e m i l i t a r y fu tu re C hina. p o lic ie s, U s h ib a N o b u h ik o, D eputy V i c e - M in is te r o f the F o reig n M in istry, th ere not F u k u d a, M a l i k, a n d S u m i t r o p l a y e d a n d how have s u f f i c i e n t l y v isit e n a b l i n g him t o retro t h a t he c o n ta c te d h ig h - group and d is c u s s e d t h e i r i n c l u d i n g econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t p o l i c i e s and === [PDF page 346] === 346 On M a r c h 11 S u k a r n o w a s f o r c e d t o s i g n a d e c r e e tra n sfe rrin g the su b stan ce S u h arto in exchange Japanese F oreign f o r S u k a rn o 's M inistry n e s i a w ould ta k e of his p r e s i d e n t i a l power t o safety. On M a r c h 12 t h e stated o p tim istic a lly th at an a n ti - C h i n a p o s i t i o n and ad op t a nonalig n m en t p o lic y.^ added t h a t, I n d o n e s i a ' s econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t p ro g ram s were p u r s u e d e a r n e s t l y and i f p o l i c i e s w e re b a s e d on p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s, and econom ic r e l a t i o n s im proved. rem arked: J a p a n 's tie view t h a n t h a t "A lthough th e b asic p o licy f o r th e th at of th e F oreign M in istry lea d ersh ip of In d o n e sia has i n o r d e r to prom ote th e changed, to I n d o n e s ia 's p ro sp erity its economy. d is m is s a l o f S ubandrio s i g n i f i e s The v o i c e c allin g t h a t th e m ilita ry cut o f f r e la tio n s w i t h C h i n a, w h ic h means the m il i ta r y are n o t th in k in g of s o lic itin g C hina, T h is means i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e be i n o u r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t t h e Array s t i l l th a t h is fu tu re referred from w ould to respo nd to such a n e e d. to Sukarno as p o in tin g out "the P r e s id e n t," s t a t u s was n o t y e t d e t e r m i n e d, a n d t h a t was n o t c l e a r w here t h e N avy, t h e A i r F o r c e, stood in aid upon J a p a n, The F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y w a s m o r e c a u t i o u s, th at and I n d o n e s i a w i l l n e e d m ore J a p a n e s e a s s i s t a n c e to re c o n s tru c t regim e in te n d s p o litic a l tow ard I n d o n e s ia rem ain s u n a l t e r e d. ric h n a tu ra l resources than b e fo re foreig n also expressed a J a p a n e s e econom ic power and te c h n o lo g y both c o u n t r i e s. its b e t w e e n J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s i a w o u l d be T h a t sam e d a y K a w a s h i m a S h o j i r o more o p t i m i s t i c Indo reference t h e M a r c h 11 A f f a i r. ^ ® and th e P o lice === [PDF page 347] === 347 However b o t h t h e F oreign M in istry t h e i r statem en ts th a t the an d Kawashima i m p l i e d i n PKI w o u l d be b a n n e d a n d t h a t F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r S u b a n d r io w ould e v e n t u a l l y be o u s t e d. the Japanese March 1 2. leaders p ro p h esized, t h e PKI was b a n n e d on B e f o r e S u b a n d r i o was a r r e s t e d a n d s u c c e e d e d by Adam M a l i k on M a r c h 18 a n d b e f o r e t h e new r e g i m e a n n o u n c e d th at i t w ould g i v e p r i o r i t y t o econom ic p o l i c y, F oreign M in is te r S h iin a E tsu sab u ro urged in the Japanese cab in et s e s s i o n on M a r c h 15 t h a t J a p a n s h o u l d c o n s i d e r s u p p o r t i n g the "rea listic p o licy " th at seemed t o a d o p t. T h i s though h i s the s t a t e m e n t by S h i i n a s o u n d e d a s M in is try had had s u b s t a n t i a l t h e new r e g i m e. T his w r i t e r s p e c u l a t e s was i n D j a k a r t a j u s t b e f o r e t h e sib le for th is S u h a rto regim e. am ounts o f a i d, M a r c h 11 A f f a i r, first was r e s p o n c o u n tries to endorse S u h a r t o r e g i m e made a r e q u e s t through J a p a n e s e Embassy i n D j a k a r t a. an em ergency s u p p ly the scene, th at for the R e p o rte d ly In d o n e s ia needed $ 1 00 m i l l i o n. from t h e p o l i t i c a l p o sals to In d o n esia. inform al ch an n els, o f food am ounting t o c l o t h i n g am ounting t o $125 m i l l i o n a n d W ith S u b a n d r i o * s d e p a r J a p a n made s e v e r a l new p r o On M a r c h 24 J a p a n p r o p o s e d a n i n t e r n a ti o n a l co n so rtiu m c a lle d In d o n e s ia 's t h a t U s h i b a, who The A s a h i S h i n b un on M a r c h 25 r e p o r t e d s o o n a f t e r M arch 1 1, t h e tu re com m unications w ith in fo rm a tio n. J a p a n was among t h e large new I n d o n e s i a n r e g i m e h a d " t h e Tokyo C lu b " t o d e b t a n d new c r e d i t o n se ttle M a r c h 29 i t ex ten d ed an em ergency g r a n t o f fo o d and c l o t h i n g am o u n tin g t o === [PDF page 348] === 348 m illio n, in clu d in g 10,000 t o n s of r i c e a n d in la te M a r c h J a p a n p r e s s e d t h e new I n d o n e s i a n r e g i m e S u k a rn o 's e a r l i e r s ta n d a g a i n s t I n d o n e s i a 's the to re v e rs e p a rticip a tio n J a p a n -s p o n s o re d S o u th e a s t A sia M i n i s t e r i a l f o r Econom ic D e v e lo p m e n t, 102 C onference I n d o n e s ia com p lied and s e n t t h e new A m b a s s a d o r R u k m i t o H e n d r a n i n g r a t a s a n o b s e r v e r. May 10 t h e S u h a r t o r e g i m e c h o s e J a p a n a s w hich i t s first eco n o m ic m i s s i o n would v i s i t I J a p a n $30 m i l l i o n i n se ttle the the cred it on t h e c o n d itio n th at the e a r l i e s t C h a p te r VI, On May 30 a n d o p p o rtu n ity, co u n try prom ised I n d o n e s i a w ould c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith M a la y sia and r e t u r n U nited S ta te s to. t h e as m entioned in 31 M a l i k a n d D e p u t y P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f M a l a y s i a Tun R a z a k m et a n d made g o o d p r o g r e s s t o w a r d a 10 4 settlem en t. I n A u g u s t J a p a n p r o v i d e d $30 m i l l i o n i n cred it; relations b e t w e e n T okyo a n d D j a k a r t a s e e m e d t o h a v e f o u n d a more s o l i d J a p a n 's m ilita ry fo undation than b e fo re. An A s s e s s m e n t r e la tio n s h ip w ith the current le a d e r s h ip has had a lon g h i s t o r y. o v e r t u r e s w e r e made d u r i n g t h e P acific Indonesian The o r i g i n a l W a r, a n d some o f t h e In d o n e sia n le a d e r s had m a in ta in e d c o n ta c t w ith the Japanese o fficers. Some o f t h e s e "In d o n esia e x p e rts," rad ical n a tio n a lis ts, o f f i c e r then a s s is te d in d iv id u a ls plus o th er and a S e lf-D e fe n s e F o rces a f t e r a b o u t 19 5 5 t h e a nti-C om m unist e le m e n ts in th e m i l i t a r y. s u p p o r t o f th e Sum atra R e b e llio n in a n ti - S u k a r n o and P riv ate Japanese 1 9 5 8 was t h e forerunner === [PDF page 349] === 349 o f the co n tacts m ilita ry betw een t h e J a p a n e s e and th e d u rin g th e second h a l f o f th e In donesian The f r i e n d s h i p b e tw e e n S u m i t r o and F u k u d a b e g a n i n 1957 an d S u m i t r o a p p e a r e d t o have worked b e h in d th e rig h t-w in g m ilita ry to J a p a n 's scenes to lin k co n serv ativ e N a k a j i m a, who h a d b e e n s y m p a t h e t i c s e r v e d as an a n t i - S u k a r n o Sukarno p e rio d. kept governm ent. tow ard th e S um atra r e b e l s,. group c o o r d i n a t o r d u r in g the The f o r m e r i n t e l l i g e n c e c o n ta c t w ith such m i l i t a r y fig u res o fficer, lead ers Japanese sy m p ath izers a ls o extended t h e i r s u p p o rt. sp ecu late F ujiw ara, as N asution. th e Sum atra R e b e llio n also I n d o n e s ia 's jo in e d th e When S uharto group, One may t h a t N i s h i j i m a and M alik as w e l l as Am bassador S a ito a ls o h elp ed to b u ild a b rid g e b e t w e e n T okyo a n d t h e new S u h a r t o r e g i m e a n d p a v e d t h e way f o r J a p a n ' s e a r l y d ecisio n to su p p o rt th e S u h a rto regim e. These i n d i v i d u a l s I n d o n e s i a Lobby i n J a p a n, and Fukuda i s still b e c a m e t h e c o r e o f t h e new The a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n S u m i t r o discu ssed to d ay, as i s the c o n ta c t b etw een N akajim a and r a d i c a l n a t i o n a l i s t s and t h a t betw een th e reb els lead ers, N akajim a, T am ai K e n j i, form ed t h e " In d o n e s ia C en ter" in and th e m i l i t a r y a n d some t w e n t y ^ I d - 1966, o th ers A ll the r e b e l s who h a d b e e n i m p r i s o n e d i n I n d o n e s i a were r e l e a d e d i n A ugust 1966. Lumpur w o rk e d a f t e r m ent o f t h e 1968. O ther r e b e l s ex iled in K uala A u g u s t 1965 t o w a r d a p e a c e f u l s e t t l e C o n fro n tatio n, S um itro jo in e d th e form er as m entioned in C h a p te r VI. S u h a rto C a b in e t as T rade M i n i s t e r a f t e r The K a w a s h i m a L o b b y, w h i c h a t t e m p t e d t o p l a c a t e === [PDF page 350] === 350 S u k a rn o 's p o s i t i o n on t h e w ith e i t h e r o f the p o litic a l p a rt in C o n fro n tatio n is s u e, forces a n d p l a y e d a l m o s t no c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e new r e g i m e. S u k a r n o a n d D ewi, t h e r e did not sid e B eing so c l o s e was n o r o o m f o r K a w a s h i m a t o m a n e u v e r in th e post-G estapu p erio d. B etw een t h e G e s t a p u a n d M a r c h 11 A f f a i r s, e s e g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t e x t e n t a n y new g r a n t o u t o f "Kawashima c r e d i t. " av o id ed i n t e r f e r i n g 1966 i t power to e x e r t tic s carefu lly t h e d o m e s tic t u r m o i l b u t from e a r l y began i n t e n t i o n a l l y in flu en ce over th e and to w ard s t a b i l i z i n g m ilita ry use i t s the s i t u a t i o n. e m p h a siz e d econom ic p o l i c i e s. econom ic course o f In d o n esian p o l i regim e to o k s t r o n g m easu res a g a i n s t The e m e r g i n g Com m unists and T h i s was t h e k i n d o f g o v e r n ment w i t h w hich J a p a n h a d w is h e d t o d eal sin ce 1968. Kawashima s t a t e d I n d o n e s ia 's rich on March 1 2, 1966, resources and p o t e n t i a l m a r k e t w ere t h e m ain f a c t o r s a ttrac ted Ja p a n e s e c a p i t a l and te c h n o lo g y. econom ically v ia b le and p o l i t i c a l l y t h u s was f u n d a m e n t a l f o r J a p a n ' s m ilitary regim e. Japan- - o th e r th an the $6 m i l l i o n r e l e a s e January the n a tu ra l The i m a g e o f a n non-C om m unist I n d o n e s i a support of th e current === [PDF page 351] === FOOTNOTES; CHAPTER V I I I F o r th e g e n e s is o f th e In d o n e s ia n m i l i t a r y, see Pauker, The R o l e o f t h e M i l i t a r y i n I n d o n e s i a, " i n % e _ R o l e o f t h e M i l i t a r y i n U nd e r d e v e l o p e d C o u n t r i e s, e d. by J o h n J T ^ h n s o h C P l T n c e t o n, d. J.: F r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1962), pp. 190-93. _ B o e i S a n g y o K y ô k a i, é d., J i e i t a i n e n k a n 1961 ( T o k y o: B o e i S a n g y o K y o k a i, 1 9 6 1 ), p. i o 4 l. -----------June 23, 1 9 5 8; a n d S a n k e i J i. 1i. J u n e 2 1, . J a p a n - I n d o n e s ia A s s o c ia tio n, I^koku s e i f u kakusho gj?O0-g_nd o b a i s h o h a i b u n h y o ( mi me o g r a p h e d, S e p t e r a o e r 1 958 s p e c i a l d a t a n o. 2 ), p. 3I S e e a l s o J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y. Waga g a i k ô no k in k y o, no, 8 ( 1964), p. 96. ^A sahi S h in b u n. Septem ber 1, i 9 6 0, S a k a ta Z en zab u rô, I n d o n e s h ia; c e n jo to m ondaite n ^ G d e r a t i o n o f Econom ic O r g a n! z a tT o n s LK eidanrerT i 9 6 0 ), p. 76, V/hen t h i s w r i t e r o b s e r v e d t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e Day p a r a d e on A u g u s t 1?, 1 9 6 7, h e saw t h a t a l m o s t a l l t h e new Army v e h i c l e s w e r e T o y o t a J e e p s a n d N i s s a n t r u c k s. T h e r e is also a r e p o r t t h a t t h e T o y o t a M o t o r Company h a s s o l d 30,000 J e e p s and s t a t i o n wagons s i n c e t h e l a t e 1950 s. See K ik a w a ta S a k a e, G u n k o k u sh u g i t o N ihon k e i z a l ( T o k y o; S a n ' i c h i S h o b o, 1 9 7 1 ) T p T 1 W7. U nless o th e r w is e s p e c i f i e d, in f o r m a tio n in t h i s s e c t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y b a s e d onN akaJim a S h i n b a b u r S, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w in Tokyo, August 1 1, 1972, The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o e x p re s s h i s deep th a n k s to N akajim a f o r h i s c o o p e r a t i o n. H e r b e r t F e i t h, The Dec l i n e o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l gÊE2 Ç Z m, c j ^ _ I r i d q n e ^ ( I t h a c a. ' ^ N. yT: C o r n e l l l E T T e F I i t y P r e s s, 1962), p p T T ^ 501-02. January Y a n ag a w a M u n e t o s h i, p r i v a t e 23, 1971. ^ ^ F e ith, pp. 503- 0 4. 351 in terv iew in D jak arta. === [PDF page 352] === 352 13 ■"Warrouw h a d s e r v e d a s c o m m a n d e r o f S o u t h S u l a w e s i i n 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 2 a n d Commander o f E a s t I n d o n e s i a T e r r i t o r y i n 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 6 b e f o r e h e was a s s i g n e d t o P e k i n g. H i s command p o s t i n E a s t I n d o n e s i a w a s l a t e r a s s u m e d by L t, C o l o n e l V i n t J e Sum ual. 14 I w a k u r o w a s a n Army o f f i c e r who i n e a r l y 1 9 42 b u i l t an i n t e l l i g e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n Bangkok t o a s s i s t I n d i a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e m o v em en t a g a i n s t t h e B r i t i s h. SeeUmemoto S u t e z o, N i h o n d a i b o r y a k u s e n s h i ( T o k y o: K e i z a i O r a i S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p p. 12 4 - 3Ô. 6 b a t a, a b u s T n ’e s s m a n a t t h i s t i m e, h a d s e r v e d a s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l o f t h e I m p e r i a l R ule A s s i s t a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n ( T a i s e i Yok u s a n k a i ) f o r m e d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 0. S e e J i n j i Kôs h i n r o k ü " l 9 - h a n % T o k y o: J i n J i K o s h i n j o, 1 9 5 7 ), I, s e c t i o n ” ^, p. 31. N a k a t a was on t h é a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r E conom ic C o o p e r a t i o n i n A s i a ( A J ia K y o k a i ) a n d was t h e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e C e n t r a l H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e P o p u l a r Movement f o r Good N e i g h b o r s i n A s i a ( A J i a Z e n r i n Kokum in U n d o ). S e e J l n J i k o s h i n r o k u 2 2 - h a n ( 1 9 ^ T, Ï I, s e c t i o n Na, p. 5 2. T a n a k a T a t s u o was th e so n o f T anaka G i l c h i, fo rm e r p r e s i d e n t o f th e S e iy u k a i P a r ty and fo rm e r prim e m i n i s t e r. S in c e 1953 Tanaka T a ts u o has been a L i b e r a l - D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y m em ber o f t h e D i e t, b e l o n g i n g t o t h e K is h i f a c t i o n and l a t e r t o Fukuda T a k e o 's f a c t i o n. See N i h o n M i n s e i K e n k y u k a i, K o k k a i g i i n s o r a n 1 96 5 ( T o k y o: H yoron S h a, I 9 6 5 ), p. ' 130. ^ ^ F e ith, pp. 505- 0 6. ^^Prim e M i n i s t e r D J u a n d a 's p a r l i a m e n t a r y s t a t e m e n t o f F e b ru ary 3, 1958. S e e A n t a r a. F e b r u a r y 3» 1 9 5 8. ^ ^ F e ith, pp. 525- 2 6. F o r t h i s Kuhara u sed T anaka T a tsu o b e c a u s e K uhara w a s v i r t u a l l y a f a t h e r t o T a n a k a a f t e r h i s own f a t h e r d i e d. See Kokkai g i i n s o ra n 1 9 6 5. p. 1 3 0. ^^A n t a r a, F e b r u a r y 15, 1958. 20 Omar T u s i n, p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w i n D j a k a r t a, Ju ly 1 3, 1971. 21 I s h i i was a n i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e i n t h e r u l i n g p a r t y a n d i n 1967 became S p e a k e r o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n tativ es. T a k a s u g l was P r e s i d e n t o f t h e M i t s u b i s h i E l e c t r i c C o rp o ra tio n in 1947-1956. I n I 9 67 h e b e c a m e C h a i r m a n o f t h e I n d o n e s i a C o m m ittee o f t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f Econom ic O rg a n iz a tio n s (K eid an ren ). F o r h i s v i e w s on I n d o n e s i a n econom y, se e T akasug i S h i n ' i c h i, " A t t i t u d e o f Ja p a n e se B u s i n e s s C i r c l e s to w a rd Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n t o I n d o n e s i a, " K e i d a n r e n R e v ie w, n o. 8 (March 1 9 6 8 ), 7 - 1 1. === [PDF page 353] === 353 22 He was r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e r e b e l s ' " a m b a s s a d o r " in A sia. S e e f o r e x am p le Jam es Mossman, R e b e l s i n P a r a d i s e (London: J o n a t h a n Cape, I 96I ), p. 1 9 2. 23 N ish ijim a S h ig e ta d a, p r iv a te c o n v e rsa tio n in Tokyo, A p r i l 22, 1972. 24 25 26 A n ta ra. February 3, I 958. A n ta ra. February 3, 1958. A n ta ra. February 3, 1958. 27 To p r o t e c t t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s l i f e, t h e P r e s i d e n t h i r e d a p r i v a t e b o d y g u a r d h e a d e d by Kubo M asao o f t h e T o n i c h i T r a d i n g C om pany, a s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r V. 28 Fe br ua r y 5, 1958; and A sahi S h in b u n. F e b ru a ry 4, 1958. The o t h e r s i n t h e m i s s i o n w e r e C a p t a i n Daan M o g o t, M a j o r J. M. J. P a n t o w, a n d J a n W a l a n d o w, a n d tw o u n i d e n t i f i e d m e r a o e r s. A l l o f them were fro m E a s t e r n Indonesia. See A n t a r a. F e b r u a r y 7, 1958. 29 A n ta ra, F eb ru ary 7, 1958. ^^Y o m l u r i S h i n b u n, F e b r u a r y 1 6, May 2 4, ^^M aludin Sirabolon, p r i v a t e 1971. 32 1958, in te rv ie w in D jak arta. A n t a r a. F eb ru ary 6, 1958. 33 -^A n t a r a. F e b r u a r y 34 Mossman, p. 9 6. 7, 1958. 35 Z u lk i f l i L u b is, p r iv a te Ju ly 2 7, 1971. N ish ijim a, in terv iew in D ja k arta. in te rv ie w, 37 S e e f o r i n s t a n c e, Adam M a l i k, " I n d o n e s h i a t o K y o s a n s h u g i u n d o, " S a n k e i J i J i. M a r c h 11 a n d 1 2, 1 9 5 8. M alik û b d ^ N is h i j i m a w ere p r o b a b l y a s s i s t e d by t h e i r w a r ti m e f r i e n d Ando M i c h i k u n i, a Domei s t a f f m e m b e r, who i n 1 9 5 8 w o r k e d fo r Sankei J i J i. R e l a t i o n s among t h e t h r e e w e r e a l s o m e n t i o n e d in C hapter I I I, 38 As o f D e c e m b e r 1962 I n d o n e s i a o b t a i n e d a c o m m i t m e n t S o v i e t U n i o n f o r $600 m i l l i o n i n m i l i t a r y a i d a n d See J a p a n, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, ^3 7. 5 m i l l i o n i n e c o n o m i c a i d. I n d o n e s h i a Kyow ako k u b e n r a n ( T o k y o; N i h o n K o k u s a i M ondai === [PDF page 354] === 354 K e n k y ü jo, 1 9 6 4 ), p. 1 3 5. More r e c e n t l y, S t a t e D epartm ent l e a r n e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e the U nited S ta te s Sukarno p e r io d Shuppan ^^A s a h i S h i n b u n. March 1 5, 1 9 5 8, S u m u a l l e f t f o r M a n i l a on F e b r u a r y 13 w i t h a B r i t i s h p a s s p o r t i d e n t i f y i n g h im a s a C h i n e s e m e r c h a n t. See A n t a r a, F e b ru a ry 13, 1958. Pantow d e p a r t e d on F e b r u a r y 12 f o r S i n g a p o r e u n d e r t h e name o f T a n g e d, w h i l e Walandow w e n t t o T a i p a i, t h e n M a n i l a a n d New Y o r k. See A n t a r a. F e b ru a ry 15, 1958. T okyo S h i n b u n. J u n e 1 0, 1 9 5 9. 43 •^A n t a r a. J u n e 2 0, 1 9 5 9. 44 Y a n a g a w a, i n t e r v i e w; a n d B e n e d i c t R, 0. A n d e r s o n. J a v a i n a Time o f R e v o l u t i o n ( I t h a c a, N. Y.: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 7 2 7 7 “ pFT 2 2 - 2 3. 45vY a n a g a w a, i n t e r v i e w. 46 N i k k a n R ô d 5 ^ T a ü g h a n ‘‘ L h! “ l 9 6 S ) f p; ^^I b i d. p. 192. 48 I b i d.. p. 192. 49 _ K eib i K enkyukai, K indai K e is a ts u Sha, 1 9 57), pp. “ "<^5 y S r a n Uyoku z e n s h o (Tokyo: (Tokvo: cw KI w a i c h i, F u j i w a r a Kik a n (T okyo: H a ra S h o b o, 1 9 6 6 ); a n d J o y c e C. L e b r a, C h a nd o r a - B o z o t o N i h o n, t r a n s. b y H o r i e Y o s h i t a k a ( T o k y o: H a r i ^ S h o ' d o, 1 9 6 8 ). -----A p ril 19, 1967. A rlfln, "OrangZ I n d o n e s i a " ( 2 ) H a r l a n K a m i. 52 p riv ate Anonymous N i h o n K e i z a i S h i n b u n c o r r e s p o n d e n t c o n v e r s a t i o n i n D j a k a r t a, J u n e, 1970. graphed; Anonymous, I n d o n e s h i a g e n d a i s e i. i i s h l Tokyo; I n d o n e s n i a S e n t â, 1 9 6 9 ), p. 29, ( m im e o === [PDF page 355] === 355 (1965)» p. 98. For N a s u t i o n 's v i s i t s, se e F u J iw a r a _ I w a ic h i, "Kono me d e m i t a I n d o n e s h i a s e i h e n n o u c h i r a a k u, " S h u k a n B u n s h u n, A p r i l 4, 1 ^ 6 6, p. 3 8; L a p o r a n T a h u n a n 1962% s e c t i o n IV; a n d A n t a r a, J a n u a r y 17,' 1964. ^ ^ H o w a r d P. J o n e s, I n d o n e s i a; The P o s s i b l e Dream H a r c o u r t Brace J o v a n o v ic h, I n c., 1 9 7 1 ), p. 203. ^ ^F ujiw ard I w a i i c h i, June 28, "Kono me d e m i t a, " ^"^Itfisaka I s a o, p r i v a t e 1970. c o n v ersa tio n 38. in D ja k arta, ^ ^ Asahi S h in b u n. O c to b e r 2, 1965. 50 Anonymous J a p a n e s e E m b a ss y o f f i c i a l, i n t e r v i e w in D j a k a r t a, June 1971. ^ ^ Asahi S h in b u n, O c to b er 14, p riv ate 1965. ^^The U n i t e d S t a t e s C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency a n d C hina w ere a c c u s e d o f i n t e r f e r i n g i n t h e a b o r t i v e coup. C h i n a, a l t h o u g h an a l l y, d i d n o t t a k e a p o s i t i o n o n I n d o n e s i a u n t i l O c t o b e r 2 0, a n d A m b a s s a d o r Yao Chung Ming m et w i t h S u k a rn o on O c to b e r 2 6. S ee A s a h i S h i n b u n, O c t o b e r 2 7, 1 9 6 5. The A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e p o r t e d f r o m S i n g a p o r e on N o v e m b e r 6 t h a t P r e s i d e n t S u k a r n o h a d r e v e a l e d i n a c a b i n e t m e e t i n g on N o v e m b e r 6 t h a t U.S. A m b a s s a d o r M a r s h a l l G r e e n h a d m et w i t h h i m a n d o f f e r e d a i d " i n a few d a y s a f t e r t h e G e s t a p u a f f a i r. " See A s a h i S h i n b u n, November 8, 1 9 6 8. I f t h i s were t r u e. Green m ust have been th e f i r s t a m b a s s a d o r t o m eet th e I n d o n e s ia n P r e s i d e n t a f t e r O ctober 1, b u t t h i s i s n o t co n firm ed by a n y o t h e r s o u r c e s. 62 (Tokyo: Anonymous J a p a n e s e E m b a ss y o f f i c i a l, in terv iew. K u s a y a n a g i T a i z o, S h in J i t s u r y o k u s h a no J o k e n Bungei Shunju Sha, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 160. 64 H a y ash i R i s u k e, U r o t a e r u h a Nihon no N ihon S h a, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 76. ^ ^ Indoneshia gendal s e i j i s h i. p. (Tokyo: J i t s u g y o 55. ^^Omori M in o ru, S u k a ru n o s a i g o no s h i n s o S h i n c h o S h a, 1 9 6 7 ), p. l'43. ^ ^ Asahi S h in b u n, O c to b e r l 4, Asahi S h in b u n, O c to b er 15, 1965. 1965. A s a h i S h i n b u n. O c t o b e r 24 and 3 0, 1965. (Tokyo; === [PDF page 356] === 356 70 A sahi S h i n b u n. December 2, 1966. 71 A s h a r i ' s v i s i t was r e p o r t e d i n A s a h i S h i n b u n. December 4, 1965. J a p a n ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o o f f e r a $6 m i l l i o n e m e rg e n c y s u p p l y o f c o t t o n t e x t i l e s was r e p o r t e d i n Nihon K e iz a i S h i n b u n. December 1 0, 1965. 73 14 7. K usayanagi, p. 160. In t r y i n g th e g o v e rn o r o f th e. C e n t r a l Bank o f I n d o n e s i a, J u s u f Muda D a l a m, o n A p r i l 8, 1 9 6 6, t h e m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e B ank h a d r e c e i v e d $6 m i l l i o n o f t e x t i l e c r e d i t s f r o m J a p a n i n J a n u a r y 1966. See I n d o n e s i a, A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l, ' P r o s e s P e r a d i l a n J u s u f Muda D a la m ( D j a k a r t a: P e m b i m b i n g M a s a T ' T 9 6 7 ), p. '“8 6. 74 A sahi S h in b u n. J a n u a ry 2 9, 1966. 75 K u s a y a n a g i, p p. I 6 O -6 I. 76 O m o r i, p. 14 3. A n t a r a on J a n u a r y 7, 19 66 r e p o r t e d t h a t Burma o f f e r e d 1 0 0, 0 0 0 t o n s o f r i c e t o I n d o n e s i a. These f i g u r e s, on t h e w h o l e, a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l i a b l e. 77 Asahi S h in b u n. Ja n u ary 1 9, 1 966. N ih on K e i z a i S h in b u n. December 29, 1965 « R e p o r te d ly t h e o v e r d u e d e b t w o u l d i n c r e a s e t o $15 m i l l i o n by D e c e m b e r 3 1. n e w s p a p e r on J a n u a r y 9, 1966 r e p o r t e d t h a t by M a rch 1 96 6 t h e o v e r d u e d e b t, i n c l u d i n g r e p a r a t i o n s - s e c u r e d l o a n s, w o u l d be $ 2 0 0 m i l l i o n. The A s a h i S h i n b u n o n J a n u a r y 1 9, 1966 s a i d t h a t t h e t r a d e d e b t a l o n e was e s t i m a t e d a t a s $83 m i l l i o n. 79 A c c o r d i n g t o a r e p o r t by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n e ta ry F u n d, a s o f J u n e 1 9 66 I n d o n e s i a ' s t o t a l d e b t was e s t i m a t e d a t a s $2, 3 5 3 m i l l i o n, o f w h i c h t h e d e b t t o t h e C o m m u n i s t b l o c m illio n. The d e b t t o J a p a n was e s t i m a t e d h e r e a s $224 m i l l i o n. Q uo ted i n J a p a n, I n d o n e s i a n Econom ic C o o p e r a t i o n S u rv ey M i s s i o n, I n d o n e s h i a K e iz a i Kyoryoku Chosadan hokoku (Tokyo: P o r e i g n “ M Îïïls try, 1 969), ^ " ' 3 2. 80 Asahi S h in b u n. Jan u ary 19, 1966. 81 Asahi S h in b u n. January 28, 1966. 82 A sahi S h in b u n. January 28, 1966. Asahi S h in b u n. Jan u ary 28, 1966. 84 A sahi S h in b u n. Ja n u a ry 3 0, 1966. 85 Anonymous, I n d o n e s h i a t s u s h i n (m im e o g ra p h e d, I n d o n e s h i a S e n t a, December 1 9 6 7 )T "p T '4 '3. === [PDF page 357] === 357 ^ ^ I b l d, p. 43. ' F u j i w a r a, "Kono me d e m i t a I n d o n e s h i a, " p. 42. 88 Zenkoku K akushu D a n t a l R e n g S k a i, Zankoku k a k u s h u d a n t a i m e i k a n 19 72 ( T o k y o; Z e n k o S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 1 3. 89 L u b is, in te r v ie w. 90 N akajim a, in te rv ie w. 91 Anonymous, S u h a r u t o t a i s e i no m o r e t su o t o k o. R ikugun S h ô jô A ri M urutopo (m im eographed; Tokyo; I n d o n e s h i a -Sen EaTn^7Ill"'pT'"3i 92 H is s p e e c h was p u b l i s h e d a s " T je r a m a h M e n t e r i K o o r d i n a t o r P e l a k s a n a a n E k o n o m i T e r p i m p i n o l e h Adam M a l i k, " I h The L e a d e r, Th e Man a nd t h e G u n, c o m p l i e d by KAMI a n d U n i v e r s i t y o r I n d o n e s i a T a c u l t y o f E conom ics (m im e o g ra p h e d; D j a k a r t a: J a j a s a n B a d a n P e n e r b i t F a k u l t a s Ek on o m i U n iv e rs lta s In d o n e s ia, 1966), n o t paged. 93 H a y a s h i, pp. 75-76. 9 * Ib ld., pp. 76- 77. ^^A sahi S h in b u n, F eb ru ary 26 a n d M a r c h 1 1, ^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, M arch 1 3, 1966. ^^A sahi S h in bun. March 1 3, 1966. ^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n. March 1 3, 1966. ^ ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, March 1 5, 1966. ^ ° ° A s a h i S h i n b u n. March 2 4, 1966. ^ ° ^ A s a h i S h i n b u n, March 2 9, 1966. ^ ° ^ A s a h l S h i n b u n. March 2 6, 1966. 1966. A s a h i S h i n b u n, May 1 1. 1 9 6 6. As e a r l v a s A n r l i R ukm ito a r r i v e d i n J a p a n and a n n o u n c e d t h a t I n d o n e s i a w ould se n d an i m p o r t a n t econom ic m is s i o n t o J a p a n i n l a t e A p r i l. See A sahi S h in b u n. A p r i l 4. 1966. ^°^A sahi S h in b u n, June 1, 1966. ^^^A sahi S h in b u n. A ugust 9, 1966, === [PDF page 358] === CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS T his d i s s e r t a t i o n has a ttem p ted to analyze th e in te rac tio n s b e tw e e n J a p a n and I n d o n e s i a fro m 1951 t o w ith p a r t i c u l a r a tten tio n no ngovernm ental l e v e l s g iv en t o b o th g o v ern m en tal and of in te rac tio n s. issu e s c o v e r e d w ere th e n e g o t i a t i o n s J a p a n 's war r e p a r a t i o n s, Sum atra R e b e l l i o n, tio n, and th e the Among t h e m a j o r over th e term s a llo ca tio n of its t h e W est I r i a n G estapu A f f a i r. C am paign, the In each in s ta n c e funds, ro les exam ined. m ilita ry ists, of p riv a te in d iv id u a ls Those i n d i v i d u a l s n o t only o fficers, and o r g a n i z a t i o n s in clu d ed iza tio n s c o n c e rn e d were t h e Japan S o c ia lis t P a rty, trad ers, were in d u stria l Sukarno, w hereas th e L ib e ral-D e m o c ratic P arty, t h e J a p a n Communist P a r t y, In d o n esia A s so c ia tio n, the also form er Japanese o ccu p atio n p e rs o n n e l, and th e w ives o f P r e s i d e n t the C onfronta i n t e r - g o v e r n m e n t a l com m u n icatio n s w ere d i s c u s s e d b u t th e 1966, Indonesian m ilita r y th e organ the Japanf o r c e s, the In d o n e s ia n N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y, the I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n is t P a r t y, the S o ciety, Ind o n esia-Jap an S tu d en ts trea te d A sso c ia tio n p rim a rily who c o n s t i t u t e d F rien d sh ip (PPI) as th e th e Tokyo. lo b b y ists, P e a c e Lobby and th e The i n d i v i d u a l s were or in fo rm al d ip lo m ats, (1951-1957), th e 358 Indonesian rep aratio n s === [PDF page 359] === 359 lo b b ies th e ( 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 6 ), t h e K a w a s h i m a L ob by a n t i - S u k a r n o l s t lobby (1 9 5 5 -1 9 6 6 ), w hereas th e i z a t i o n s were se e n as i n t e r e s t rela tio n s among t h e s e study groups. In d iv id u als, go vern m ental m i n i s t r i e s (1964-1965), d em o n strate o f n o n governm ental c o n t a c t s. and organ The I n t e r l o c k i n g o rg an izatio n s, and the im po rtan ce of the The f i f t e e n - y e a r p e r i o d o f c o n t a c t betw een Ja p a n and I n d o n e s ia b e a r s w itn e s s t o the p ersisten t P aci fic legacy o f the Jap an ese W ar, p a r t i c u l a r l y In the o ccu p atio n d u rin g th e form o f p e r s o n a l bonds b e tw e e n t h e two p e o p l e s a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s c o n flicts in s e t t l i n g b l- n a tlo n a l and prom oting b i - n a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t s. T h is p e r io d a ls o te stifie s to th e g r e a te r dependence o f I n d o n e s i a upon J a p a n t h a n o f J a p a n upon I n d o n e s i a. C h a p te r I exam ined t h i s of trad e, flow o f p e o p le, and fre q u e n c y ranking o f f i c i a l s. th is r e la tio n s h ip through the s t a t i s t i c s The r e m a i n i n g of v is its by h i g h - chapters a lso s u b s ta n tia te u n b a l a n c e d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c v; t h e J a p a n e s e became i n v o l v e d in th e m ajor In d o n esian is s u e s t h e W est I r i a n A ffa ir, C am paign, t h e as w e ll as the such as th e C o n fro n tatio n, rep aratio n s cla m a tio n o f Independence. issue Sum atra R e b e l l i o n, th e G estapu and th e 1945 P r o But few I n d o n e s i a n s concerned th em selv es w ith J a p a n 's d o m estic p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s. o v erw helm ing p re s e n c e i n I n d o n e s i a I n 1 9 7 2 was s y m b o l i c a l l y v isib le the I n D j a k a r t a ' s new m a i n s t r e e t a l o n g w h i c h w e r e b u i l t l4 -sto ry S a rin a h D epartm ent S t o r e, N usantara O ffice B u ild in g,^ and th e J a p a n 's the th e 30 -sto ry Wisma 1 4 -sto ry H o tel In d o n e s ia, 1 0 - s t o r v b u i l d i n g s h a r e d by t h e Ja p a n e se Embassy, === [PDF page 360] === 360 m ajor Jap an ese t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s, t h e B ank o f T o k y o, Japan A ir L in e s. c ap ita l, and A l l o f them were b u i l t w it h J a p a n e s e rep aratio n s and o th e rw is e. J a p a n a n d I n d o n e s i a h a v e s o many a n d v a r i o u s ences th a t i t a ttrac tio n. C lim atic c o n d itio n s, glo n, d iffic u lt c o lo n ia l ex p erien ce, a r e a few o f t h e facto rs d iffer t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e i r m utual eth n ic h e te ro g e n e ity, reli-- and d e g re e o f econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t th at d iffe r. 'T h e co u n tries' p o li t i c a l system s a re d i f f e r e n t: Japan has nev er had a p o l i t i c a l p a rty resem b lin g I n d o n e s ia 's C o m m u n ist P a r t y o f t h r e e m i l l i o n mem bers, n o r a c h a r i s m a t i c lead er lik e resp ectiv e p o sitio n s d ifferen t. In e v a lu a tin g t h e i r c lo se w eigh t h e in in te r n a tio n a l p o l it i c s com plem entary i n t e r e s t s the s i m i l a r i t y Ja p a n 's S u k arn o, and t h e i r a re very re la tio n sh ip, o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s o f some v a l u e s i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l in te re st one must and cu ltu re. i n an e c o n o m ic a lly v i a b l e and p o litica lly n o n - C o m m u n i s t I n d o n e s i a was d u e t o a d e s i r e ex p lo re th e l a t t e r ' s n a tu ra l resources, tia lly la rg e m ark et, the S t r a i t s and t o s e c u r e o f M alacca. to expand i t s a safe o i l ro u te the J a p a n 's the r e p a r a tio n s n e g o tia tio n s In clu sio n latio n of I n d o n e s ia 's lig h t of th ese trad e debt in te re sts: to Ja p a n ); p ro tests s t r e n g th e n S u k a rn o 's p o s i t i o n by means o f t h e r e p a r a t i o n s In cid en t; through (the o f c a p i t a l goods as an ite m o f payment and c a n c e l ese g o v e rn m e n t's e f f o r t s n e s ia 's poten Four o f f i c i a l Japanese p o s itio n s can b e s t be o b s e r v e d i n co ncessions the Jap an d o m estic fund, y ie ld in g I n t h e K a r e l Doorman I n c i d e n t a n d t h e (3) I t s a ttem p ts to m ediate In th e Indo KLM C o n fro n tatio n; === [PDF page 361] === 361 and (4) J a p a n 's I n I4 arch 1 9 6 6. read in ess to su p p o rt the Indo n esian m ilita r y These a r e n o t J u s t p o s tw a r I n t e r e s t s but r a t h e r are a c o n tin u a tio n o f J a p a n 's prew ar p o lic y to In to the S o u t h S e a s when i t s deadlocked. d e v e l o p m e n t o f M a n c h u ria became E v e n a f t e r t h e War many J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s m e n and e n te r e p r e n e u r s s t i l l second M anchuria. thought o f Ind o n esia as a s o r t I n d o n e s ia 's postw ar I n t e r e s t also In d o n e sia began to tw o c o u n t r i e s lig h t. $223 m i l l i o n, a i d t h a n as a war d e b t. In d o n e s ia 's to rig h t of its in d u stria l In terests rep aratio n s 1957, and p o in t th a t the com plem entary. demand fro m $ 1 7.5 v i e w i n g t h e p a y m e n t more a s f o r e i g n Sukarno to o k a d v an tag e fu n d t o prom ote h i s "p restig e and S u h a rto has c o n tin u e d t h i s "activ e own i n cap a b ility I t was a t t h i s found t h e i r n a t i o n a l Thus I n d o n e s i a r e d u c e d i t s d o cto rin es stag n atio n view J a p a n ' s c a p ita l in a d if f e r e n t rep aratio n s a n ti-c o lo n ia l- How ever, w ith th e r e c o v e r y o f t h e J a p a n e s e e co n o m y a n d t h e Its c o n s id e r e d Ja p an as an o l d i m p e r i a l i s t n a t i o n and as a d e fe a te d n a tio n. b illio n I n J a p a n b e g a n I n an atm osphere o f I n d i f f e r e n c e and h o s t i l i t y. 1 st p o licy advance Independent p o lic y " a f t e r the a b o rtiv e power h a s alw ays been v i t a l coup i n its p rac tic e. D espite s w in g in g from l e f t econom y. because m ain tain ed a clo se r e l a ti o n s h i p p r o j e c t s " and h is 1 9 65, J a p a n e s e econom ic Jap an ese-In d o n esian r e l a ti o n s o f t e n been term ed " s p e c i a l, " o f the f r o m 1 9 5 8 t o 1 96 5 n a v e t h e two c o u n t r i e s ha v e d esp ite opposing p o l i t i c a l === [PDF page 362] === 362 p o sitio n s. Y et t h i s sam e s o r t b e t w e e n P e k i n g a n d T okyo i n V alues of rela tio n sh ip Septem ber 1972, common t o b o t h J a p a n e s e and In d o n e s ia n p o l i tic a l c u l t u r e have form ed a n o t h e r bond. little c u l t u r a l and e th n i c p eo p les, S tates A study le a d those co u n tries th e Indonesians the th eir S w itz e r la n d and th e cu ltu re. llst.^ two U nited a ll A sian The J a p a n e s e a n d lan g u a g es and have d i f f e r e n t any a f f i n i t y a l l betw een th em. I t o ne-sided a tt r a c t io n to th e Ja p an e se and The I n d o n e s i a n s h a v e b e e n m o r e w i d e l y e x p o s e d Japanese th an the In d o n esian. g en erally, f o v o r e d by t h e J a p a n e s e; speak d i f f e r e n t In d o n esian s' th in g s th at c o u n tries I f th ere There i s, common g r o u n d b e t w e e n t h e a p p e a r f a r t h e r down t h e relig io n s. shows was e s t a b l i s h e d Jap an ese have been to T his b e g an soon a f t e r t h e P a c ific th in g s War b r o k e o u t, when t h e I n d o n e s i a n s w e r e f o r c e d t o e n c o u n t e r t h e J a p a n e s e en m asse. M ost o f t h e m m u s t h a v e f e l t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d J a p a n 's m ilita r y conduct, alth o u g h at th is o u tset o f the i n v a s i o n t h e arm y was w e l c o m e d b e c a u s e I t o u s t e d t h e c o l o n i a l pow er. L a t e r, h o w e v e r, some d i d d e v e l o p r e s p e c t f o r J a p a n ese d is c ip lin e and e s p r i t de c o r p s. Kem al I d r i s, gone th ro u g h to u g h m i l i t a r y train in g e s e o f f i c e r Yanagawa, r e l a t e d Japan th at h e h a d l e a r n e d much h o nesty, and, above a l l, valu es sp irit (sem anga t p e r d j u a n g a n ) from t h i s a l s o were t a u g h t 1944 u n d e r t h e later o f the Indonesians of sin c erity, who h a d lik e the I n d o c t r i n a t i o n by t h e J a p a n e s e m i l i t a r y. fig h tin g ex p erien c e.^ The Jap an ese through Twenty y e a r s t h e e n d o f t h e P a c i f i c War many I n d o n e s i a n s still talk a fter about === [PDF page 363] === 363 what th e y were and th e forced to Indonesians Japanese are th ers, p artly Indonesians are younger bro sa m e p e o p l e. " Today o l d In d o n esian s q u a lity Japanese goods. speak of th is lo c a l au d ien ces. Japanese o fficers com m odities in to are In donesian. One a s p e c t For a l l m o stly In d o n esian s, synonymous w i t h h i g h o f t e n hummed a n d J a p a n e s e m ovies a t t r a c t of In d o n esian a ff e c tio n tow ard t y p i f i e d by S u k a r n o ' s m e e t i n g s w i t h f o r m e r during h is the p o p u l a r i ty affectio n. rela tio n sh ip P o p u lar Japanese songs a re som etim es t r a n s l a t e d the d is w ith c y n ic ism b u t m o stly w ith n o s t a l g i a, cy n icism b u t a ls o w ith young o r o l d, The the w hile younger In d o n e sia n s w ith "T h e J a p a n e s e ' saudara-saudara’ (b ro th ers). o ld er b ro th e rs, We a r e t h e cuss t h i s are l e a r n d u rin g th e w ar: frequent v isits T o k y o ^ a n d a n o t h e r by among I n d o n e s i a n men o f m a r r y i n g J a p a n e s e wom en, w i t h S u k a r n o ' s m a r r i a g e t o Dewi a s t n e suprem e ex am p le. ® A lth o u g h m ost J a p a n e s e have in te re st Ind on esia, the little know ledge f e w who h a v e h a d c o n t a c t w i t h I n d o n e s ia and th e I n d o n e s ia n s have te n d e d t o affectio n v isite d f o r the the c o u n try and i t s Dutch E a s t o f and In d ies p eo p le. in th e develop a s tro n g P a n - A s i a n i s t s who 19 3 0 ' s and 1 9 4 0 's and t h o s e J a p a n e s e who w e r e moved b y t h e i r z e a l f o r independence b u ilt In d o n esian p e o p le. ^ "com radely f r i e n d s h i p s " The J a p a n e s e tio n e d in so ld iers fig h t the a n ti-Jap an ese the a n d o c c u p a t i o n p e r s o n n e l who w e r e s t a I n d o n e s i a came t o l i k e not o b lig ed to ad ic w ith the Indonesians in cid en ts c o u n try, because e x ce p t in m in o r, t h e y were spor o c c u r r in g tow ard th e end of th e === [PDF page 364] === 364 P a c ific W a r. T h e y strange as i t were i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e may s o u n d, t h e co u n try l o o k e d r i c h e r a n d more e co n o m ically advanced th a n d id J a p a n 's m ost o f th e so ld iers h a i l e d. T o cou n try because, ru ra l areas from which th ese m ilita r y and c i v i l i a n s B a t a v i a, Bandung, and S u ra b ay a o f J a v a w ere " l i t t l e A m sterdam s" w i t h h o t e l and s p o r t s fa c ilitie s i s t s, and t h e i r w e ll- p la n n e d s t r e e t s s y s te m s t h r o u g h o u t J a v a must h a v e c a t e d t h a n t h e i r home t o w n s. m asters over th e w ished. and i n t e r - c i t y road l o o k e d much m o r e s o p h i s t i B esid es, th e J a p a n e s e were F u r t h e r m o r e, when t h e y d e m o b i l i z e d a n d r e t u r n e d home peaceful lif e affected found in Ja p an a b i t t e r in w artim e I n d o n e s i a. o f food, housing, and J o b s. f u r t h e r by t h e ing th o se Japanese o ffice. S enior m ilita r y d irec tiv e resp o n sib le of January Pow ers ag ain st th is (SOAP) p r o h i b i t f o r t h e War f r o m a s s u m i n g a n y "good o l d d a y s" i n and i n went i n t o the tr a d in g b u s in e s s, e ith e r p riv ately ty p ic al of t h i s. The r e p a r a t i o n s lo b b ies T his b ack g ro u n d p l u s th e :he em ergence o f b l - n a t l o n a l th e y and th e Japanese lo b b y ists a n ti-S u k a rn o lobby. raised In d o n esia. the postw ar p e rio d s h i p s expia:' P e a c e Lc been b a c k g r o u n d t h a t many J a p a n e s e "In d o n esia e x p e rts" 12 were 19 66 i s s u e d by em erged as com panies. th eir from la c k o fficers T h e ir d e s p a i r m ust have c o n s t a n t l y I n t e n s i f i e d by m e m o r i e s o f t h e c o n tra st to T hey s u f f e r e d t h e S u p r e m e Commander f o r t h e A l l i e d large co lo n ial I n d o n e s i a n s, who p r o c u r e d w h a t e v e r t h e y a f t e r t h e W ar, t h e y p u b lic fo r th e funds o r w ith o f 1958-1966 a re com radely frien d lo b b ie s such as Some o f t h e fo r t h e i r Ind o n esian === [PDF page 365] === 365 c o u n terp arts come t o J a p a n t o conduct lo b b y in g a c t i v i t i e s; N i s h i j i m a i n v i t e d S u b a r d j o a n d Adam M a l i k t o T o k y o, a n d K uhara, N akajim a, and Fukuda m a in ta in e d c o n t a c t w ith S u m itro and th e Sum atra R e b e llio n l e a d e r s. tac ts a t the o f Sudjono K ai, The web o f p e r s o n a l c o n governm ental l e v e l i s e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e and S u b a r d jo and o f Ambassador S a i t o, and M alik. cases S h ira iiata, B oth t h e J a p a n e s e and I n d o n e s i a n c u l t u r e s v a l u e t o t a l p e r s o n a l c o m m i t m e n t s u c h a's t h a t b e t w e e n t h e s e lo b b y ists. advantage The g o v e r n m e n t s o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s of th is in s e t t l i n g fu n ds, m ed iatin g the rep re se n ta tiv e s, the r e p a r a tio n s, C o n fro n tatio n, p articu larly tu ity the p r a c tic e o r com m ission. and I n d o n e s ia, general s o c ia l p rac tic e siv e use o f g i f t s and a p p o i n t i n g governm ent betw een J a p a n and Japanese and s o u r v e n i r s and o f g r a are n o t confined to Japan p articu larly favored th e re. As a a n d I n d o n e s i a n s make e x t e n ( om iyage i n J a p a n e s e and o leh -o leh b u sin ess tran sac tio n s, m issio n s (o r e i o r te s û ry ô in Japan ese and k o m isi in Indo n esian ) In d on esian ). allo ca tin g of personal fa v o ritism W hile t h e s e they a re to take am bassadors. A nother c u l t u r a l s i m i l a r i t y In d onesia is trie d p rac tic e tak es f o r m o f m o n e t a r y com and p e rs o n a l f a v o r itis m. tran sac tio n s, ap p o in tm en ts to the b iased s e le c tio n ships When t h i s co n tex t. ap p lied to Com missions fro m b u s i n e s s im p o r ta n t governm ent p o s i t i o n s, o f y o u n g men f o r t h e r e p a r a t i o n s and i n t r o d u c t i o n s seen in t h is the to i n f lu e n ti a l fig u re s The a n t i c i p a t i o n to have been a g re a t a t t r a c t i o n a ll fello w can be o f com m ission seem ed to the l o b b y is ts for === [PDF page 366] === 366 rep aratio n s. W hile t h e Peace L o b b y ists and a n ti-S u k a rn o l o b b y i s t s w ere bou n d by u n s e l f i s h co m rad esh ip, th e l o b b y i s t s w e r e b o u n d m ore b y s e l f i s h By d e f i n i t i o n, th e ir personal t ie s. rep aratio n s co n tractu al re la tio n s. lo b b y is ts base th eir a c tiv itie s However, A sian and W este rn lo b b y in g p ractices d iffer. fav o ritism a re n o t only i l l e g a l but tiv e long run f o r s u c c e s s f u l l o b b y i n g. B u t f o r many Ja p a n e se and In d o n e s ia n s th e y a re n o t only s o c i a l l y accep tab le (if Ille g a l) and Indo nesian the For the A m erican l o b b y i s t g r a t u i t y i n many c a s e s a r e but a lso o ften e f f e c tiv e. so c ietie s com m issions In Japanese in effec f u n c t i o n a s a n u n o f f i c i a l way o f r e d i s t r i b u t i n g w e a lth and r e a l l o c a t i n g m ajor so u rc e o f p o l i t i c a l and p ro fits fu n d s as w e l l. and a re C onsequently, w hile fav o ritism a n d p a y o f f s w ere s t r o n g e l e m e n t s J o i n i n g t h e two c o u n tries d u r in g th e Sukarno p e r i o d, th is p erio d. As l o n g a s t h e r e such p r a c t i c e s, lo b b ies p re v a il in tw o c o u n t r i e s. the lik e th e y were n o t u n iq u e a c u l t u r a l base su p p o rtin g the r e p a r a t i o n s C o n v e r s e l y, whe n a g r o u p t r i e d lo b b ies w ill g a in only i d e o lo g ic a l support w ith o u t ap p ealin g to p.r s o n a l t i e s, n o t b e com e a l o b b y b u t r a t h e r a n i n t e r e s t g r o u p. the w ill T h i s was c a s e w i t h t h e S u k a r n o i s t g r o u p, w h i c h was i n t e r n a l l y p a ra te w ith reg a rd to d is i d e o l o g i c a l and m onetary i n t e r e s t s, b u t w h o s e m em b e r s c l u n g t o g e t h e r f o r p o l i t i c a l and b u s in e s s ' e x p ed ien c e as w e ll as f o r t h e i r s h a re d i n t e r e s t the n e s ia n R e v o lu tio n and p ro m o tin g S u k a r n o is t d o c t r i n e. resu lt the PPI, Indo As a t h e E m b a s s y, t h e P K I, a n d t h e J a p a n C o m m u n is t === [PDF page 367] === 367 P arty f u n c t i o n e d more a s i n t e r e s t g r o u p s t h a n a s l o b b i e s. I t w i l l be i n t e r e s t i n g In terest fu tu re to see i f groups, p a r tic u la r ly lo b b y ists, u tiliz in g have d eveloped w h ile I n d o n e s ia 's c u ltu rally sib ility b rings some o f t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e s e the PPI s t u d e n t s, w i l l a c t as the p e rs o n a l t i e s in th e in te rest th at th e y m ust group. d e p en d en ce upon J a p a n e c o n o m ic a lly and in to q u e stio n th e e x te n t o f J a p a n 's f o r p o stw a r p o l i t i c a l developm ents r e t r o s p e c t o n e may s p e c u l a t e th a t th e respon in In d o n esia. Japanese re p a ra tio n s f u n d s w h i c h t h e K i s h i G o v e r n m e n t u s e d t o p r o p up t h e S u k a r n o regim e th e a f te r early 1958 m ig h t h a v e e n c o u r a g e d S u k a rn o t o P r e s id e n tia l decree o f Ju ly 5, 1959, C o n s t i t u ti o n and i n i t i a t i n g th e may a l s o s p e c u l a t e rep aratio n s th at th e resto rin g the tio n s lo b b ies, gave com m issions and g r a t u i t i e s p ro g ra m s, w ere p a r t i a l l y ex ten siv e c o rru p tio n in th e 1945 G u id ed Democracy p e r i o d. th at to o b tain re p a ra resp o n sib le fo r th e Sukarno governm ent. J a p a n s h o u ld be h e l d a c c o u n ta b le One in clu d in g t h e K i n c s h i t a and T o n i c h i T r a d i n g Com panies an d D ewi, rep o rte d ly issu e alleg ed, Perhaps fo r th e fa ilu re of repara tio n s p r o j e c t s, many o f w h i c h w e r e u n f i n i s h e d o r i n o p e r a b l e, for i t c o u l d h a v e o f f e r e d more t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e on t h e ib ility of th ese p ro je c ts t h a n was a c t u a l l y given. feas F u rth er, J a p a n e s e P r i m e M i n i s t e r I k e d a a n d t h e K a w a s h i r a a L ob b y m i g n t have c o n tr i b u te d to S u k a rn o 's a lth o u g h th ey th o u g h t of c re d its actu ally le ftist lean in g s because, th e y w ere w ooing S u k a rn o w i t h a s e r i e s c o m p etitio n w ith C h in a 's co u rtin g, m ight have e n c o u ra g e d S ukarno t o lean they farth er tow ard === [PDF page 368] === 368 C hina s i n c e, th e c l o s e r I n d o n e s i a d r e w t o C h i n a, t h e m ore p ro m is e s o f econom ic a i d i t receiv ed from J a p a n. th e p o p u la r s u s p ic i o n o f m isuse o f th e and Ja p an e se re la tio n s aid, rep aratio n s and th e p o p u la r d i s p l e a s u r e w i t h women, i n c l u d i n g D e w i, was p a r t l y are One may a r g u e t h a t, added t o the an ti- I 965 p o l i t i - in th is sense to o, Japan t o blam e f o r S u k a r n o ’s p o l i t i c a l d o w n fall. These only s p e c u la tio n s tic ism funds over Sukarno’s S u k a r n o s e n t i m e n t, w h i c h was a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e c a l u p h eav al. F in a lly, b u t th ey rem ain a f o c a l p o in t of c ri reg ard in g b i-n a tio n a l r e la tio n s d u rin g th e Sukarno I n t h e p e r i o d fro m 1951 t o l a t e i 960’s Japan c a r r ie d p erio d. out i t s d ip lo m atic p o licy m eans. A c lo se in q u a lity, bent to tow ard I n d o n e s ia th ro u g h m oderate o b serv atio n of I t rev eals an i m p o r t a n t change o c c u r r i n g a b o u t 1962 o r 1963 fro m a m o r a l i s t i c a rem u n erativ e one. T his change in v o lv e d b o th J a p a n 's i n c r e a s e d e c o n o m ic d o m in a n c e o v e r I n d o n e s i a a n d a more c o n fid e n t self-im ag e. U n til the e a r ly the Japanese governm ent s u f f e r e d f r o m a n " a t o n e m e n t c o m p l e x " c a u s e d by J a p a n e s e w artim e a t r o c i t i e s and th e p e o p le p i c t u r e d c o u n try as a l e s s e r pow er. A s h o r t war s t o r y o f Burm a, w r i t t e n by T a k e y a m a M i c h i o i n Japanese o f sh a m e f o r t h e i r feelin g H a r p o f Burma i s about a Japanese 1947, Harp ty p ifies tne W ar.^^ s o l d i e r who f o u g i i t i n Burma b e co m e a B u d d h i s t monk t h e r e. h is ere h a p p ily t h e monk g a t h e: e n title d conduct during th e and d e cid ed to co lleag u es th eir W hile a l l r e t u r n i n g home a f t e r t h e up t h e d e a d b o d i e s W ar, o f J a p a n e s e and o t h e r === [PDF page 369] === 369 so ld iers, c re m ated them, and p u t t h e i r The f a c t th at ary th is short sto ry, ev id en ce th e Japanese w ith th is f o r t h e i r w artim e s m a l l, w e ak n a t i o n. d is c u s s e d the r o l e ed ito ria liz ed feelin g o f r e g r e t among conduct in A sia. o f Japan as a s m a ll'n a tio n T hen a s J a p a n ' s ro le econom ic r e c o v in th e w orld as T his m o d e ra te o r r e s e r v e d In t h i s p e rio d b o th Jap an ese and f o r e ig n th e lu re Ikeda, of trad e c re d its, e ffo rts in m ed iatin g in In d o n e s ia 's T his p ro m ise iz e d the change ta c tic p rio r to the e a r ly from t h e o f r e m u n e r a tio n sym bol of m o ralistic d ip lo m atic p o lic y sa m e p e r i o d was m o r e d r a s t i c. e n try co n fro n ta tio n p ersu asio n used 1960's. I n d o n e s ia 's rep aratio n s U sing K a w a s h i m a a n d S a t o made p o lic y a g a in s t M alay sia. th reat was o b se rv e rs began to of Japanese n a tio n a lism. and i t s changed t h a t J a p a n was e c o n o m i c a l l y a b i g p o w e r. about the resu rg en ce first " a m e d iu m who c o n v i n c e d t h e talk p o sitiv e i 960 self-im ag e to t h a t o f "a b ig -p o w e r Ja p a n " a f t e r a b o u t 1962. P r i m e M i n i s t e r I d e k a K a y a t o, among o t h e r s, 1948, w ith r e s p e c t to same n e w s p a p e r o f O c t o b e r 1 1, about J a p a n 's Jap an ese p eo p le C oinciding The A s a h i S h i n b u n o n S e p t e m b e r 2 7, the s iz e d p ow er." ^ f o r prim p o p u l a r im age o f J a p a n a s a w o rld p eace in an e d i t o r i a l. ery a c c e le ra te d, urns. s e l l e r a n d was made i n t o o f the p r e v a ilin g s e n t i m e n t was t h e in to o rig in a lly w ritte n s c h o o l c h i l d r e n, became a b e s t a film is ashes T his to w ard Ja p a n f o r the c a n be s e e n i n D j a k a r t a ' s demand o f $ 1 7.5 b i l l i o n to r e s t r i c t of Japanese n a tio n a ls J a p a n 's in to i n 1951 t o trad in g a c tiv itie s Indonesia in 1955, and th e 1956 d u r i n g t h e === [PDF page 370] === 370 rep aratio n s n eg o tiatio n s. can a ls o be se e n i n s i m i l a r t h r e a t e n i n g moves t o b o y c o t t J a p a n e s e g o o d s a n d t o b r e a k o f f econom ic r e l a t i o n s v isit w ith Japan over th e to a Japanese p o rt in 1962. I n d o n e s ia 's more c o n s p l c i o u s M alay sia, th e i 960 a n d t h e 1963 i n S u k a rn o 's from th e seizu re h is ag ain st the of th e ir on f o r e i g n stemmed l a r g e l y a n d, more b a s i c a l l y, ag ain st U nited N a tio n s. u n com prom ising p o s t u r e tenure became C o n fro n tatio n p o lic y Embassy b u i l d i n g s ', tow ard the end of h i s t o T okyo a ttitu d e g o v ernm ent-sponsored d e m o n stra tio n s and the w ith d ra w a l self-p rid e its planned KLM f l i g h t s u n y ie ld in g d ip lo m atic a fte r A m erican and B r i t i s h e states, K a r l Doorm an' s issues from h i s stro n g s m a l l - n a t i o n com plex. T his c o m p l e x may c o n t i n u e t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f tio n s betw een I n d o n e s ia and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s; and so f a r as Jap an ese-In d o n esian rela tio n s i n g dom inance o v e r th e n e s ia 's are concerned, com plex. o il fish in g the Ja v a S e a s, K alim antan and S u m atra, th e in creas im ports o il from th e M iddle E a s t, lum ber c o n c e s s io n s co ncessions c o a s ts o f Java and K alim an tan, te x tile and p a p e r m i l l s, consum er goods m ig h t make J a p a n I n d o n e s i a ' s scapegoat i f the fails f u t u r e. Y e t fin d th e ir n a tio n al the in te re sts v a lu e s m u tu ally a c c e p ta b le, developm ent e f f o r t s in S um atra and o f f a s w e l l as t h e wide u s e o f J a p a n e s e t o im prove i n Indo The u s e o f t h e S t r a i t s o f M alacca f o r J a p a n 's J a p a n 's rela I n d o n e s i a n e c o n o m y may a g g r a v a t e su b o rd in ate-n atio n co n cessio n s future la tte r 's e co n o m y t h e two p e o p l e s co m plem en tary and t h e i r c u l t u r a l and i f I n d o n e s ia 's prove re w a rd in g, the econom ic unbalanced === [PDF page 371] === 371 In te rd e p e n d e n c y b etw een th e h e a l t h i e r phase two c o u n t r i e s may l e a d t o T okyo-D jakarta i n t e r a c t i o n s. === [PDF page 372] === FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER IX ^ I t o r i g i n a l l y b e g a n as a 29- s t o r y b u i l d i n g u n d e r th e r e p a r a t i o n s program. When t h e u n f i n i s h e d p r o j e c t was r e s u m e d i n 1 9 7 1, i t a d d e d a n o t h e r f l o o r on t h e t o p o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t r u c t u r e, t h u s m a k i n g i t a 30 - s t o r y b u i l d i n g. I s h i h a r a H i r o i c h i r o i s known t o h a v e w i s h e d t o l e a s e o i l - r i c h C e n tr a l Sum atra i n exchange o f h i s r e s p o n s i b l e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e whole a r e a f o r c i t y ' p l a n n i n g * a s w e l l as m in e - e x p lo r in g. In th e 1920's th e Ja p a n e se began to d evelop c o t t o n e s t a t e s i n W est New G u i n e a. I n 19 30 t h e r e w e r e 1, 2 9 9 Japanese s e t tl e r s. H ow ever, t h e D utch E a s t I n d i e s became s e n s i t i v e a b o u t th e grow ing J a p a n e s e m i g r a ti o n to th e i s l a n d s a n d b e g a n a f t e r 19 32 t o r e s t r i c t t h e i r n u m b e r. As a r e s u l t t h e num ber o f J a p a n e s e s e t t l e r s i n 1938 d e c r e a s e d t o 6 0 8. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f J a p a n e s e l e a s e o f West New G u i n e a was d e l i b e r a t e d i n t h e I m p e r i a l D i e t i n F e b r u a r y 19 3 7. See T a n i g u c h i G oro, N is h i I r i a n (A sa h i S h in b u n R e s e a rc h O f f i c e r e p o r t f o r i n t e r n a l use no. 9 9; m im eograpned, J u l y 1 9 6 2 ), I t v;as r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 5 4 t h a t b u s i n e s s g r o u p s i n O s a k a p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t b u y t h e w h o l e New G u i n e a f o r $3 b i l l i o n f r o m t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d A u s t r a l i a. See I n d o n e s i a, F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y, P e w a r ta K em ulu. I ( 1 9 5 5 ), 190. When P r e s i d e n t S u h a r t o v i s i t e d J a p a n i n May 1 9 7 2, a ru m o r grew t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e F e d e r a t i o n o f Econom ic O r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o p o s e d t h a t J a p a n w o u l d l e a s e W e s t I r i a n f o r $15 M i l l i o n a s p a r t i a l m eans o f r e d u c i n g J a p a n ' s f o r e i g n r e s e r v e s u r p l u s and a s s i s t i n g I n d o n e s i a 's econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t. S h im o n ak a Y a sa b u ro e n t e r t a i n e d t h e i d e a o f m oving t h e I n d o n e s i a n c a p i t a l from th e h e a t - r i d d e n D j a k a r t a t o a c o o l m o u n ta in o u s a r e a in K alim antan and o f s p u r r i n g l a r g e - s c a l e d e v e lo p m e n t o f K a lim a n ta n w hich he s u g g e s t e d J a p a n e s e m ig ra n ts co u ld a s s i s t. S e e S h i m o n a k a Y a s a b u r o M e m o ir s Com m i t t e e, e d., Shim onaka Y asaburo J i t e n (Tokyo: H eibon S h a. 1965), p. 21. (Tokyo: H a y a s h i C h i x i o, e t a l,, Z u s e t s u N i h o n j l n no k o k u m in s e i S h is e id o, 1965) p. Ipb. The S i x t e e n t h Army l a n d e d 5 5, 0 0 0 t r o o p s i n J a v a ln_M arch 1942. S e e M a sud a A t a u, I n d o n e s h i a?; e n d a i s h i ( T o k v o: Chuo K o r o n S h a, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 1 4 8. K o e n t J a r a n i n g r a t, " I n d o n e s i a n Images o f J a p a n, " I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o u s e o f J a p a n B u l l e t i n, n o. 24 ( O c t o b e r 1 9 6 9 ), 372 === [PDF page 373] === 373 ^ B e n e d i c t R. 0. A n d e r s o n, J a v a I n a Time o f R e v o lu tio n ( I t h a c a, N.Y.; C o r n e ll U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 7 2 ), pp. 22-23. D u r i n g h i s f i r s t v i s i t t o J a p a n i n 1 9 5 8 S u k a r n o had a r e u n i o n w i t h V i c e A d m ir a l Maeda T a d a s h i, h e a d o f t h e N a v y ' s D jakarta L iaison O ffic e, S e e A s a h i S h i n b u n, F e b r u a r y 15* 1958. D u r i n g h i s I 961 v i s i t S u k a r n o met w i t h Yamamoto M o l c h i r o, C h i e f o f t h e S t a f f o f t h e S i x t e e n t h Arm y, I m a m u r a H l t o s h i, Commander o f t h e same a r m y, a n d M a e d a. S ee A n t a r a. J u n e 27 a n d 2 9, 1 9 6 1. Many o f t h e s t u d e n t s a n d y o u t h s who h a d come t o stu d y i n Japan under th e r e p a r a t i o n s fe llo w s h ip r e tu r n e d w ith Japanese w ives. T hey j o i n e d t h e a d e s h ik o C lub. ^M asuda, pp. 115-47. ^®One s u c h i n c i d e n t i s t n e s o - c a l l e d B l i t a r I n c i d e n t o f F e b r u a r y 1 4, 19 45 when t h e PETA o f f i c e r s r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t t h e i r Japanese o f f ic e r s. See N a g ro h o N o t o s u s a n t o, P e m b c r o n t a k a n T e n t a r a PETA B l i t a r M e law an D.l e o a n g ( D j a k a r t a: D e p a rtm e n t o f D e fe n s e and S e c u r i t y, 1 9 o b ). _ ^ ^ S e e, f o r i n s t a n c e, Kuroda H i d e t o s h i, G u n s e i (T oky o: Gakufu S n o i n, 1 9 5 2 ), p p. 3 3 - 8 3; and M a ch id a K e i j i, Tat a!<cu bunka b u t a i (T o kyo: Hara S h o b o, I 9 6 7 ), p p. 1 1 3 - 2 5 4. 12. Most o f t h e t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s t h a t t h e y f o r m e d b y t h e m s e lv e s were s m a ll i n s i z e and o b s c u r e, and f a i l e d b e f o r e to o.lo n g. T h o s e who e n t e r e d l a r g e f i r m s s u c h a s M i t s u i a n d M i t s u b i s h i t e n d e d t o h a v e a m o re s t a b l e l i f e b u t many o f t h e m s e r v e d a s p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s men r a t h e r t h a n b u s i n e s s m en. 13 L e s t e r W. M i l b r a t h, " L o b b y i n g, " i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l ^ c y c l o p e d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s, e d. by D â v i ï ï ' l. ^ i i i s ' 2 7 v o l s. J i l, I,: i’i a c m i l l a n Co. a n d The F r e e P r e s s, 1 9 6 8 ), I X, p • 4 4 5. 14 The s t o r y o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d i n a s e r i e s i n a c h i l d r e n ' s m a g a z i n e A k a t o n b o f r o m 194 6 t o 1 9 4 7. Several p u b l i s h e r s r e p r i n t e d i t I n book fo rm s i n c e 1 9 4 8. I t won s e v e r a l p r i z e s a n d was u s e d i n a t e x t b o o k t o o. S h in c h o Sha p u b l i s h e d i t i n 19 5 9 a n d b y I 967 i t a c h i e v e d i t s 2 5 t h p r i n t i n g. I t was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h i n 19 66 a s H a r o o f Burma ( R u t l a n d, V t.; C. E. T u t t l e C o., 1 9 6 6 ). -------------- -------------------15 J a p a n ' s W e lfa re M i n i s t r y i s s u e d a 1957 w h i t e p a p e r i n w hich i t e v a l u a t e d J a p a n 's w e l f a r e c o n d i t i o n s and r a t e d Japan as a "h a lf-a d v a n c e d n a t i o n. " See i t s K o sei hakusho 1957 (Tokyo: O kurasho I n s a t s u k y o k u, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 18. === [PDF page 374] === 374 16 A s a h i S h i n b u n o f N o v e m b er 1 5, 1 9 6 3 w a r n e d o f I k e d a ' s b o a s t ^ o f J a ^ p a n ^ ’a s a b i g p o w e r. I t m ain tain ed th a t J a p a n m ight w e l l rem a in as a s m a ll pow er b u t t h a t i t s p e o p le s h o u l d be a g r e a t p e o p l e. 17 "Y ellow y a n k e e s " and " u g ly J a p a n e s e " a r e i n In c re a s in g use. See f o r i n s t a n c e T o k u o k a T a k a o, l e r o Y a n k! -------------------(Tokyo: Eru Sha, 1970). === [PDF page 375] === BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Books Aidlt, D. N. 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Tokyo: Ajla to no t a l w a (A dialogue with Asia). Shin Klgen Sha, 1968. I t o Masaya. Ikeda Yahato, sono sel to shl(Ikeda H a y a t o, his life and death). Tokyo: Shlseldo, 1966, Jones, Howard P. Indonesia: The Possible Dream. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovlch, Inc., 1Q71. Kahln, George McT. The Asla-Afrlcan C o n f e r e n c e, B a n d u n g, I n d o n e s i a, April 1955. I t h a c a, N.Y.; C o r n e l l University Press, 1956. === [PDF page 377] === 377 Kajima Morlnosuke. Nihon no galk5, kako to g-enzai (Japanese diplomacy, past and present). Tokyo: Kajima Kenkyüjo Shuppankal, 19*67. Kajlyama Toshiyukl. I k e n l e (A l i v i n g tribute [to Sukarno]) Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1 9 6 7. Kawashlma Shôjlrô Memoirs Publishing Committee. ShoJI r o. Tokyo: Koyu Kurabu, 1972. Kawashlma K l k a w a t a Sake!. Gunkokushugl to N i h o n k e l z a l ( M i l i t a r i s m and Japan's e c o n o m y ). T o k v o: S a n ' I c h l Shobo, 1971. Klnoshlta Hanj 1. Uyoku tero (Right-wing terrorism). 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Transition to Guided D e m o c r a c y. Ithaca, Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University, 1 9 6 6. === [PDF page 378] === 378 Machida Keljl. Tatakau bunka butal (Cultural troocs [I.e., propaganda te a m s J In the battle field). Tokyo: Hara Shobo, I9 6 7. M alik, Adam. R l w a j a t dan Perd,1 uanoan S e k l t a r Pro kla m as^ Kemerdekaan Indonesia, 17 Aurustus 1Q45 (The story and the s t r u g g l e of Indonesia's Proclam ation of Independence, A u g u s t 1 7, 1 9 4 5 ). Djakarta: Wldj aya, 1 9 7 0. Masuda At au. Indoneshla gendalshl (Contemoorary hlstorv o f Indonesia). Tokyo; Chüô Kôron Sha, 1 9 7 1." McVey, Ruth and Anderson, Benedict R.O. A Preliminary Analysis of the O c t o b e r 1, 1965, Couo In Indones 1 a. Ithaca, K'.Y.: Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University, 1971. Mossman, James. Rebels In Paradise. Cape, 1 9 6 1. London: Jonathan Murofushl Tetsuro. Oshoku no susume (An argument In favor of corruption). Tokyo: Kôbundô, I 9 6 3. Nagatsuka Toshlkazu. Kubota Yutaka I 9 6 6 (Kubota Yuta ka Tokyo: Denkl Joho Sha, I 9 6 6. Nakazono 'Elsuke. Mlssho (Secret documents). Tokyo: Nihon Kelzal Shlnbun Sha, ed. V/akakushl no rlrekisho (My personal history)1 vols. Tokyo: N ih on Kelzal Shlnbun Sha, 1957-1969. N ugroho N o t o s u s a n t o. Pemberontakan Tentara BETA Blltar Melawan D j e p a n g (The revolt of the B l l t a r BETA forces a g a i n s t Janan). D j a k a r t a: Deoartment of D e f e n s e and S e c u r i t y, I9 6 8. ________ 3 and Saleh, I s m a i l. The Coup A t t e m p t of the "September 30 Movement" In Indonesia. Djakarta: Pemblmblng Masa, 1 9 6 8. Obata Shin'Ichl. Selkal I s s u n s a k l wa y a m l (The oolltic a l w o r l d one I n c h ahead Is dark). Tokvo: Koho Sha, 1972. Oku Genzo. O lson, Indoneshla no kakumel (The revolution In Indonesia). Tokyo: Ushlo Shuppan Sha, 1 9 6 6. Lawrence. J a p an In P o s t w a r Asia. 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Tokyo: Futaba Sha, 19 71. Suharuto taise i no m.ore t s u otoko: Rikugun Sho jo Ari MurutApo ÜÂ hard-working man In the Suharto regime: Armv Major General All Murtopo). Tokyo; Indoneshla Senta, 1971. (Mim.eographed. ) Sugimori Hisahide. Arabiya Taro("Arabian" [Yamashita] Taro). Tokyo: Bungei Shunju Sha, 1960. Sukarno. Sukarno: An Autobiography as Told to Cindy Adams. Indianapolis, Ind.: The Bobbs-Merrill Co.l, 196 5. ________ • Waga kakuniei no saihakken (My rediscovery of revolution). Translated by Okakura Koshiro. Tokyo: Riron Sha, 1962. Suryadharma, Mahabrata. among women). Sari, 1967. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Takeda Shigesaburo, ed. Jagatara kanwa(Remniscences of Java). Nagasaki: By the editor, 1968. Takeyama Michio. Biruma no tategoto(Harp of Burma). Tokyo: === [PDF page 380] === 380 Shincho Sha, 1959. Harp of Burma. Translated by Haward Hibbet. Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co., 1966. Tokuoka Takao. lerô Yanki(Yellow Yankees). Tokyo: Eru Sha, 1970. Tsusho Sangyo Chosakai(International Trade and_Industry Research Council). Sengo Nihon no boeki nijQnenshi A history of twenty years of postwar Japanese trade). Tokyo: TsOsho SangyO ChOsakai, 1967. Umemoto Sutezo. Nihon daiboryaku senshi(A history of Japan's great wartime intelligence activities). Tokyo: Keizai Orai Sha, 19 71. Weinstein, Frank B. Indonesia Abandons Confrontation. Ithaca, N.Y.l Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University, 1969. Yanagawa Munetoshi. Rikugun chôhôin Yanagawa chOi(Major Yanagawa: Army intelligence officer). Tokyo: Sankei Shinbun Sha, 1967. Magazine Articles "A-A shokoku jinmin to no rental kyOka no tame n i " (In favor of strengthening s o l i d a r i t y with the Afro-Asian peoples). Gekkan Shakaito, July Abdulgani, RoesIan. "Indonesia's National Council, The First Year." Far Eastern Survey, XXVII(July 1958), 97-104. A rifin, Marzuki. "Orang2 Indonesia di Djepang"(Indones ians in Japan). Harlan Kami, April 18 and 19, 1967. "BAMUNAS Alat Manipulasi S u k a r n o " ( BAMUNAS as a tool for Sukarno's manipulation). Harlan Kami,February 28, 1967. "Devi fujin no kage no otoko 'Kirishima M a s a y a ' no tojo" (The rise of the man behind Madame Dewi: 'Kirishima Masaya'). Shukan Shinchô, January 6, 1968, 36-38. === [PDF page 381] === 361 Dewi, Ratna Sari. "Daitoryo fujin e no ketsubetsu" (A farewell to being the First Lady). Shukan Gendai, December 11, 1959, pp. 4 4— 49; December 25, pp. 118-22; January 1, 1970, pp.84-89; January 8/15, pp.80-85; and January 22, pp.6469. A major portion this six-part series article was translated into Indonesian in Indonesia Raya, January 24-March 18, 1970. _________• "Tjatatan Nj. Dewi Sukarno: Sekitar Insiden 30 Sept ’65"(Notes by Madame Dewi Sukarno: about the incident of September 30, 1965). Harian Kami, October 12-14, 1966. _________• "Tjatatan Pribadi Dewi"(Personal notes by Dewi). Indonesia Raya, March 12, 1970. Fujishima Udai. 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Compiled bv KAMI and University of Indonesia F a c u l t y of Economics. Djakarta: Jaj as an Badan Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia, 1966. (Mimeographed.) Mâruyama Kunio. 'Kajima Mornosuke: butsuyoku, meiyoyoku, kenseiyoku no sankan o" (Kajima Morinosuke: the king with three-pointed crown of desires for posassions, fame, and power). Gendai no Me, May 1965, 164-68. Masuda Atau. "Ajia no sh5rai_to Nihon"(Asia's future and Japan). Ajia Nogyo, II, no.2(1968), 24-30. Matsunaga Yasuzaemon. "Isai, Ayukawa san"(A great talent Mr. Ayukawa). Ayukawa G i s u k e sensei tsuisoroku (Recollections of M r. Ayukawa Gisuke). Compiled by the Ayukawa Memoirs Publishing Committee. Tokyo: Ayukawa Memoirs Publishing Committee, 1968. "Mengapa Ibnu Sutowo Turunkan Harga Minjak ke Djepang?" (Why did Ibnu Sutowo lower the price o f oil for Japan?) Indonesia Raya, December 26, 1969. Milbrath, Lester W. Lobbying." International Encvclocedia of the Social________ Sciences Edited by ravid u. Sills. V o l. IX. N.Y.: Macmillan Co. and The Free Press, 1968. Miyoshi Toshikichiro, "Jawa senryo gunsei kaikoroku" (Recollections of the military administration in Java). Kokusai Mondai, April 1965—Januarv 1967. Mogi Masa. Tonan Ajia no munazoko" (The inner heart of Southeast Asia). Asahi Janaru, April 4, 196 5, ------------12-19. Nakamura Koji. "The Samurai Spirit." Far Eastern Economic Review, O c t o b e r 16, 1971, 2 2-231 Nakatani Yoshio. "Ko Sukaruno Daitoryo to watakushi"(The late President Sukarno and I). Indoneshia === [PDF page 384] === 384 Bungaku, no. 3(1972), 61-68. "Neagari machigai nashi no Devi fujin no 'Kawashima Shojiro kaisoroku' "(The guaranteed sale of a 'Remniscences of Kawashima ShOjiro'by Madame Dewi). Shukan Posuto, November 27, 1970, 48-50 "Nihon no gaiko, minkan no hitobito: N i s h i j i m a Shigetada shi"(Japanese diplomacy [carried out by], non governmental p e o p l e: Mr. N i s h i j i m a Shigetada). Sankei Jiji, April 8, 19 58. Ôda Takio. "Kokoro no attaki shin no n i n g e n - - S u k a r u n o shi o itamu"(Mourning a truely warm-hearted man: Mr. S u k a r n o ). N ih o n Keizai Shinbun, June 22, 1970. Oka Masayoshi. "Miyamoto Môtakutô k a i d a n no uchimaku" (The inside story of the Miyamoto-Mao Tse-tung conference). N ih on Kyosanto honbu: kokode nani ga okonawarete iruka (The Japan Communist Party headquarters: what is taking place here?). Edited by the_Institute of Ideological Movement Studies (Shiso Undo K e n k y ü j o ). Tokyo: Zenbo Sha, 1967. Pauker, Guy. "The Role of the Military in Indonesia." The Role of the M i l i t a r y in U n d e r d e v e l o p e d Coun tries ( Edited oy John 31 Johnson. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1962. "Permina Beli Kapal Selalu Lewat ' B r o k e r ' — Tunas Ltd. dan Kinoshita Beli Lagi dari Orang Lain" (PERMINA always busys ships through the 'brokers' Tunas Ltd. and kinoshita who have bought [them] from somebody else). Indonesia Raya, December 31, 1969. Rosihan Anwar. "Some Observations on the Promotion of Japanese-Indonesian Cultural Relations." International House of Japan Bulletin, no. 28 (October 1971), 4 7-59. Saga Sen. "Kuromaku Kodama Yoshio" (The man b e h i n d the scene: Kodama Yoshio). H O s e k i, February 1 9 6 5, ' 252-71. ----------"Seishô t o j o " (The rise of political brokers). Shinbun, March 10, 1959. Asahi === [PDF page 385] === 38 5 Soewarso, J.M. Anton. independent policy). Research Publikasi, -I, no. 1 (1969), 12-14. Subardjo, Ahmad. "Indonesia's Contribution to World Peace." Indonesian Review, I, no. 5(1951), 35962. "Sugao no Indoneshia" (Indonesia as it as [as told by Nishijima Shigetada]). Mainichi Shinbun, November 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, and 27, 1959. "Sukaruno o megutta Nihonjin"(The Japanese who knew Sukarno). Shukan Shincho, April 2, 1966, 3640. "Sumatora e no kyoshu"(Nostalgia for Sumatra). Mainichi Shinbun, July 31, 1959. Sutter, Joh 0. "Two Faces of Konfrontasi: 'Crush Malaysia' and the Gestaou." Asian Survey, VI(October 1966 ), 52 3-45*. Takagi Hiroichi. "Indoneshia to Nihon no keizai kyoryoku" (Economic cooperation between Indonesia and Japan). Kokusai Jihvo, no. 7 9 (November 1971), 48-49. Takasaki Tstsunosuke. "Ajia no han'ei to Nihon no unmei" (Asia's prosperity and Japan's destiny). Chüô ■Kôron, January 1958, 105-09. Takasugi Shin'ichi. "Attitude of Japanese Business Circles toward Economic Cooperation to Indonesia." Keidanren Review, no. 8 (March 1968), 7-11. Tcgawa Sachio. "Showa kaijintan, shishi Yoshizumi Taiçegoro" (The story of a brilliant man in the Shôwa Period: the loyalist Yoshizumi Tamegoro). Bessatsu Bungei Shunju, September 1963, 192-210. "Yanagawa, Bapak PETA"(Yanagawa [Munetoshi], father of PETA). Berita Yudha, October 13, 14, and 15, 1970. === [PDF page 386] === 386 Public Documents, Reports, References, Unpublished Works, etc. Antara IchtisarCA summary of Antara [news] ) Djakarta. 1953-1553. Asahi Shinbun Sha. Australia. Asahi nenkan (Asahi almanac). Tokyo. Ministry of External Affairs. Current Notes on International Affairs. Canberra. 19 5 3-19 7 0. Boei Sangyo Kyokai(Defense Industry Association), ed. Jieitai nenkan(Self-Defense Forces' almanac). Tokyo: Boei Sangyo Kyokai. 1961-1971. Indoneshia tsûshin(Indonesian news). Tokyo: Indoneshia Senta, 1967. (Mimeographed.) Indonesia.^Army. Information Center. Fakta2 Persoalan Sekitar "Gerakan 30 September^(Facts of the problems concerning the "September 30 Movement") Djakarta: The Army, no date. Justice Education Office. G-30-S dihadapan ahinillub di Djakarta CPerkara Dr. SubandrioIT (ihe September TS Movement tried before the Special Military Tribunal in Djakarta [the case of Dr. Subandrio]). 2 vols. Djakarta. Pembimbing Masa, 19 67. --------. Attorney-General. Proses Peradilan Jusuf Muda _Dalam(The _court process in Jusuf Muda Dalam's case). Djakarta: Pembimbing Masa, 196 7. * Bank of Indonesia. Indonesian Financial Statistics, December IsTol •Reportforthe Years 1955-1956. ________ • _________• Report for the Years 1959-1960. ________•__________ • Report for the Years 1960-65. Central Bureau of Statistics. Statistical Pocketbook of Indonesia 1968-19691 _______• Almanak Indonesia 1968(Indonesian almanac 19 6 8). === [PDF page 387] === 387 Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. A sia -A frica Speaks from Bandung. Djakarta: n.p. 19 5 5 L?] Dua Puluh Lima Tahun Department Luar Negeri 1945-1370 (Twenty-five years of the Department of Foreign Affairs, 1945-1970). Djakarta: Jajasan Kesedjahteraan Karyawan Deplu, 1971. Kumpulan Bahan2 Mengenai Masalah "Mlaysia"(Collected materials on the "Malaysia' issue). 24 vols. 1963-1966. (Mimeographed.) . Pewarta Kemlu (Bulletin of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). 1954-1960. RUU Persetudjuan Perdjandj ian Perdamaiân dan Persetudjuan Pampasan antara R e p u b l i k Indonesia dan Djepang(Bills for the agreement of the pece treaty and reparations between the Republic of Indonesia and Japa%P. December 18, 1957. Research Bureau. Hubungan Indonesia dengan hegara-Negara 1963 (Indonesia's relations with LforeignJ countries, 1963 ). 19 6 4[?]. (Mimeographed.) reports). Research Publikasi(Research 1969-1971. Department of Information. Gelora K o n f r o n t a s i Mengganjang " M a l a y s i a " (The storm of Confrontabion against "^Malaysia" ). Djakarta: Department o f Information, 1964. . Kami Perkenalkan...I(We introduce...). Djakarta: Department of Information, 1954. Susunan Kabinet 1945-1970 (The composi — t i o n of the cabinets, 1945-1970 ). Djakarta*: P r a d n j a Paramita, 1970. ’ ________• The Treaty of Peace and the Reparat ions A g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d between I n d o n e s ia arTd Japan. Special Release no. 2~. 19 5 8. Embassy, Tokyo. Laporan Tahunan(Annual report). Tokyo. 19 57-1969Ü (Mimeographed. ) === [PDF page 388] === 388 Indonesia. House of Representatives (DPR). Risalah proceedings]). 1958. Japan. Bank of Japan. Hundred—Year Statistics of the Japanese Economy. Tokyo: Bank cT Japan, ÏTÔ'G6. ________ _• Economic Cooperation Mission to Indonesia. Indoneshia Keizai Kyoryoku Chosadan chosa hôkokuT a survey report of the Economic Cooperation Mission to Indonesia). Tokyo: Economic Cooper ation Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1969. ________ • Economic Planning Agency. Keizai yoran(Economic survey). Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku. 19661972. ________ • Economic Stablization Board. Indoneshia sangyo shinko taisaku(Policies to promote Indonesian industries). Tokyo: Economic Stabilization Board, 19 51. ________ • Ministry of Finance Printing Office. Shokuinroku (Japanese official roster). Tokyo: Okurasho Insatsukyoku. 1952-1970. ________ • Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ed. Gaimushô no hyakunen (One hundred years of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). 2 vols. Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1969. Affairs Ministry roster, 1940). . Gaimusho shokuinroku 1941. • Waga gaiko no kinkyo(The recent state of our [Japan's] diplomacy). 1957-1971. _______ • Asian Affairs Bureau. Indoneshia Kyowakoku benranCA hadbook on the Republie of Indonesia). Tokyo: Nihon Kokusai Mondai Kenkyüjo, 1960, 1964. . Economic Affairs Bureau, e d. Indoneshia(Indonesia). Tokyo: Nihon Kokusai Mondai Kenkyüjo, 1972. ________ • Economic Cooperation Bureau. Baisho === [PDF page 389] === 38 9 nado jisshi jokyo,1971-nen 7-9 gatsuCThe state oT the implementation of reparations, e t c., July-September 19 71). Economic Cooperation II [71]13 8. October 1, 1971. (Mimeographed.) Japan. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. P u b l i c Information Bureau. Collection of Official Foreign State ments on Japanese Peace Treaty. 3 vols. no date • ________. Gaimusho Press Releases 1963 Ministry of Inernat ional Trade and Industry. S5go enerugi tokei(Compréhensive statistics on energy). Tokyo: Ministry of International Trade and Industry. 1968-1971. TsOsho hakusho C'/hile paper on [Japan's] foreign trade). Tokyo: TsOsho Sangyo Chosakai, 1959-1971. Trade Promotion Bureau. En shakkan. baishonado shihon kyOryoku jisshi jôkyô, 1953 (The stage of implementation of capital cooperation such as yen credits, reparations, exc.) April 1968. (Mimeographed.) Keizai kyoryoku no genj ô to mondaiten, 1970 (Present cond ■'t ions and problems of economic cooperation, 1970 ). 19 71. Ministry of Justice. ShutsunyOgoku kanri tOkei nenpo(Annual statistical report on immigration). Tokyo: Ministry of Justice. 1964-1971. Ministry of Welfare. Kosei hakusho 19 57(White paper on welfare, 19 5771 Tokyo: OkurashO Insatsukyoku, 1958. National Diet. House of Representatives. Budget Committee. Dai 31-kai Kokkai ShOgiin Yosan linkai giroku (The proceedings 57 the Budget Committee of the House of Representatives of the 31st National Diet). No. 10(February 13, 1959) and No. 11(February 14, 1959). Overseas Technical Cooperation Agency. Gijutsu kyoryoku nenpo(Annual report of [Japan's overseas] technical cooperation). 1964-1969. === [PDF page 390] === 390 Japan. Overseas Technical Cooperation Agency. Kaigai keizai kyoryoku benran 1971 (A handbook on [Japan's J overseas economic cooperation). Tokyo: Kokusai Kaihatsu Janaru Sha, 1971. ________. Prime Minister's Office. Bureau of Statistics. Nihon tokei nenkan("Japan Statistical Y e a r b o o k " ) Tokyo: Nihon Tokei Kyokai and Mainichi Shinbun. 1949-1971. Japan-Indonesia Association. "I-koku seifu kakusho betsu shonendo baisho haibunhyS"(The table of the reparations funds' allocations for the first year by the Indonesian Ministries). Special report no. 2. 1958. (Mimeographed.) ________. "Jigyo narabini kaikei hokokusho" (A report on the [Association's] activities and finances). 1958-1972. (Mimeographed.) Japan Petroleum Federation. Naigai sekiyu shiryo(Data on foreign and domestic oil ). Tokyo. 1965-1970. Jiji Tsûshin Sha. Jiji nenkan(J ij i almanac). Tsûshin Sha. 1952-1971. Tokyo: Jiji Jinji Koshinjo. Jinji koshinroku 19-han(Who's who, 19th editionTl Tokyo: Jinji Koshinj o, 1957. . Jinji koshinroku 22-han. 1964. _________. Nihon shokuinroku(Japanese who's who). edition. Tokyo: Jinji Koshinjo, 1964. 10th Koan Keibi Kenkyükai(Public Security Study Group). Uyoku zensho(A survey of the right-wing [groups]). Tokyo: Kindai Keisatsu Sha, 1957. Nihon Minsei Kenkyükai(Japanese Democratic Studies Group). Kokkai giin soran 1965(Who's who of the members the National Diet, 19 5 5 ). Tokyo: Hyoron Sha, 1965. Nikkan Rodo Tsûshin Sha.U y o k - undo yoran(A handbook on the right-wing m o i n t ). Tokyo: Nikkan Rodo Tsnshin Sha, 1964. Nishijima Shigetada. "Su baru gaisho [sic] kikokugo seizaikai yojin e, yôbôsho" ([My] requests to prominent polit:,:al and business figures === [PDF page 391] === 391 subsequent to Foreign Minister Subardjo’s return [to Indonesia]). No date. (Typed.) Nishijima Shigetada, et al. "Tai Indoneshia baisho mondai kaiketsu sokushin no tame ni"(In favor of an early solution to the problem of Indonesia's reparations). 1951. (Typed.) Malaysia. Ministry of External Affairs. Indonesian Aggression against Malaysia. 2vols. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 1964. ________ • Ministry of Internal Security. Indonesian Intentions towards Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 19 6 4. Miyoshi Toshikichiro. "Indoneshia ni taisuru baisho mondai" (Reparations problems in Indonesia). Tokyo: Japan-Indonesia Association, no date. (Mimeographed.) Roeder, O.G. Who's Who in Indonesia. Ag u n g, 1971. Djakarta: Gunung Taniguchi Goro. Mishi ^Irian(West Irian). Asahi Shinbun Research Office report for internal use no. 99. Tokyo. 1962. (Mimeographed.) United States. Department of State. Office of Public Affairs. Conference for the Conclusion and Signature of the Treaty of Peace with Japan, San Francisco, California, September 4-3, 1351; Record of Proceedings. Department or State Publication no.4392, 19 51. Zenkoku Kakushu Dantai Rengokai(National A s s o c i a t i o n of Various Organizations). Zenkoku kakushu dantai meikan 1972(A national directory ox various organizations, 1972 ). Tokyo: Zenko Sha, 1971. D. Selected Newspapers and Periodicals Akahata. Daily. Tokyo. 1962-1966. Antara. Daily English edition. Djakarta. 1957, 1958, 1960, 1965, and 1966. === [PDF page 392] === 392 Asahi Shinbun. Daily. Tokyo. 1952-1970. Berita Yudha. Daily. Djakarta. 1970. Bungei Shunju. Monthly. Tokyo. 1960-1972. Ekonomisuto. Weekly. Tokyo. Chop Koron. Monthly. 1959. Tokyo. 1958-1970. Gekkan Indoneshia. Monthly. Tokyo. Gendai no M e. Monthly. Tokyo. Harian Kami. 1965-1967. Daily. Djakarta. Indonesia Raya. Daily. 1970-1971. 1966-1967. Djakarta. 1969-1970. Indonesian Observer. Daily. Djakarta. 1957. October-December International House of Japan Bulletin. 1969-1971. Biannual. Tokyo. Koan Joho. Monthly. Tokyo. 1965-1967. Kokusai Jihyô. Monthly. Tokyo. 1966-1970. Kokusai Mondai. Monthly. Tokyo. 1965-1970. Mainichi Shinbun. Daily. Tokyo. May 1952, September 1957 July 1959, and November 196 9. Merdeka. Daily. Djakarta. 1967. Nihon Keizai Shinbun. Daily. Tokyo. December 196 5-March 19 65, and June 19 70. Sankei Shinbun. Daily. Tokyo. 1958-1959. Shukan Bunshun. Weekly. 1964-1970. Shukan Gendai. Weekly. Tokyo. 1964-19 70. Shukan Posuto. Weekly. Tokyo. 1964-1970. Shukan Shincho. Tokyo Shinbun. Weekly. Tokyo. Tokyo. 1964-1970. Daily. Tokyo. June 19 59-January 1960. === [PDF page 393] === 393 Yangu Redi. Weekly. Tokyo. 1964-1970. Yomiuri Shinbun. Daily. Tokyo. and April-August 1966. Z e n 'ei. Monthly. Tokyo. February-September 19 5 8, 1950-1966.